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Diving bell spider

February 14, 2023

The diving bell spider or water spider (Argyroneta aquatica) is the only species of spider known to live almost entirely under water. It is the only member of the genus Argyroneta.[6] When out of the water, the spider ranges in colour from mid to dark brown, although the hairs on the abdomen give it a dark grey, velvet-like appearance.[7] It is native to freshwater habitats in Europe and Asia.[8]

Diving bell spider
Temporal range: Neogene–present
Female (on left) and male
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Dictynidae
Genus: Argyroneta
Latreille, 1804
Species:
A. aquatica
Binomial name
Argyroneta aquatica
(Clerck, 1758)
Synonyms[6]
  • Aranea amphibia Müller, 1776[1]
  • Aranea aquatica Linnaeus, 1758[2]
  • Araneus aquaticus Clerck, 1757[3]
  • Aranea urinatoria Poda, 1761[4]
  • Clubiona fallax Walckenaer, 1837[5]

Uniqueness of aquatic behavior

 
Although prey is usually consumed underwater in the diving bell, it is occasionally brought to the surface.

A. aquatica is the only known species of spider that spends almost all its life underwater, including resting, catching and eating prey, mating, egg laying, and overwintering. It only briefly surfaces to replenish its oxygen supply and occasionally will bring prey to the surface.[9][10][11][12]

There are several other spiders that are semiaquatic, either periodically living underwater or willing to dive.[13] For example, certain Desis species spend the high tide in an air-filled underwater retreat made from silk and forage on land in the intertidal zone during low tide.[10][14][15] Some spiders living in periodically flooded habitats can survive for an extended period of time underwater by entering a coma-like state, up to 16–36 hours in Arctosa fulvolineata.[16] Numerous species, including some Ancylometes, Dolomedes, Megadolomedes, Pardosa, Pirata, Thalassius and others, live above water at the surface, but may actively submerge for a prolonged period of time, are strong swimmers and will catch underwater prey.[9][10][17] Several of these, as well as a few others, may dive into water to avoid larger predators.[9][18]

Distribution and habitat

A. aquatica is found in clean freshwater habitats with aquatic vegetation, such as lakes, ponds, canals, marshes and slow-moving streams.[11][19] It ranges through much of mainland Europe (no records from Portugal, Greece and Albania), the British Isles and central to northern Asia ranging as far south as Iran and as far north as Siberia, up to latitude 62°N.[8][20] Most of the range is inhabited by the nominate subspecies, but Japan has its own subspecies, the very similar A. a. japonica.[7][21]

Ecology

As with other spiders it breathes air; when submerged in water, an air bubble is trapped by a dense layer of hydrophobic hairs on its abdomen and legs,[8] giving the abdomen a silvery appearance. The spider lives for about two years in captivity.[8]

A. aquatica is able to remain submerged for prolonged periods of time due to the silk-based structure it constructs in order to retain an oxygen supply, named after the diving bell structure it resembles. The species range in size, although the size of females may be limited as they put more energy into building and maintaining their larger bells.[8] Males are more active and on average almost 30% larger than females,[8] measuring 10–15 mm (0.39–0.59 in) in head-and-body length compared to 8–12 mm (0.31–0.47 in).[7] This size differential favoring males is unusual for spiders, where sexual dimorphism is usually in favour of larger females. Theories suggest that the male's more active hunting style requires greater strength to overcome water resistance and counteract the buoyancy of their mobile air supplies. This larger body size is also associated with longer front legs, shown to affect diving ability and giving the males superiority in diving over the more sessile females.[8]

The spiders prey on aquatic insects and crustaceans such as mosquito larvae and Daphnia.[22] The spiders themselves fall prey to frogs and fish.[23]

Diving bell

The appearance of the diving bell gave rise to the genus name Argyroneta, from the Greek "argyros" (ἄργυρος), meaning "silver", and "neta", a neologism (perhaps for *νητής) derived from the verb "neo" (νέω) "spin", intended to mean "spinner of silver".[24] Both sexes build diving bell webs which are used for digesting prey, although only the female's larger bell is used for mating and raising offspring. Females spend most of their time within their bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the silk threads that anchor it and occasionally surfacing to replenish the air within the web. The bells built by males are typically smaller than females' and are replenished less often. It is thought that prior to mating, the male constructs a diving bell adjacent to the female's then spins a tunnel from his bell, breaking into hers to gain entrance.[23] Mating takes place in the female's bell.[25] The female spider then constructs an egg sac within her bell, laying between 30 and 70 eggs.[23] Where this species moults is less clear, with some sources stating that it occurs below water in the diving bell[12] and others that it occurs out of water.[11]

Diving bells are irregularly constructed sheets of silk and an unknown protein-based hydrogel[26] which is spun between submerged water plants then inflated with air brought down from the surface by the builder. Studies have considered gas diffusion between the diving bell and the spiders' aquatic environment. The silk is waterproof but allows gas exchange with the surrounding water. There is net diffusion of oxygen into the bell and net diffusion of carbon dioxide out. This process is driven by differences in partial pressure. The production of carbon dioxide and use of oxygen by the spider maintains the concentration gradient, required for diffusion. However, there is net diffusion of nitrogen out of the bell, resulting in a gradually shrinking air bubble which must be regularly replenished by the spider.[22]

Larger spiders are able to produce larger bubbles which have a consequently higher oxygen conductance, but all spiders of this species are able to enlarge their bells in response to increased oxygen demands in low aquatic P(O2) environments. These spiders voluntarily tolerate internal conditions of low oxygen, enlarging their bells with air when the P(O2) drops below 1 kPa; this replenishment process may not need to occur for several days, in some cases.[22] This system has been referred to as "the water spider's aqua-lung of air bubbles", though an aqua-lung lacks gas exchange with the surroundings;[27] this system is more properly regarded as an inorganic form of gill.

Bite

Their bite is often described as being very painful to humans and as causing localised inflammation, vomiting, and slight feverishness that disappears after 5-10 days.[28][29] However there is little solid evidence,[30] with most information being based on old and unverified reports due to recent confirmed reports being very rare,[20][31] leading some sources to refer to its bite as reputedly painful.[7]

References

  1. ^ Müller, O. F. (1776). Zoologicae danicae prodromus, seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum, characteres, nomina et synonyma imprimis popularium. Hafniae. p. 194.
  2. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus differentiis, synonymis, locis. p. 623.
  3. ^ Clerck, C. (1757). Svenska spindlar, uti sina hufvud-slågter indelte samt under några och sextio särskildte arter beskrefne och med illuminerade figurer uplyste. p. 143.
  4. ^ Poda, N. (1761). Insecta Musei Graecensis, quae in ordines, genera et species juxta systema naturae Caroli Linnaei. Graecii. p. 123.
  5. ^ Walckenaer, C. A. (1837). Histoire naturelle des insectes. Aptères. p. 603.
  6. ^ a b Gloor, Daniel; Nentwig, Wolfgang; Blick, Theo; Kropf, Christian (2019). "Gen. Argyroneta Latreille, 1804". World Spider Catalog Version 20.0. Natural History Museum Bern. doi:10.24436/2. Retrieved 2019-05-30.
  7. ^ a b c d "Argyroneta aquatica (Clerck 1758) (Water spider)". danmarks-edderkopper.dk. Retrieved 14 September 2015.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Schütz, D.; Taborsky, M. (2003). (PDF). Evolutionary Ecology Research. 5 (1): 105–117. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-16.
  9. ^ a b c Thorp, J.H.; D.C. Rogers, eds. (2015). Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology. Vol. 1 (4 ed.). Elsevier. pp. 602–608. ISBN 978-0-12-385026-3.
  10. ^ a b c Hillyard, P.D. (2007). The Private Life of Spiders. New Holland. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-0-69115-003-1.
  11. ^ a b c "Argyroneta aquatica (Araneae)". British Arachnological Society. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  12. ^ a b Schütz, D.; M. Taborsky; T. Drapela (2007). "Air bells of water spiders are an extended phenotype modified in response to gas composition". J Exp Zool A. 307 (10): 549–555. doi:10.1002/jez.410. PMID 17674350.
  13. ^ Swierk, Lindsey; Petrula, Macy; Esquete, Patricia (2022). "Diving behavior in a Neotropical spider ( Trechalea extensa ) as a potential antipredator tactic". Ethology. 128 (6): 508–512. doi:10.1111/eth.13281. S2CID 248136192.
  14. ^ Baehr, B.C.; Raven, R.; Harms, D. (2017). ""High Tide or Low Tide": Desis bobmarleyi sp. n., a new spider from coral reefs in Australia's Sunshine State and its relative from Sāmoa (Araneae, Desidae, Desis)". Evolutionary Systematics. 1: 111–120. doi:10.3897/evolsyst.1.15735.
  15. ^ "Desis sp. Marine Spiders". arachne.org.au. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  16. ^ Pétillon, J.; W. Montaigne; D. Renault (2009). "Hypoxic coma as a strategy to survive inundation in a salt-marsh inhabiting spider". Biol. Lett. 5 (4): 442–445. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0127. PMC 2781913. PMID 19411268.
  17. ^ Nyffeler, M.; Pusey, B.J. (2014). "Fish Predation by Semi-Aquatic Spiders: A Global Pattern". PLOS ONE. 9 (6): e99459. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...999459N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0099459. PMC 4062410. PMID 24940885.
  18. ^ Hénaut, Y.; Corbara, B.; Azémar, F.; Céréghino, R.; Dézerald, O.; Dejean, A. (2018). "An arboreal spider protects its offspring by diving into the water of tank bromeliads". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 341 (3): 196–199. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2018.02.002. PMID 29530733.
  19. ^ Filoramo, R. (2012). "Argyroneta aquatica". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  20. ^ a b "Argyroneta aquatica (Clerck, 1757)". Araneae – Spiders of Europe. 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
  21. ^ Ono, H. (2002). "New and Remarkable Spiders of the Families Liphistiidae, Argyronetidae, Pisauridae, Theridiidae and Araneidae (Arachnida) from Japan". Bulletin of the National Museum of Nature and Science Tokyo (A). 28 (1): 51–60. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2018.02.002. PMID 29530733.
  22. ^ a b c Seymour, R. S.; Hetz, S. K. (2011). "The diving bell and the spider: the physical gill of Argyroneta aquatica". J. Exp. Biol. 214 (13): 2175–2181. doi:10.1242/jeb.056093. PMID 21653811.
  23. ^ a b c Chandramita Bora. . Archived from the original on 2013-11-11.
  24. ^ Thorell, Tord (1869). On European Spiders. Uppsala, Sweden: Royal Society of Upsala. pp. 137. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
  25. ^ Schütz, Dolores; Taborsky, Michael (2005). (PDF). Journal of Arachnology. 33 (3): 767–775. doi:10.1636/S03-56.1. S2CID 26712792. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2015-08-07.
  26. ^ Neumann, Dietrich; Kureck, Armin (2013). "Composite structure of silken threads and a protinaceous hydrogel which form the diving bell wall of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica". SpringerPlus. 2 (223): 223. doi:10.1186/2193-1801-2-223. PMC 3667359. PMID 23741653. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
  27. ^ Flynn, M. R.; Bush, John W. M. (2008). "Underwater breathing: the mechanics of plastron respiration". J. Fluid Mech. Cambridge University Press. 608: 275–296. Bibcode:2008JFM...608..275F. doi:10.1017/S0022112008002048. S2CID 5674186.
  28. ^ Ross, Piper (2007). Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313339226.
  29. ^ Foelix, R.F. (2011). Biology of Spiders (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-19-973482-5.
  30. ^ White, J.; J. Meier, eds. (2008). Handbook of Clinical Toxicology of Animal Venoms and Poisons. Informa Healthcare. ISBN 978-0-8493-4489-3.
  31. ^ Nentwig, W.; M. Gnädinger; F.J, Ceschi (2013). "A two year study of verified spider bites in Switzerland and a review of the European spider bite literature". Toxicon. 73: 104–110. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.07.010. PMID 23872119.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Argyroneta aquatica.
  • on Arkive.org
  • . Archived from the original on 2010-05-07. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
  • Diving bell spiders use bubble webs 'like gills'

February 14, 2023
diving, bell, spider, diving, bell, spider, water, spider, argyroneta, aquatica, only, species, spider, known, live, almost, entirely, under, water, only, member, genus, argyroneta, when, water, spider, ranges, colour, from, dark, brown, although, hairs, abdom. The diving bell spider or water spider Argyroneta aquatica is the only species of spider known to live almost entirely under water It is the only member of the genus Argyroneta 6 When out of the water the spider ranges in colour from mid to dark brown although the hairs on the abdomen give it a dark grey velvet like appearance 7 It is native to freshwater habitats in Europe and Asia 8 Diving bell spiderTemporal range Neogene present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NFemale on left and maleScientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ArthropodaSubphylum ChelicerataClass ArachnidaOrder AraneaeInfraorder AraneomorphaeFamily DictynidaeGenus ArgyronetaLatreille 1804Species A aquaticaBinomial nameArgyroneta aquatica Clerck 1758 Synonyms 6 Aranea amphibia Muller 1776 1 Aranea aquatica Linnaeus 1758 2 Araneus aquaticus Clerck 1757 3 Aranea urinatoria Poda 1761 4 Clubiona fallax Walckenaer 1837 5 Contents 1 Uniqueness of aquatic behavior 2 Distribution and habitat 3 Ecology 4 Diving bell 5 Bite 6 References 7 External linksUniqueness of aquatic behavior Edit Although prey is usually consumed underwater in the diving bell it is occasionally brought to the surface A aquatica is the only known species of spider that spends almost all its life underwater including resting catching and eating prey mating egg laying and overwintering It only briefly surfaces to replenish its oxygen supply and occasionally will bring prey to the surface 9 10 11 12 There are several other spiders that are semiaquatic either periodically living underwater or willing to dive 13 For example certain Desis species spend the high tide in an air filled underwater retreat made from silk and forage on land in the intertidal zone during low tide 10 14 15 Some spiders living in periodically flooded habitats can survive for an extended period of time underwater by entering a coma like state up to 16 36 hours in Arctosa fulvolineata 16 Numerous species including some Ancylometes Dolomedes Megadolomedes Pardosa Pirata Thalassius and others live above water at the surface but may actively submerge for a prolonged period of time are strong swimmers and will catch underwater prey 9 10 17 Several of these as well as a few others may dive into water to avoid larger predators 9 18 Distribution and habitat EditA aquatica is found in clean freshwater habitats with aquatic vegetation such as lakes ponds canals marshes and slow moving streams 11 19 It ranges through much of mainland Europe no records from Portugal Greece and Albania the British Isles and central to northern Asia ranging as far south as Iran and as far north as Siberia up to latitude 62 N 8 20 Most of the range is inhabited by the nominate subspecies but Japan has its own subspecies the very similar A a japonica 7 21 Ecology EditAs with other spiders it breathes air when submerged in water an air bubble is trapped by a dense layer of hydrophobic hairs on its abdomen and legs 8 giving the abdomen a silvery appearance The spider lives for about two years in captivity 8 A aquatica is able to remain submerged for prolonged periods of time due to the silk based structure it constructs in order to retain an oxygen supply named after the diving bell structure it resembles The species range in size although the size of females may be limited as they put more energy into building and maintaining their larger bells 8 Males are more active and on average almost 30 larger than females 8 measuring 10 15 mm 0 39 0 59 in in head and body length compared to 8 12 mm 0 31 0 47 in 7 This size differential favoring males is unusual for spiders where sexual dimorphism is usually in favour of larger females Theories suggest that the male s more active hunting style requires greater strength to overcome water resistance and counteract the buoyancy of their mobile air supplies This larger body size is also associated with longer front legs shown to affect diving ability and giving the males superiority in diving over the more sessile females 8 The spiders prey on aquatic insects and crustaceans such as mosquito larvae and Daphnia 22 The spiders themselves fall prey to frogs and fish 23 Diving bell EditThe appearance of the diving bell gave rise to the genus name Argyroneta from the Greek argyros ἄrgyros meaning silver and neta a neologism perhaps for nhths derived from the verb neo new spin intended to mean spinner of silver 24 Both sexes build diving bell webs which are used for digesting prey although only the female s larger bell is used for mating and raising offspring Females spend most of their time within their bells darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the silk threads that anchor it and occasionally surfacing to replenish the air within the web The bells built by males are typically smaller than females and are replenished less often It is thought that prior to mating the male constructs a diving bell adjacent to the female s then spins a tunnel from his bell breaking into hers to gain entrance 23 Mating takes place in the female s bell 25 The female spider then constructs an egg sac within her bell laying between 30 and 70 eggs 23 Where this species moults is less clear with some sources stating that it occurs below water in the diving bell 12 and others that it occurs out of water 11 Diving bells are irregularly constructed sheets of silk and an unknown protein based hydrogel 26 which is spun between submerged water plants then inflated with air brought down from the surface by the builder Studies have considered gas diffusion between the diving bell and the spiders aquatic environment The silk is waterproof but allows gas exchange with the surrounding water There is net diffusion of oxygen into the bell and net diffusion of carbon dioxide out This process is driven by differences in partial pressure The production of carbon dioxide and use of oxygen by the spider maintains the concentration gradient required for diffusion However there is net diffusion of nitrogen out of the bell resulting in a gradually shrinking air bubble which must be regularly replenished by the spider 22 Larger spiders are able to produce larger bubbles which have a consequently higher oxygen conductance but all spiders of this species are able to enlarge their bells in response to increased oxygen demands in low aquatic P O2 environments These spiders voluntarily tolerate internal conditions of low oxygen enlarging their bells with air when the P O2 drops below 1 kPa this replenishment process may not need to occur for several days in some cases 22 This system has been referred to as the water spider s aqua lung of air bubbles though an aqua lung lacks gas exchange with the surroundings 27 this system is more properly regarded as an inorganic form of gill Bite EditTheir bite is often described as being very painful to humans and as causing localised inflammation vomiting and slight feverishness that disappears after 5 10 days 28 29 However there is little solid evidence 30 with most information being based on old and unverified reports due to recent confirmed reports being very rare 20 31 leading some sources to refer to its bite as reputedly painful 7 References Edit Muller O F 1776 Zoologicae danicae prodromus seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum characteres nomina et synonyma imprimis popularium Hafniae p 194 Linnaeus C 1758 Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis p 623 Clerck C 1757 Svenska spindlar uti sina hufvud slagter indelte samt under nagra och sextio sarskildte arter beskrefne och med illuminerade figurer uplyste p 143 Poda N 1761 Insecta Musei Graecensis quae in ordines genera et species juxta systema naturae Caroli Linnaei Graecii p 123 Walckenaer C A 1837 Histoire naturelle des insectes Apteres p 603 a b Gloor Daniel Nentwig Wolfgang Blick Theo Kropf Christian 2019 Gen Argyroneta Latreille 1804 World Spider Catalog Version 20 0 Natural History Museum Bern doi 10 24436 2 Retrieved 2019 05 30 a b c d Argyroneta aquatica Clerck 1758 Water spider danmarks edderkopper dk Retrieved 14 September 2015 a b c d e f g Schutz D Taborsky M 2003 Adaptations to an aquatic life may be responsible for the reversed sexual size dimorphism in the water spider Argyroneta aquatica PDF Evolutionary Ecology Research 5 1 105 117 Archived from the original PDF on 2008 12 16 a b c Thorp J H D C Rogers eds 2015 Thorp and Covich s Freshwater Invertebrates Ecology and General Biology Vol 1 4 ed Elsevier pp 602 608 ISBN 978 0 12 385026 3 a b c Hillyard P D 2007 The Private Life of Spiders New Holland pp 41 43 ISBN 978 0 69115 003 1 a b c Argyroneta aquatica Araneae British Arachnological Society Retrieved 12 April 2018 a b Schutz D M Taborsky T Drapela 2007 Air bells of water spiders are an extended phenotype modified in response to gas composition J Exp Zool A 307 10 549 555 doi 10 1002 jez 410 PMID 17674350 Swierk Lindsey Petrula Macy Esquete Patricia 2022 Diving behavior in a Neotropical spider Trechalea extensa as a potential antipredator tactic Ethology 128 6 508 512 doi 10 1111 eth 13281 S2CID 248136192 Baehr B C Raven R Harms D 2017 High Tide or Low Tide Desis bobmarleyi sp n a new spider from coral reefs in Australia s Sunshine State and its relative from Samoa Araneae Desidae Desis Evolutionary Systematics 1 111 120 doi 10 3897 evolsyst 1 15735 Desis sp Marine Spiders arachne org au Retrieved 12 April 2018 Petillon J W Montaigne D Renault 2009 Hypoxic coma as a strategy to survive inundation in a salt marsh inhabiting spider Biol Lett 5 4 442 445 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2009 0127 PMC 2781913 PMID 19411268 Nyffeler M Pusey B J 2014 Fish Predation by Semi Aquatic Spiders A Global Pattern PLOS ONE 9 6 e99459 Bibcode 2014PLoSO 999459N doi 10 1371 journal pone 0099459 PMC 4062410 PMID 24940885 Henaut Y Corbara B Azemar F Cereghino R Dezerald O Dejean A 2018 An arboreal spider protects its offspring by diving into the water of tank bromeliads Comptes Rendus Biologies 341 3 196 199 doi 10 1016 j crvi 2018 02 002 PMID 29530733 Filoramo R 2012 Argyroneta aquatica Animal Diversity Web Retrieved 12 April 2018 a b Argyroneta aquatica Clerck 1757 Araneae Spiders of Europe 2013 Retrieved 12 April 2018 Ono H 2002 New and Remarkable Spiders of the Families Liphistiidae Argyronetidae Pisauridae Theridiidae and Araneidae Arachnida from Japan Bulletin of the National Museum of Nature and Science Tokyo A 28 1 51 60 doi 10 1016 j crvi 2018 02 002 PMID 29530733 a b c Seymour R S Hetz S K 2011 The diving bell and the spider the physical gill of Argyroneta aquatica J Exp Biol 214 13 2175 2181 doi 10 1242 jeb 056093 PMID 21653811 a b c Chandramita Bora Water Spider Archived from the original on 2013 11 11 Thorell Tord 1869 On European Spiders Uppsala Sweden Royal Society of Upsala pp 137 Retrieved January 10 2017 Schutz Dolores Taborsky Michael 2005 Mate choice and sexual conflict in the size dimorphic water spider Argyroneta aquatica Araneae Argyronatidae PDF Journal of Arachnology 33 3 767 775 doi 10 1636 S03 56 1 S2CID 26712792 Archived from the original PDF on 2012 03 20 Retrieved 2015 08 07 Neumann Dietrich Kureck Armin 2013 Composite structure of silken threads and a protinaceous hydrogel which form the diving bell wall of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica SpringerPlus 2 223 223 doi 10 1186 2193 1801 2 223 PMC 3667359 PMID 23741653 Retrieved 7 August 2015 Flynn M R Bush John W M 2008 Underwater breathing the mechanics of plastron respiration J Fluid Mech Cambridge University Press 608 275 296 Bibcode 2008JFM 608 275F doi 10 1017 S0022112008002048 S2CID 5674186 Ross Piper 2007 Extraordinary Animals An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0313339226 Foelix R F 2011 Biology of Spiders 3 ed Oxford University Press p 57 ISBN 978 0 19 973482 5 White J J Meier eds 2008 Handbook of Clinical Toxicology of Animal Venoms and Poisons Informa Healthcare ISBN 978 0 8493 4489 3 Nentwig W M Gnadinger F J Ceschi 2013 A two year study of verified spider bites in Switzerland and a review of the European spider bite literature Toxicon 73 104 110 doi 10 1016 j toxicon 2013 07 010 PMID 23872119 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Argyroneta aquatica Water spider pictures on Arkive org Water Spider Archived from the original on 2010 05 07 Retrieved 2014 01 25 Diving bell spiders use bubble webs like gills Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Diving bell spider amp oldid 1123105940, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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