Differential diagnoses of anorexia nervosa

The differential diagnoses of anorexia nervosa (AN) includes various types of medical and psychological conditions, which may be misdiagnosed as AN. In some cases, these conditions may be comorbid with AN because the misdiagnosis of AN is not uncommon. For example, a case of achalasia was misdiagnosed as AN and the patient spent two months confined to a psychiatric hospital.^[1] A reason for the differential diagnoses that surround AN arise mainly because, like other disorders, it is primarily, albeit defensively and adaptive for, the individual concerned.^[2] Anorexia Nervosa is a psychological disorder characterized by extremely reduced intake of food. People with anorexia nervosa tend to have a low self-image and an inaccurate perception of their body.

Common behaviors and signs of someone with AN:

• Forcing oneself to vigorously exercise even in adverse conditions or when their health does not permit it.
• Forcing own self to urinate and excrete waste product from the body.
• Using substituted amphetamines (stimulants that can reduce appetite) to reduce appetite.
• Skin turning yellow

Medical

Some of the differential or comorbid medical diagnoses may include:

• achalasia – There have been cases where achalasia, a disorder of the esophagus which affects peristalsis, has been misdiagnosed as AN. It has been reported in cases where there is sub-clinical manifestation of anorexia nervosa and also in cases where the full diagnostic criteria AN have been met.^[3]
• acute pandysautonomia is one form of an autonomic neuropathy, which is a collection of various syndromes and diseases which affect the autonomic neurons of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Autonomic neuropathies may be the result of an inherited condition or they may be acquired due to various premorbid conditions such as diabetes and alcoholism, bacterial infection such as Lyme disease or a viral illness. Some of the symptoms of ANS which may be associated with an ED include nausea, dysphagia, constipation, pain in the salivary glands, early satiety. It also affects peristalsis in the stomach. Acute pandysautonomia may cause emotional instability and has been misdiagnosed as various psychiatric disorders including hysterical neurosis and anorexia nervosa.^[4]
• Lupus: various neuropsychiatric symptoms are associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), including depression. Anorexia and weight loss also may occur with SLE and while rare it may be misdiagnosed as AN.^[5][6]
• Lyme disease is known as the "great imitator", as it may present as a variety of psychiatric or neurologic disorders including anorexia nervosa. "A 12 year old boy with confirmed Lyme arthritis treated with oral antibiotics subsequently became depressed and anorectic. After being admitted to a psychiatric hospital with the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa, he was noted to have positive serologic tests for Borrelia burgdorferi. Treatment with a 14 day course of intravenous antibiotics led to a resolution of his depression and anorexia; this improvement was sustained on 3 year follow-up."^[7][8] Serologic testing can be helpful but should not be the sole basis for diagnosis. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) issued a cautionary statement (MMWR 54;125) regarding the use of several commercial tests. Clinical diagnostic criteria have been issued by the CDC (CDC, MMWR 1997; 46: 531–535).
• Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by gastrointestinal dysmotility, severe cachexia progressive external ophthalmoplegia, post-prandial emesis (vomiting after eating), peripheral neuropathy, and diffuse leukoencephalopathy. Onset is prior to age 20 in 60% of cases. ""Miss A" was a 21-year-old Indian woman diagnosed as having treatment-resistant anorexia nervosa." It was subsequently proven to be MNGIE^[9][10][11]
• superior mesenteric artery syndrome (SMA syndrome) "is a gastrointestinal disorder characterized by the compression of the third or transverse portion of the duodenum against the aorta by the superior mesenteric artery resulting in chronic partial, incomplete, acute or intermittent duodenal obstruction". It may occur as a complication of AN or as a differential diagnosis. There have been reported cases of a tentative diagnosis of AN, where upon treatment for SMA syndrome the patient is asymptomatic.^[12][13]
• Addison's disease is a disorder of the adrenal cortex which results in decreased hormonal production. Addison's disease, even in subclinical form, may mimic many of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa.^[14]
• Brain tumors: There are multiple cases were the neuropsychiatric symptoms of a brain tumor were attributed to AN, resulting in misdiagnosis. The tumors in these cases were noted in various regions of the brain including the medulla oblongata, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland and the obex.^{[15][16][17][18]}
  • Simmond's disease (organic hypopituitarism) – "A 20-year-old Japanese man with a hypothalamic tumor which caused hypopituitarism and diabetes insipidus was mistakenly diagnosed as anorexia nervosa because of anorexia, weight loss, denial of being ill, changes in personality, and abnormal behavior resembling the clinical characteristics of anorexia nervosa"^[19]
  • Brain calcification either dystrophic calcification or metastatic calcification can present with neuropsychiatric symptoms including those associated with AN and comorbid disorders such as obsessive–compulsive disorder.^[20][21]
  • cysts that occur in the central nervous system such as dermoid cysts and arachnoid cysts can cause neuropsychiatric symptoms including psychosis.^[22][23]
• Celiac disease is an inflammatory disorder triggered by peptides from wheat and similar grains which cause an immune reaction in the small intestine. Although foreseen by medical professionals due to lack of diagnosis, eating disorders is a comorbid condition to Celiac Disease. (Leffler DA et al.)^[24]
• Pica is the regular digestion of non-nutritive substances. Pica is a common gastrointestinal disease connected to the development of anorexia nervosa . (Leffler DA et al.)^[25]
• Gall bladder disease which may be caused by inflammation, infection, gallstones, obstruction of the gallbladder or torsion of the gall bladder – Many of the symptoms of gall bladder disease may mimic anorexia nervosa (AN). Laura Daly, a woman from Missouri, had an inherited disorder in which the gall bladder was not properly attached; the resultant complications led to multiple erroneous diagnoses of AN. Upon performance of a CCK test, standard imaging techniques are done with the patient lying prone, in this instance it was done with the patient in an upright position. The gall bladder was shown to be in an abnormal position having flipped over the liver. The gallbladder was removed and the patient has since recovered. The treatment was performed by William P. Smedley in Pennsylvania.^[26]
• colonic tuberculosis misdiagnosed as anorexia nervosa in a physician at the hospital where she worked – "This patient, who had severe wasting, was misdiagnosed as having anorexia nervosa despite the presence of other symptoms suggestive of an organic disease, namely, fever and diarrhea"(Madani, A 2002).^[27]
• Crohn's disease: "We report three cases of young 18 to 25 year-old girls, initially treated for anorexia nervosa in a psychiatric department. Diagnosis of Crohn's disease was made within 5 to 13 years."(Blanchet C, Luton JP. 2002)"This disease should be diagnostically excluded before accepting anorexia nervosa as final diagnosis". (Wellmann W et al.)^{[28][29][30][31]}
• hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, hypoparathyroidism and hyperparathyroidism may mimic some of the symptoms of, can occur concurrently with, be masked by or exacerbate an eating disorder and/or various comorbid disorders such as anxiety and depression.^{[32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39]}
• Insulinomas are (pancreatic tumors) that cause an overproduction of insulin, causing hypoglycemia. Various neurological deficits have been ascribed to this condition including misdiagnosis as an eating disorder.^{[40][41][42][43][44]}
• Multiple sclerosis (encephalomyelitis disseminata) is a progressive autoimmune disorder in which the protective covering (myelin sheath) of nerve cells is damaged as a result of inflammation and resultant attack by the bodies own immune system. In its initial presentation, MS has been misdiagnosed as an eating disorder.^[45]

Psychological

There are various other psychological issues that may factor into anorexia nervosa, some fulfill the criteria for a separate Axis I diagnosis or a personality disorder which is coded Axis II and thus are considered comorbid to the diagnosed eating disorder. Axis II disorders are subtyped into 3 "clusters", A, B and C. The causality between personality disorders and eating disorders has yet to be fully established.^[46] Some people have a previous disorder which may increase their vulnerability to developing an eating disorder.^[47][48][49] Some develop them afterwards.^[50] The severity and type of eating disorder symptoms have been shown to affect comorbidity.^[51] These comorbid disorders themselves have multiple differential diagnoses, such as depression which may be caused by such disparate causes such as Lyme disease or hypothyroidism.

• Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is listed as a somatoform disorder that affects up to 2% of the population. BDD is characterized by excessive rumination over an actual or perceived physical flaw. BDD has been diagnosed equally among men and women. While BDD has been misdiagnosed as anorexia nervosa, it also occurs comorbidly in 25% to 39% of AN cases.^[52]

BDD is a chronic and debilitating condition which may lead to social isolation, major depression, suicidal ideation and attempts. Neuroimaging studies to measure response to facial recognition have shown activity predominately in the left hemisphere in the left lateral prefrontal cortex, lateral temporal lobe and left parietal lobe showing hemispheric imbalance in information processing. There is a reported case of the development of BDD in a 21-year-old male following an inflammatory brain process. Neuroimaging showed the presence of new atrophy in the frontotemporal region.^{[53][54][55][56]}

• Emetophobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense fear of vomiting. A person so affected may develop rigorous standards of food hygiene, such as not touching food with their hands. They may become socially withdrawn to avoid situations which in their perception may make them vomit. Many who have emetophobia are diagnosed with anorexia or self-starvation. In severe cases of emetophobia they may drastically reduce their food intake.^[57][58]
• Food avoidance emotional disorder is an eating disorder that affects children which involves a fear of eating which is not accompanied by a fear of weight gain^[59] which may be misdiagnosed as anorexia nervosa.
• phagophobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of eating, it is usually initiated by an adverse experience while eating such as choking or vomiting. Individuals with this disorder may present with complaints of pain while swallowing. There have been cases of it being misdiagnosed as AN.^[60][61] A similar phobic anxiety disorder, swallowing phobia may also lead to a misdiagnosis of anorexia nervosa; such individuals do not want to lose weight but typically want to put weight back on that they have lost due to their phobia.^[62]

Comorbid disorders
Axis I	Axis II
depression^[63]	obsessive–compulsive personality disorder^[64]
substance abuse, alcoholism^[65]	borderline personality disorder^[66]
anxiety disorders^[67]	narcissistic personality disorder^[68]	obsessive–compulsive disorder^[69]^[70]	histrionic personality disorder^[71]	obsessive–compulsive disorder^[72]^[73]	histrionic personality disorder^[74]
Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder^[75]^[76]^[77]^[78]	avoidant personality disorder^[79]

The distinction between the diagnoses of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) is often difficult to make as there is considerable overlap between patients diagnosed with these conditions. Seemingly minor changes in a patient's overall behavior or attitude can change a diagnosis from "anorexia: binge-eating type" to bulimia nervosa. It is not unusual for a person with an eating disorder to "move through" various diagnoses as his or her behavior and beliefs change over time.^[80]

References

1. Marshall, J. B.; Russell, J. L. (1993). "Achalasia mistakenly diagnosed as eating disorder and prompting prolonged psychiatric hospitalization". Southern Medical Journal. 86 (12): 1405–1407. doi:10.1097/00007611-199312000-00019. PMID 8272922.
2. Crisp, A. H. (1977). "The differential diagnosis of anorexia nervosa". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 70 (10): 686–690. doi:10.1177/003591577707001004. PMC 1543424. PMID 928375.
3. Richterich, A.; Brunner, R.; Resch, F. (2003). "Achalasia mimicking prepubertal anorexia nervosa". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 33 (3): 356–359. doi:10.1002/eat.10144. PMID 12655633.
4. Okada, F. (1990). "Psychiatric aspects of acute pandysautonomia". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 240 (2): 134–135. doi:10.1007/bf02189983. PMID 2149650. S2CID 12242055.
5. Alao, A. O.; Chlebowski, S.; Chung, C. (2009). "Neuropsychiatric Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Presenting as Bipolar I Disorder with Catatonic Features". Psychosomatics. 50 (5): 543–547. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.50.5.543. PMID 19855042.
6. Preventing Misdiagnosis of Women: A Guide to Physical Disorders That Have Psychiatric Symptoms (Women's Mental Health and Development) by Dr. Elizabeth Adele Klonoff and Dr. Hope Landrine. Page 87 Publisher: Sage Publications, Inc; 1 edition (November 13, 1997) Language: English ISBN 0-7619-0047-0 ISBN 978-0-7619-0047-4
7. Fallon, B. A.; Nields, J. A. (1994). "Lyme disease: A neuropsychiatric illness". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 151 (11): 1571–1583. doi:10.1176/ajp.151.11.1571. PMID 7943444. S2CID 22568915.
8. PPachner, A. R. (1988). "Borrelia burgdorferi in the nervous system: The new "great imitator"". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 539 (1): 56–64. Bibcode:1988NYASA.539...56P. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb31838.x. PMID 3190104. S2CID 7629978.
9. Feddersen, B.; De La Fontaine, L.; Sass, J. O.; Lutz, J.; Abicht, A.; Klopstock, T.; Verma, I. C.; Meisenzahl, E.; Pogarell, O. (2009). "Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalomyopathy Mimicking Anorexia Nervosa". American Journal of Psychiatry. 166 (4): 494–495. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08101525. PMID 19339372.
10. Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalomyopathy Mimicking Anorexia Nervosa Article 2011-06-11 at the Wayback Machine
11. Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy Disease
12. Gerasimidis, T.; George, F. (2009). "Superior Mesenteric Artery Syndrome". Digestive Surgery. 26 (3): 213–214. doi:10.1159/000219330. PMID 19468230.
13. Kornmehl, P.; Weizman, Z.; Liss, Z.; Bar-Ziv, J.; Joseph, A. (1988). "Superior mesenteric artery syndrome presenting as an anorexia nervosa-like illness". Journal of Adolescent Health. 9 (4): 340–343. doi:10.1016/0197-0070(88)90263-x. PMID 3417512.
14. Adams, R.; Hinkebein, M. K.; McQuillen, M.; Sutherland, S.; El Asyouty, S.; Lippmann, S. (1998). "Prompt differentiation of Addison's disease from anorexia nervosa during weight loss and vomiting". Southern Medical Journal. 91 (2): 208–211. doi:10.1097/00007611-199802000-00017. PMID 9496878. S2CID 33433769.
15. Lin, L.; Liao, S. C.; Lee, Y. J.; Tseng, M. C.; Lee, M. B. (2003). "Brain tumor presenting as anorexia nervosa in a 19-year-old man". Journal of the Formosan Medical Association = Taiwan Yi Zhi. 102 (10): 737–740. PMID 14691602.
16. Sokol, M. S.; Fujimoto, C. K.; Jackson, T. K.; Silberberg, P. J. (2006). "Anorexia nervosa and brain tumor in a 14-year-old girl". CNS Spectrums. 11 (9): 669–673, quiz 673. doi:10.1017/S1092852900014759. PMID 16946691. S2CID 24555337.
17. Großmann, D.; Burtzlaff, C.; Griefahn, B.; Stenger, R. -D.; Wiersbitzky, H.; Wagner, W.; Lauffer, H. (2002). "Kavernom der Medulla oblongata unter dem Bild einer "Anorexia nervosa"". Klinische Pädiatrie. 214 (1): 41–44. doi:10.1055/s-2002-19864. PMID 11823953.
18. Pavesi, G.; Berlucchi, S.; Feletti, A.; Opocher, G.; Scienza, R. (2006). "Hemangioblastoma of the obex mimicking anorexia nervosa". Neurology. 67 (1): 178–179. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000223354.86636.ed. PMID 16832109. S2CID 24386601.
19. Hotta M.; et al. (1999). "A Young Man With a Hypothalimic Tumor Mimicking Anorexia Nervosa". Journal of Tokyo Women's Medical University. 69 (6): 289–295. ISSN 0040-9022. Accession number;99A0720003 Journal Code:G0684A
20. Conrad, R.; Wegener, I.; Geiser, F.; Imbierowicz, K.; Liedtke, R. (2008). "Nature against nurture: Calcification in the right thalamus in a young man with anorexia nervosa and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder". CNS Spectrums. 13 (10): 906–910. doi:10.1017/S1092852900017016. PMID 18955946. S2CID 13013352.
21. López-Villegas, D.; Kulisevsky, J.; Deus, J.; Junqué, C.; Pujol, J.; Guardia, E.; Grau, J. M. (1996). "Neuropsychological alterations in patients with computed tomography-detected basal ganglia calcification". Archives of Neurology. 53 (3): 251–256. doi:10.1001/archneur.1996.00550030061023. PMID 8651878.
22. Wolańczyk, T.; Komender, J.; Brzozowska, A. (1997). "Catatonic syndrome preceded by symptoms of anorexia nervosa in a 14-year-old boy with arachnoid cyst". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 6 (3): 166–169. doi:10.1007/bf00538989. PMID 9383651. S2CID 13598800.
23. Da Silva, J.; Alves, A.; Talina, M.; Carreiro, S.; Guimarães, J. O.; Xavier, M. (2007). "Arachnoid cyst in a patient with psychosis: Case report". Annals of General Psychiatry. 6: 16. doi:10.1186/1744-859X-6-16. PMC 1933420. PMID 17598903.
24. Leffler, D. A.; Dennis, M.; Edwards George, J. B.; Kelly, C. P. (2007). "The interaction between eating disorders and celiac disease: An exploration of 10 cases". European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 19 (3): 251–255. doi:10.1097/MEG.0b013e328012db37. PMID 17301653. S2CID 28264239.
25. Leffler, D. A.; Dennis, M.; Edwards George, J. B.; Kelly, C. P. (2007). "The interaction between eating disorders and celiac disease: An exploration of 10 cases". European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 19 (3): 251–255. doi:10.1097/MEG.0b013e328012db37. PMID 17301653. S2CID 28264239.
26. William P. Smedley, M.D., F.A.C.S.
27. Madani, T. A. (2002). "Colonic tuberculosis clinically misdiagnosed as anorexia nervosa, and radiologically and histopathologically as Crohn's disease". The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 13 (2): 136–140. doi:10.1155/2002/879365. PMC 2094857. PMID 18159383.
28. Blanchet, C.; Luton, J. P. (2002). "Anorexia nervosa and Crohn disease: Diagnostic intricacies and difficulties. 3 cases". Presse Médicale. 31 (7): 312–315. PMID 11899685.
29. Holaday, M.; Smith, K. E.; Robertson, S.; Dallas, J. (1994). "An atypical eating disorder with Crohn's disease in a fifteen-year-old male: A case study". Adolescence. 29 (116): 865–873. PMID 7892797.
30. Wellmann, W.; Pries, K.; Freyberger, H. (2008). "Die Kombination von Morbus Crohn und Anorexia-nervosa-Symptomatik". Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 106 (45): 1499–1502. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1070542. PMID 7307984.
31. Rickards, H.; Prendergast, M.; Booth, I. W. (1994). "Psychiatric presentation of Crohn's disease. Diagnostic delay and increased morbidity". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 164 (2): 256–261. doi:10.1192/bjp.164.2.256. PMID 8173832. S2CID 21761490.
32. Mannucci, E.; Ricca, V.; Filetti, S.; Boldrini, M.; Rotella, C. M. (2003). "Eating behavior and thyroid disease in female obese patients". Eating Behaviors. 4 (2): 173–179. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00012-6. PMID 15000980.
33. Byerley, B.; Black, D. W.; Grosser, B. I. (1983). "Anorexia nervosa with hyperthyroidism: Case report". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 44 (8): 308–309. PMID 6874653.
34. Krahn, D. (1990). "Thyrotoxicosis and Bulimia Nervosa". Psychosomatics. 31 (2): 222–224. doi:10.1016/S0033-3182(90)72201-3. PMID 2330406.
35. Tiller, J.; MacRae, A.; Schmidt, U.; Bloom, S.; Treasure, J. (1994). "The prevalence of eating disorders in thyroid disease: A pilot study". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 38 (6): 609–616. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(94)90058-2. PMID 7990069.
36. Fonseca, V.; Wakeling, A.; Havard, C. W. (1990). "Hyperthyroidism and eating disorders". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 301 (6747): 322–323. doi:10.1136/bmj.301.6747.322. PMC 1663651. PMID 2393739.
37. Birmingham, C. L.; Gritzner, S.; Gutierrez, E. (2006). "Hyperthyroidism in anorexia nervosa: Case report and review of the literature". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 39 (7): 619–620. doi:10.1002/eat.20308. PMID 16958126.
38. Mattingly, D.; Bhanji, S. (1995). "Hypoglycaemia and anorexia nervosa". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 88 (4): 191–195. PMC 1295161. PMID 7745563.
39. Ozawa, Y.; Koyano, H.; Akama, T. (1999). "Complete recovery from intractable bulimia nervosa by the surgical cure of primary hyperparathyroidism". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 26 (1): 107–110. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199907)26:1<107::AID-EAT15>3.0.CO;2-U. PMID 10349592.
40. Grant, C. (2005). "Insulinoma". Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology. 19 (5): 783–798. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2005.05.008. PMID 16253900.
41. Shanmugam, V.; Zimnowodzki, S.; Curtin, J.; Gorelick, P. B. (1997). "Hypoglycemic hemiplegia: Insulinoma masquerading as stroke". Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases. 6 (5): 368–369. doi:10.1016/s1052-3057(97)80220-0. PMID 17895035.
42. Morgan, J. R. (1989). "A case of Down's syndrome, insulinoma and anorexia". Journal of Mental Deficiency Research. 33 (2): 185–187. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.1989.tb01465.x. PMID 2542562.
43. Olsen, D. B.; Abraham, J. H. (1999). "Neuropsychiatric disorders in insulinoma". Ugeskrift for Laeger. 161 (10): 1420–1421. PMID 10085751.
44. Vig, S.; Lewis, M.; Foster, K. J.; Stacey-Clear, A. (2001). "Lessons to be learned: A case study approach insulinoma presenting as a change in personality". The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. 121 (1): 56–61. doi:10.1177/146642400112100112. PMID 11329699. S2CID 21795209.
45. Dick, B.; Schreiber, W.; Schu, U.; Shiratori, K.; Krieg, J. C. (2002). "Encephalomyelitis disseminata: A rare, but challenging differential diagnosis of anorectic disorder". The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry. 3 (4): 225–228. doi:10.3109/15622970209150626. PMID 12516315. S2CID 30337294.
46. Rosenvinge, J. H.; Martinussen, M.; Ostensen, E. (2000). "The comorbidity of eating disorders and personality disorders: A meta-analytic review of studies published between 1983 and 1998". Eating and Weight Disorders. 5 (2): 52–61. doi:10.1007/bf03327480. PMID 10941603. S2CID 34981309.
47. Kaye, W. H.; Bulik, C. M.; Thornton, L.; Barbarich, N.; Masters, K. (2004). "Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa". American Journal of Psychiatry. 161 (12): 2215–2221. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2215. PMID 15569892.
48. Thornton, C.; Russell, J. (1997). "Obsessive compulsive comorbidity in the dieting disorders". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 21 (1): 83–87. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199701)21:1<83::AID-EAT10>3.0.CO;2-P. PMID 8986521.
49. Vitousek, K.; Manke, F. (1994). "Personality variables and disorders in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 103 (1): 137–147. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.103.1.137. PMID 8040475.
50. Braun, D. L.; Sunday, S. R.; Halmi, K. A. (1994). "Psychiatric comorbidity in patients with eating disorders". Psychological Medicine. 24 (4): 859–867. doi:10.1017/S0033291700028956. PMID 7892354. S2CID 34017953.
51. Spindler, A.; Milos, G. (2007). "Links between eating disorder symptom severity and psychiatric comorbidity". Eating Behaviors. 8 (3): 364–373. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.012. PMID 17606234.
52. Grant, J. E.; Kim, S. W.; Eckert, E. D. (2002). "Body dysmorphic disorder in patients with anorexia nervosa: Prevalence, clinical features, and delusionality of body image". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 32 (3): 291–300. doi:10.1002/eat.10091. PMID 12210643.
53. Gabbay, V.; Asnis, G. M.; Bello, J. A.; Alonso, C. M.; Serras, S. J.; O'Dowd, M. A. (2003). "New onset of body dysmorphic disorder following frontotemporal lesion". Neurology. 61 (1): 123–125. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000069607.30528.D5. PMID 12847173. S2CID 6059843.
54. Phillips, K. A.; McElroy, S. L.; Keck Jr, P. E.; Hudson, J. I.; Pope Jr, H. G. (1994). "A comparison of delusional and nondelusional body dysmorphic disorder in 100 cases". Psychopharmacology Bulletin. 30 (2): 179–186. PMID 7831453.
55. Feusner, J. D.; Townsend, J.; Bystritsky, A.; Bookheimer, S. (2007). "Visual Information Processing of Faces in Body Dysmorphic Disorder". Archives of General Psychiatry. 64 (12): 1417–1425. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1417. PMID 18056550.
56. Feusner, J. D.; Yaryura-Tobias, J.; Saxena, S. (2008). "The pathophysiology of body dysmorphic disorder". Body Image. 5 (1): 3–12. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.11.002. PMC 3836287. PMID 18314401.
57. Lipsitz, J. D.; Fyer, A. J.; Paterniti, A.; Klein, D. F. (2001). "Emetophobia: Preliminary results of an internet survey". Depression and Anxiety. 14 (2): 149–152. doi:10.1002/da.1058. PMID 11668669. S2CID 11784677.
58. Boschen, M. J. (2007). "Reconceptualizing emetophobia: A cognitive–behavioral formulation and research agenda". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 21 (3): 407–419. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.06.007. PMID 16890398.
59. Nicholls, Dasha (1999). "Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 5 (4): 241–249. doi:10.1192/apt.5.4.241.
60. Shapiro, J.; Franko, D. L.; Gagne, A. (1997). "Phagophobia: A form of psychogenic dysphagia. A new entity". The Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology. 106 (4): 286–290. doi:10.1177/000348949710600404. PMID 9109717. S2CID 22215557.
61. Okada, A.; Tsukamoto, C.; Hosogi, M.; Yamanaka, E.; Watanabe, K.; Ootyou, K.; Morishima, T. (2007). "A study of psycho-pathology and treatment of children with phagophobia". Acta Medica Okayama. 61 (5): 261–269. PMID 17971843.
62. De Lucas-Taracena, M. T.; Montañés-Rada, F. (2006). "Swallowing phobia: Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment". Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría. 34 (5): 309–316. PMID 16991019.
63. Casper, R. C. (1998). "Depression and eating disorders". Depression and Anxiety. 8 (S1): 96–104. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1998)8:1+<96::AID-DA15>3.0.CO;2-4. PMID 9809221. S2CID 36772859.
64. Serpell, L.; Livingstone, A.; Neiderman, M.; Lask, B. (2002). "Anorexia nervosa: Obsessive-compulsive disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, or neither?". Clinical Psychology Review. 22 (5): 647–669. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00112-X. PMID 12113200.
65. Bulik, C. M.; Klump, K. L.; Thornton, L.; Kaplan, A. S.; Devlin, B.; Fichter, M. M.; Halmi, K. A.; Strober, M.; Woodside, D. B. (2004). "Alcohol use disorder comorbidity in eating disorders: A multicenter study". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 65 (7): 1000–1006. doi:10.4088/JCP.v65n0718. PMID 15291691.
66. Larsson, J. O.; Hellzén, M. (2004). "Patterns of personality disorders in women with chronic eating disorders". Eating and Weight Disorders. 9 (3): 200–205. doi:10.1007/bf03325067. PMID 15656014. S2CID 29679535.
67. Swinbourne, J. M.; Touyz, S. W. (2007). "The co-morbidity of eating disorders and anxiety disorders: A review". European Eating Disorders Review. 15 (4): 253–274. doi:10.1002/erv.784. PMID 17676696.
68. Ronningstam, E. (1996). "Pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder in Axis I disorders". Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 3 (6): 326–340. doi:10.3109/10673229609017201. PMID 9384963. S2CID 21472356.
69. Anderluh, M. B.; Tchanturia, K.; Rabe-Hesketh, S.; Treasure, J. (2003). "Childhood obsessive-compulsive personality traits in adult women with eating disorders: Defining a broader eating disorder phenotype". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 160 (2): 242–247. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.242. PMID 12562569.
70. Pinto, A.; Mancebo, M. C.; Eisen, J. L.; Pagano, M. E.; Rasmussen, S. A. (2006). "The Brown Longitudinal Obsessive Compulsive Study: Clinical features and symptoms of the sample at intake". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 67 (5): 703–711. doi:10.4088/JCP.v67n0503. PMC 3272757. PMID 16841619.
71. Lucka, I.; Cebella, A. (2004). "Characteristics of the forming personality in children suffering from anorexia nervosa". Psychiatria Polska. 38 (6): 1011–1018. PMID 15779665.
72. Anderluh, M. B.; Tchanturia, K.; Rabe-Hesketh, S.; Treasure, J. (2003). "Childhood obsessive-compulsive personality traits in adult women with eating disorders: Defining a broader eating disorder phenotype". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 160 (2): 242–247. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.242. PMID 12562569.
73. Pinto, A.; Mancebo, M. C.; Eisen, J. L.; Pagano, M. E.; Rasmussen, S. A. (2006). "The Brown Longitudinal Obsessive Compulsive Study: Clinical features and symptoms of the sample at intake". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 67 (5): 703–711. doi:10.4088/JCP.v67n0503. PMC 3272757. PMID 16841619.
74. Lucka, I.; Cebella, A. (2004). "Characteristics of the forming personality in children with anorexia nervosa". Psychiatria Polska. 38 (6): 1011–1018. PMID 15779665.
75. Dukarm, C. P. (2005). "Bulimia Nervosa and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Possible Role for Stimulant Medication". Journal of Women's Health. 14 (4): 345–350. doi:10.1089/jwh.2005.14.345. PMID 15916509.
76. Mikami, A. Y.; Hinshaw, S. P.; Arnold, L. E.; Hoza, B.; Hechtman, L.; Newcorn, J. H.; Abikoff, H. B. (2009). "Bulimia nervosa symptoms in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 43 (3): 248–259. doi:10.1002/eat.20692. PMID 19378318.
77. Biederman, J.; Ball, S. W.; Monuteaux, M. C.; Surman, C. B.; Johnson, J. L.; Zeitlin, S. (2007). "Are Girls with ADHD at Risk for Eating Disorders? Results from a Controlled, Five-Year Prospective Study". Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 28 (4): 302–307. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e3180327917. PMID 17700082. S2CID 31596462.
78. Cortese, S.; Bernardina, B. D.; Mouren, M. C. (2007). "Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and binge eating". Nutrition Reviews. 65 (9): 404–411. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00318.x. PMID 17958207.
79. Bruce, K. R.; Steiger, H.; Koerner, N. M.; Israel, M.; Young, S. N. (2004). "Bulimia nervosa with co-morbid avoidant personality disorder: Behavioural characteristics and serotonergic function". Psychological Medicine. 34 (1): 113–124. doi:10.1017/S003329170300864X. PMID 14971632. S2CID 41886088.
80. Zucker, N. L.; Losh, M.; Bulik, C. M.; Labar, K. S.; Piven, J.; Pelphrey, K. A. (2007). "Anorexia nervosa and autism spectrum disorders: Guided investigation of social cognitive endophenotypes". Psychological Bulletin. 133 (6): 976–1006. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.545.1664. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.976. PMID 17967091.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001401/

External links