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Rumination (psychology)

Rumination is the focused attention on the symptoms of one's mental distress, and on its possible causes and consequences, as opposed to its solutions, according to the Response Styles Theory proposed by Nolen-Hoeksema in 1998.[1][2]

Rumination appears closely related to worry.

Because the Response Styles Theory has been empirically supported, this model of rumination is the most widely used conceptualization. Other theories, however, have proposed different definitions for rumination. For example, in the Goal Progress Theory, rumination is conceptualized not as a reaction to a mood state, but as a "response to failure to progress satisfactorily towards a goal".[3] As such, both rumination and worry are associated with anxiety and other negative emotional states; however, its measures have not been unified.[4] Multiple tools exist to measure ruminative thoughts. Treatments specifically addressing ruminative thought patterns are still in the early stages of development.[5]

Theories edit

Response styles theory edit

Response styles theory (RST) initially defined rumination as passively and repetitively focusing on one's symptoms of depression and the possible causes and consequences of these symptoms.[6] As evidence for this definition, rumination has been implicated in the development, maintenance, and aggravation of both depressive symptoms,[7][8] as well as episodes of major depression.[9] Recently, RST has expanded the definition of rumination beyond depression to include passive and repetitive focus on the causes, consequences, and symptoms of one's distress in general. This change was made because rumination has been implicated in a host of disorders, not just depression.[4][1]

RST also contends that positive distraction is the healthy alternative to rumination, where focus is directed to positive stimuli instead of to distress.[10] However, the literature suggests that positive distraction may not be as potent a tool as once thought.[4][1]

Specifically, the S-REF model defines rumination as "repetitive thoughts generated by attempts to cope with self-discrepancy that are directed primarily toward processing the content of self-referent information and not toward immediate goal-directed action."[11] Put more simply, when a person ruminates, they aim to answer questions such as:

  • How do I feel about this event?
  • How can I change my thoughts and feelings about the event?
  • How can I prevent disturbing thoughts and feelings in the future?

However, in answering these questions, ruminators tend to focus on their emotions (i.e., "self-referent information") as opposed to problem solving (i.e., "goal-directed action").[11]

Meta-cognition is also an important part of the S-REF model and helps to explain the link between rumination and depression.[6] Specifically, those who hold "positive meta-cognitive beliefs" about rumination (to make sense of negative thoughts and emotions or ensure the prevention of the same)[12] are perhaps initially motivated to engage in rumination with high perseverance.[13] However, individuals who have engaged themselves in positive acts of rumination were more likely to use rumination as a coping mechanism upon encountering negative emotions. This causes the individual to modify his/her perception of rumination as unpleasant, unmanageable and "socially damaging" in general.[13][14] Rumination additionally has a tendency to magnify with an up-regulation of emotions in the body, thus beginning the downward-moving spiral of depression.[15] The individual's "negative meta-cognitive" beliefs then contribute to the development and maintenance of depression.[13]

Goal progress theory edit

Goal progress theory (GPT), sometimes referred to as Control Theory, seeks to explain rumination as a function of goal progress. Specifically, GPT views rumination as an example of the Zeigarnik Effect, which suggests that individuals are more likely to remember information from unfinished tasks than from finished tasks.[3][4] From this understanding, GPT defines rumination as "the tendency to think recurrently about important, higher order goals that have not yet been attained" or towards which sufficient progress has not been made.[4][16]

GPT predicts that individuals for whom goal-related information is highly accessible should be more likely to ruminate. Various studies have provided support for this prediction.[3] However, the rumination experienced is focused more towards problem solving than rumination described by RST.[17]

Pathology edit

Extensive research on the effects of rumination, or the tendency to self-reflect, shows that the negative form of rumination (associated with dysphoria) interferes with people's ability to focus on problem-solving and results in dwelling on negative thoughts about past failures.[18] Evidence from studies suggests that the negative implications of rumination are due to cognitive biases, such as memory and attentional biases, which predispose ruminators to selectively devote attention to negative stimuli.[19]

The organic causes of rumination are not fully understood. Research has identified the activation of certain regions in the brain's default mode networks as neural substrates of rumination, but the number of brain-imaging studies on rumination is limited.[20]

The tendency to negatively ruminate is a stable constant over time and serves as a significant risk factor for clinical depression. Not only are habitual ruminators more likely to become depressed, but experimental studies have demonstrated that people who are induced to ruminate experience greater depressed mood.[7] There is also evidence that rumination is linked to general anxiety, post traumatic stress, binge drinking, eating disorders, and self-injurious behavior.[1] Research suggests that rumination is somewhat associated with a higher frequency of non-suicidal self-injury, and more heavily associated with a history of non-suicidal self injury.[21]

Rumination was originally believed to predict the duration of depressive symptoms. In other words, ruminating about problems was presumed to be a form of memory rehearsal which was believed to actually lengthen the experience of depression. The evidence now suggests that although rumination contributes to depression, it is not necessarily correlated with the duration of symptoms.[1]

Research on the relationships between executive functions and rumination has yielded mixed results. Some studies have observed a negative correlation with two executive functioning abilities, set-shifting and inhibition, but the magnitudes of those relationships are unclear.[22][23] Another study observed only one relationship between rumination and one executive function, specifically the ability to discard past information from working memory.[24] Other studies, however, found no relationship between rumination and working memory.[22][23]

Types edit

Theories of rumination differ in their predictions regarding the content of ruminative thoughts based on their respective conceptualizations. Some models propose that rumination is focused on negative feeling states and/or the circumstances surrounding that emotion (RST, rumination on sadness, five-factor model,[25] negative cognitive style,[26] social phobia[27] models). Rumination in other models focuses on discrepancies between one's current and desired status (goal progress, conceptual evaluative model of rumination). Finally, other models propose that it is the negative themes of uncontrollability and harm in metacognitions that are most important.[1] Some common thoughts that are characteristic of ruminative responses are questioning the well-being of oneself and focusing on the possible causes and consequences of one's depressive symptoms (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). For example, some ruminative thoughts include "why am I such a loser", "I'm in such a bad mood" or "I just don't feel like doing anything".[10]

There exist several types of rumination.

  • State rumination, which involves dwelling on the consequences and feelings associated with the failure. State rumination is more common in people who are pessimistic, neurotic, and who have negative attributional styles.[28]
  • Action rumination, which consists of task-oriented thought processes focused on goal-achievement and correction of mistakes.[28]
  • Task-irrelevant rumination, which utilizes events or people unassociated with the blocked goal to distract a person from the failure.[28][29]
  • Post-event processing is pervasive detailed reviewing of socially failed or embarrassing activities or situations that subjects perceive even more negatively/anxiety-provoking than they were, and they reinforce with pervasive recollections of similarly biased memories.[27][30]
  • Stress-reactive rumination is a pervasive detailed reviewing of painful experiences that specific stressful events induced and a cognitive bias enhances by memorising these events generally more stressful that they were while triggering depression.[26][31]

Measurement edit

There are multiple tools for measuring rumination. These include the following:

Ruminative responses scale edit

The tendency to ruminate can be assessed with the Ruminative Responses Scale of the Response Styles Questionnaire.[32][33] On this measure, people are asked to indicate how often they engage in 22 ruminative thoughts or behaviors when they feel sad or blue.

Rumination on sadness scale edit

The Rumination On Sadness Scale is a self-report tool consisting of 13 items that uses the Likert Scale to measure rumination of sadness.[34]

Repetitive thought/thinking questionnaire edit

The 31-item Repetitive Thinking Questionnaire (RTQ) measures worry, rumination, and post-event processing with the purpose of controlling for effects associated with a psychological diagnosis or disorder. It includes two subscales, Repetitive Negative Thinking (RNT) and Absence of Repetitive Thinking (ART). RNT is associated with anxiety, depression, and other negative emotions as it influences metacognitive beliefs, cognitive avoidance strategies, and maladaptive thought control strategies.[35] The ART subscale reflects the absence of those negative emotions associated with the RNT subscale, essentially measuring their opposites.[36]

Rumination-reflection scale edit

The Rumination-Reflection Scale involves 24 items. Half of the questions look for adaptive reflective thought while the other half note self-rumination focus. This scale incorporates the Likert Scale.[37]

Dynamic assessment of rumination edit

Recently, researchers have started to developed validated measurement protocol to best assess rumination in a dynamic fashion using experience sampling methodology.[38]

Sex differences edit

According to Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, women tend to ruminate when they are depressed, whereas men tend to distract themselves. This difference in response style was proposed to explain the higher rates of depression in women compared to men.[39] Research has supported the theory that women have a greater likelihood to ruminate than men, but the magnitude of this difference seems to be small.[40] The prediction that men are more likely to distract themselves has not been consistently supported in research.[41]

A meta-analysis was performed on both the sex differences in rumination of adults and the rumination subtypes "brooding" and "reflection." Studies show that women's chances of experiencing depressive symptoms or depression was twice that of men. The response styles theory (RST) suggests this may be due, to some extent, to higher rates of rumination in women. Brooding can be operationalized as continuous, passive, negative internalized thoughts. It is highly connected to worsening depression. Reflection is neutral, rather than negative, more active observation of self. In the meta-analysis, women showed statistically significant increases in levels of both brooding and reflection, supporting RST. Interestingly, there was a much smaller sex difference in reflection than brooding. The meta-analyses found similar results across multiple study designs.[42]

Healthy self-disclosure edit

Although rumination is generally unhealthy and associated with depression, thinking and talking about one's feelings can be beneficial under the right conditions. According to Pennebaker, healthy self-disclosure can reduce distress and rumination when it leads to greater insight and understanding about the source of one's problems.[43] Thus, when people share their feelings with others in the context of supportive relationships, they are likely to experience growth. In contrast, when people repetitively ruminate and dwell on the same problem without making progress, they are likely to experience depression. Co-rumination is a process defined as "excessively discussing personal problems within a dyadic relationship",[44] a construct that is relatively understudied in both its negative and positive trade-offs.

Treatment edit

Rumination-focused cognitive behavioral therapy edit

Some studies have begun developing a type of cognitive behavioral therapy that focuses on rumination, but further research is still needed.[45] Rumination-focused cognitive behavior therapy aims to teach patients to recognize when they begin to ruminate and ultimately re-frame the way they view themselves.[5]

Relationship to other related constructs edit

Rumination has been confounded with other similar constructs that may overlap with it. Worry and negative automatic thoughts are two of them.

Worry edit

Rumination appears closely related to worry. Some models consider rumination to be a type of worry (S-REF).[4] Worry has been identified as "a chain of thoughts and images, negatively affect-laden and relatively uncontrollable; it represents an attempt to engage in mental problem solving on an issue whose outcome is uncertain, but contains the possibility of one or more negative outcomes."[4][46]

Worry is often studied in the context of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), whereas rumination is often studied in the context of major depressive disorder. Because of the high comorbidity of these two conditions, more recent research is exploring the overlap of worry and rumination.[4]

According to the Mental Health Foundation, rumination has been identified to be one of the main problems that leads to anxiety and depression. A study conducted by psychologists from the University of Liverpool, suggests that dwelling on negative events that have occurred in one's life is the biggest predictor of depression and anxiety.[47]

Measures of rumination and worry have also demonstrated high correlations, above and beyond that of symptom measures of anxiety and depression (r=.66; Beck & Perkins, 2001).[48] Rumination and worry overlap in their relationships to anxiety and depression, although some studies do indicate specificity of rumination to depression and worry to anxiety. Rumination has been found to predict changes in both depression and anxiety symptoms and individuals with major depression have been reported to engage in levels of worry similar to individuals with GAD. As a whole, these studies suggest that rumination and worry are related not only to each other, but also each is related to symptoms of both depression and anxiety.

Other studies have demonstrated that the content of worry and rumination are distinct; worry thoughts are often focused on problem-solving and have a future orientation, whereas ruminative thoughts concern themes of loss and are more focused on the past. Rumination, as compared to worry, has also been associated with less effort and less confidence in problem solving (Papageorgiou & Wells, 2004). It has also been suggested that rumination and worry serve different purposes, namely that rumination is associated with greater belief in the personal relevance of a situation and a larger need to understand it, whereas worry is associated with a desire to avoid worry thoughts (Watkins 2004b). Worry has also been hypothesized to contain more imagery than rumination; however, support for this has been mixed.[49][50][51]

Overall, these studies suggest that worry and rumination are related constructs that both lead to depression and anxiety. It is likely that rumination and worry, as with rumination and reflection, are related types of repetitive negative thinking that may be better captured as subtypes of some larger construct, such as avoidant coping strategies.

Automatic negative thoughts edit

Rumination has been compared to automatic negative thoughts, defined as repetitive thoughts that contain themes of personal loss or failure. Nolen-Hoeksema (2004) contends that rumination (as defined in RST) is distinct from negative automatic thoughts in that while negative automatic thoughts are relatively shorthand appraisals of loss and depression in depression, rumination consists of longer chains of repetitive, recyclic, negative and self-focused thinking that may occur as a response to initial negative thoughts.[52] Nolen also suggests that rumination may, in addition to analysis of symptoms, causes, and consequences, contain negative themes like those in automatic thoughts. Similarly, Papageorgiou and Wells (2004) have provided supports to this conclusion when they found that rumination can predict depression even when negative cognitions are controlled, suggesting that these constructs do not wholly overlap and have different predictive value.[11] Despite Nolen-Hoeksema's (2004) argument that rumination and negative automatic thoughts are distinct phenomena, the Response Style Questionnaire has been criticized for its conceptual overlap with negative automatic thoughts.

See also edit

References edit

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  52. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema S (2004). "The Response Styles Theory". In Papageorgiou C, Wells A (eds.). Depressive Rumination: Nature, Theory and Treatment. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 105–123. doi:10.1002/9780470713853.ch6. ISBN 9780470713853.

Further reading edit

  • Pedersen WC, Denson TF, Goss RJ, Vasquez EA, Kelley NJ, Miller N (June 2011). "The impact of rumination on aggressive thoughts, feelings, arousal, and behaviour". The British Journal of Social Psychology. 50 (Pt 2): 281–301. doi:10.1348/014466610X515696. PMID 21545459. S2CID 207265785.
  • Tsai W, Chang EC, Sanna LJ, Herringshaw AJ (September 2011). "An examination of happiness as a buffer of the rumination–adjustment link: Ethnic differences between European and Asian American students". Asian American Journal of Psychology. 2 (3): 168–180. doi:10.1037/a0025319. S2CID 43930297.
  • Baer RA, Sauer SE (April 2011). "Relationships between depressive rumination, anger rumination, and borderline personality features". Personality Disorders. 2 (2): 142–150. doi:10.1037/a0019478. PMID 22448733. S2CID 17006066.
  • Simonson J, Mezulis A, Davis K (November 2011). "Socialized to ruminate? Gender role mediates the sex difference in rumination for interpersonal events". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 30 (9): 937–959. doi:10.1521/jscp.2011.30.9.937. S2CID 30249771.
  • Dickson KS, Ciesla JA, Reilly LC (September 2012). "Rumination, worry, cognitive avoidance, and behavioral avoidance: examination of temporal effects". Behavior Therapy. 43 (3): 629–640. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2011.11.002. PMID 22697450.

rumination, psychology, other, uses, rumination, disambiguation, rumination, focused, attention, symptoms, mental, distress, possible, causes, consequences, opposed, solutions, according, response, styles, theory, proposed, nolen, hoeksema, 1998, rumination, a. For other uses see Rumination disambiguation Rumination is the focused attention on the symptoms of one s mental distress and on its possible causes and consequences as opposed to its solutions according to the Response Styles Theory proposed by Nolen Hoeksema in 1998 1 2 Rumination appears closely related to worry Because the Response Styles Theory has been empirically supported this model of rumination is the most widely used conceptualization Other theories however have proposed different definitions for rumination For example in the Goal Progress Theory rumination is conceptualized not as a reaction to a mood state but as a response to failure to progress satisfactorily towards a goal 3 As such both rumination and worry are associated with anxiety and other negative emotional states however its measures have not been unified 4 Multiple tools exist to measure ruminative thoughts Treatments specifically addressing ruminative thought patterns are still in the early stages of development 5 Contents 1 Theories 1 1 Response styles theory 1 2 Goal progress theory 2 Pathology 3 Types 4 Measurement 4 1 Ruminative responses scale 4 2 Rumination on sadness scale 4 3 Repetitive thought thinking questionnaire 4 4 Rumination reflection scale 4 5 Dynamic assessment of rumination 5 Sex differences 6 Healthy self disclosure 7 Treatment 7 1 Rumination focused cognitive behavioral therapy 8 Relationship to other related constructs 8 1 Worry 8 2 Automatic negative thoughts 9 See also 10 References 11 Further readingTheories editResponse styles theory edit Response styles theory RST initially defined rumination as passively and repetitively focusing on one s symptoms of depression and the possible causes and consequences of these symptoms 6 As evidence for this definition rumination has been implicated in the development maintenance and aggravation of both depressive symptoms 7 8 as well as episodes of major depression 9 Recently RST has expanded the definition of rumination beyond depression to include passive and repetitive focus on the causes consequences and symptoms of one s distress in general This change was made because rumination has been implicated in a host of disorders not just depression 4 1 RST also contends that positive distraction is the healthy alternative to rumination where focus is directed to positive stimuli instead of to distress 10 However the literature suggests that positive distraction may not be as potent a tool as once thought 4 1 Specifically the S REF model defines rumination as repetitive thoughts generated by attempts to cope with self discrepancy that are directed primarily toward processing the content of self referent information and not toward immediate goal directed action 11 Put more simply when a person ruminates they aim to answer questions such as How do I feel about this event How can I change my thoughts and feelings about the event How can I prevent disturbing thoughts and feelings in the future However in answering these questions ruminators tend to focus on their emotions i e self referent information as opposed to problem solving i e goal directed action 11 Meta cognition is also an important part of the S REF model and helps to explain the link between rumination and depression 6 Specifically those who hold positive meta cognitive beliefs about rumination to make sense of negative thoughts and emotions or ensure the prevention of the same 12 are perhaps initially motivated to engage in rumination with high perseverance 13 However individuals who have engaged themselves in positive acts of rumination were more likely to use rumination as a coping mechanism upon encountering negative emotions This causes the individual to modify his her perception of rumination as unpleasant unmanageable and socially damaging in general 13 14 Rumination additionally has a tendency to magnify with an up regulation of emotions in the body thus beginning the downward moving spiral of depression 15 The individual s negative meta cognitive beliefs then contribute to the development and maintenance of depression 13 Goal progress theory edit Goal progress theory GPT sometimes referred to as Control Theory seeks to explain rumination as a function of goal progress Specifically GPT views rumination as an example of the Zeigarnik Effect which suggests that individuals are more likely to remember information from unfinished tasks than from finished tasks 3 4 From this understanding GPT defines rumination as the tendency to think recurrently about important higher order goals that have not yet been attained or towards which sufficient progress has not been made 4 16 GPT predicts that individuals for whom goal related information is highly accessible should be more likely to ruminate Various studies have provided support for this prediction 3 However the rumination experienced is focused more towards problem solving than rumination described by RST 17 Pathology editExtensive research on the effects of rumination or the tendency to self reflect shows that the negative form of rumination associated with dysphoria interferes with people s ability to focus on problem solving and results in dwelling on negative thoughts about past failures 18 Evidence from studies suggests that the negative implications of rumination are due to cognitive biases such as memory and attentional biases which predispose ruminators to selectively devote attention to negative stimuli 19 The organic causes of rumination are not fully understood Research has identified the activation of certain regions in the brain s default mode networks as neural substrates of rumination but the number of brain imaging studies on rumination is limited 20 The tendency to negatively ruminate is a stable constant over time and serves as a significant risk factor for clinical depression Not only are habitual ruminators more likely to become depressed but experimental studies have demonstrated that people who are induced to ruminate experience greater depressed mood 7 There is also evidence that rumination is linked to general anxiety post traumatic stress binge drinking eating disorders and self injurious behavior 1 Research suggests that rumination is somewhat associated with a higher frequency of non suicidal self injury and more heavily associated with a history of non suicidal self injury 21 Rumination was originally believed to predict the duration of depressive symptoms In other words ruminating about problems was presumed to be a form of memory rehearsal which was believed to actually lengthen the experience of depression The evidence now suggests that although rumination contributes to depression it is not necessarily correlated with the duration of symptoms 1 Research on the relationships between executive functions and rumination has yielded mixed results Some studies have observed a negative correlation with two executive functioning abilities set shifting and inhibition but the magnitudes of those relationships are unclear 22 23 Another study observed only one relationship between rumination and one executive function specifically the ability to discard past information from working memory 24 Other studies however found no relationship between rumination and working memory 22 23 Types editTheories of rumination differ in their predictions regarding the content of ruminative thoughts based on their respective conceptualizations Some models propose that rumination is focused on negative feeling states and or the circumstances surrounding that emotion RST rumination on sadness five factor model 25 negative cognitive style 26 social phobia 27 models Rumination in other models focuses on discrepancies between one s current and desired status goal progress conceptual evaluative model of rumination Finally other models propose that it is the negative themes of uncontrollability and harm in metacognitions that are most important 1 Some common thoughts that are characteristic of ruminative responses are questioning the well being of oneself and focusing on the possible causes and consequences of one s depressive symptoms Nolen Hoeksema 1991 For example some ruminative thoughts include why am I such a loser I m in such a bad mood or I just don t feel like doing anything 10 There exist several types of rumination State rumination which involves dwelling on the consequences and feelings associated with the failure State rumination is more common in people who are pessimistic neurotic and who have negative attributional styles 28 Action rumination which consists of task oriented thought processes focused on goal achievement and correction of mistakes 28 Task irrelevant rumination which utilizes events or people unassociated with the blocked goal to distract a person from the failure 28 29 Post event processing is pervasive detailed reviewing of socially failed or embarrassing activities or situations that subjects perceive even more negatively anxiety provoking than they were and they reinforce with pervasive recollections of similarly biased memories 27 30 Stress reactive rumination is a pervasive detailed reviewing of painful experiences that specific stressful events induced and a cognitive bias enhances by memorising these events generally more stressful that they were while triggering depression 26 31 Measurement editThere are multiple tools for measuring rumination These include the following Ruminative responses scale edit The tendency to ruminate can be assessed with the Ruminative Responses Scale of the Response Styles Questionnaire 32 33 On this measure people are asked to indicate how often they engage in 22 ruminative thoughts or behaviors when they feel sad or blue Rumination on sadness scale edit The Rumination On Sadness Scale is a self report tool consisting of 13 items that uses the Likert Scale to measure rumination of sadness 34 Repetitive thought thinking questionnaire edit The 31 item Repetitive Thinking Questionnaire RTQ measures worry rumination and post event processing with the purpose of controlling for effects associated with a psychological diagnosis or disorder It includes two subscales Repetitive Negative Thinking RNT and Absence of Repetitive Thinking ART RNT is associated with anxiety depression and other negative emotions as it influences metacognitive beliefs cognitive avoidance strategies and maladaptive thought control strategies 35 The ART subscale reflects the absence of those negative emotions associated with the RNT subscale essentially measuring their opposites 36 Rumination reflection scale edit The Rumination Reflection Scale involves 24 items Half of the questions look for adaptive reflective thought while the other half note self rumination focus This scale incorporates the Likert Scale 37 Dynamic assessment of rumination edit Recently researchers have started to developed validated measurement protocol to best assess rumination in a dynamic fashion using experience sampling methodology 38 Sex differences editAccording to Susan Nolen Hoeksema women tend to ruminate when they are depressed whereas men tend to distract themselves This difference in response style was proposed to explain the higher rates of depression in women compared to men 39 Research has supported the theory that women have a greater likelihood to ruminate than men but the magnitude of this difference seems to be small 40 The prediction that men are more likely to distract themselves has not been consistently supported in research 41 A meta analysis was performed on both the sex differences in rumination of adults and the rumination subtypes brooding and reflection Studies show that women s chances of experiencing depressive symptoms or depression was twice that of men The response styles theory RST suggests this may be due to some extent to higher rates of rumination in women Brooding can be operationalized as continuous passive negative internalized thoughts It is highly connected to worsening depression Reflection is neutral rather than negative more active observation of self In the meta analysis women showed statistically significant increases in levels of both brooding and reflection supporting RST Interestingly there was a much smaller sex difference in reflection than brooding The meta analyses found similar results across multiple study designs 42 Healthy self disclosure editAlthough rumination is generally unhealthy and associated with depression thinking and talking about one s feelings can be beneficial under the right conditions According to Pennebaker healthy self disclosure can reduce distress and rumination when it leads to greater insight and understanding about the source of one s problems 43 Thus when people share their feelings with others in the context of supportive relationships they are likely to experience growth In contrast when people repetitively ruminate and dwell on the same problem without making progress they are likely to experience depression Co rumination is a process defined as excessively discussing personal problems within a dyadic relationship 44 a construct that is relatively understudied in both its negative and positive trade offs Treatment editRumination focused cognitive behavioral therapy edit Some studies have begun developing a type of cognitive behavioral therapy that focuses on rumination but further research is still needed 45 Rumination focused cognitive behavior therapy aims to teach patients to recognize when they begin to ruminate and ultimately re frame the way they view themselves 5 Relationship to other related constructs editRumination has been confounded with other similar constructs that may overlap with it Worry and negative automatic thoughts are two of them Worry edit Rumination appears closely related to worry Some models consider rumination to be a type of worry S REF 4 Worry has been identified as a chain of thoughts and images negatively affect laden and relatively uncontrollable it represents an attempt to engage in mental problem solving on an issue whose outcome is uncertain but contains the possibility of one or more negative outcomes 4 46 Worry is often studied in the context of generalized anxiety disorder GAD whereas rumination is often studied in the context of major depressive disorder Because of the high comorbidity of these two conditions more recent research is exploring the overlap of worry and rumination 4 According to the Mental Health Foundation rumination has been identified to be one of the main problems that leads to anxiety and depression A study conducted by psychologists from the University of Liverpool suggests that dwelling on negative events that have occurred in one s life is the biggest predictor of depression and anxiety 47 Measures of rumination and worry have also demonstrated high correlations above and beyond that of symptom measures of anxiety and depression r 66 Beck amp Perkins 2001 48 Rumination and worry overlap in their relationships to anxiety and depression although some studies do indicate specificity of rumination to depression and worry to anxiety Rumination has been found to predict changes in both depression and anxiety symptoms and individuals with major depression have been reported to engage in levels of worry similar to individuals with GAD As a whole these studies suggest that rumination and worry are related not only to each other but also each is related to symptoms of both depression and anxiety Other studies have demonstrated that the content of worry and rumination are distinct worry thoughts are often focused on problem solving and have a future orientation whereas ruminative thoughts concern themes of loss and are more focused on the past Rumination as compared to worry has also been associated with less effort and less confidence in problem solving Papageorgiou amp Wells 2004 It has also been suggested that rumination and worry serve different purposes namely that rumination is associated with greater belief in the personal relevance of a situation and a larger need to understand it whereas worry is associated with a desire to avoid worry thoughts Watkins 2004b Worry has also been hypothesized to contain more imagery than rumination however support for this has been mixed 49 50 51 Overall these studies suggest that worry and rumination are related constructs that both lead to depression and anxiety It is likely that rumination and worry as with rumination and reflection are related types of repetitive negative thinking that may be better captured as subtypes of some larger construct such as avoidant coping strategies Automatic negative thoughts edit Rumination has been compared to automatic negative thoughts defined as repetitive thoughts that contain themes of personal loss or failure Nolen Hoeksema 2004 contends that rumination as defined in RST is distinct from negative automatic thoughts in that while negative automatic thoughts are relatively shorthand appraisals of loss and depression in depression rumination consists of longer chains of repetitive recyclic negative and self focused thinking that may occur as a response to initial negative thoughts 52 Nolen also suggests that rumination may in addition to analysis of symptoms causes and consequences contain negative themes like those in automatic thoughts Similarly Papageorgiou and Wells 2004 have provided supports to this conclusion when they found that rumination can predict depression even when negative cognitions are controlled suggesting that these constructs do not wholly overlap and have different predictive value 11 Despite Nolen Hoeksema s 2004 argument that rumination and negative automatic thoughts are distinct phenomena the Response Style Questionnaire has been criticized for its conceptual overlap with negative automatic thoughts See also editObsessive compulsive disorder Ovsiankina effect Perseverative cognitionReferences edit a b c d e f Nolen Hoeksema S Wisco BE Lyubomirsky S September 2008 Rethinking Rumination Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 5 400 424 doi 10 1111 j 1745 6924 2008 00088 x PMID 26158958 S2CID 6415609 Nolan SA Roberts JE Gotlib IH 1998 Neuroticism and ruminative response style as predictors of change in depressive symptomatology PDF Cognitive Therapy and Research 22 5 445 455 doi 10 1023 A 1018769531641 S2CID 15419457 a b c Watkins ER March 2008 Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought Psychological Bulletin 134 2 163 206 doi 10 1037 0033 2909 134 2 163 PMC 2672052 PMID 18298268 a b c d e f g h Smith JM Alloy LB March 2009 A roadmap to rumination a review of the definition assessment and conceptualization of this multifaceted construct Clinical Psychology Review 29 2 116 128 doi 10 1016 j cpr 2008 10 003 PMC 2832862 PMID 19128864 a b Feldhaus Claudia G Jacobs Rachel H Watkins Edward R Peters Amy T Bessette Katie L Langenecker Scott A 28 April 2020 Rumination Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Decreases Anxiety and Increases Behavioral Activation Among Remitted Adolescents Journal of Child and Family Studies 29 7 1982 1991 doi 10 1007 s10826 020 01711 7 ISSN 1062 1024 PMC 7968389 PMID 33737799 a b Papageorgiou C Wells A 2004 Nature Functions and Beliefs about Depressive Rumination In Papageorgiou C Wells A eds Depressive Rumination Nature Theory and Treatment West Sussex John Wiley amp Sons pp 1 20 doi 10 1002 9780470713853 ch1 ISBN 9780470713853 a b Nolen Hoeksema S Morrow J 1993 Effects of rumination and distraction on naturally occurring depressed mood Cognition and Emotion 7 6 561 570 doi 10 1080 02699939308409206 Nolen Hoeksema S Parker LE Larson J July 1994 Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 1 92 104 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 67 1 92 PMID 8046585 Nolen Hoeksema S August 2000 The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety depressive symptoms Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 3 504 511 doi 10 1037 0021 843x 109 3 504 PMID 11016119 S2CID 43090073 a b Nolen Hoeksema S November 1991 Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 4 569 582 doi 10 1037 0021 843x 100 4 569 PMID 1757671 a b c Matthews G Wells A 2004 Rumination Depression and Metacognition The S REF Model In Papageorgiou C Wells A eds Depressive Rumination Nature Theory and Treatment West Sussex John Wiley amp Sons pp 125 151 doi 10 1002 9780470713853 ch7 ISBN 9780470713853 Papageorgiou C Wells A 2001 Positive beliefs about depressive rumination Development and preliminary validation of a self report scale Behavior Therapy 32 1 13 26 doi 10 1016 s0005 7894 01 80041 1 a b c Papageorgiou C Wells A 2003 An empirical test of a clinical meta cognitive model of rumination and depression Cognitive Therapy and Research 27 3 261 273 doi 10 1023 A 1023962332399 S2CID 23020041 Papageorgiou C Wells A 2001 Meta cognitive beliefs about rumination in recurrent major depression Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 8 2 160 164 doi 10 1016 s1077 7229 01 80021 3 Nejad AB Fossati P Lemogne C October 2013 Self referential processing rumination and cortical midline structures in major depression Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7 666 doi 10 3389 fnhum 2013 00666 PMC 3794427 PMID 24124416 Martin LL Shrira I Startup HM 2004 Rumination as a Function of Goal Progress Stop Rules and Cerebral Lateralization In Papageorgiou C Wells A eds Depressive Rumination Nature Theory and Treatment West Sussex John Wiley amp Sons pp 153 175 doi 10 1002 9780470713853 ch8 ISBN 9780470713853 Roberts H Watkins ER Wills AJ December 2013 Cueing an unresolved personal goal causes persistent ruminative self focus an experimental evaluation of control theories of rumination Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 44 4 449 455 doi 10 1016 j jbtep 2013 05 004 hdl 10871 33114 PMID 23810947 Lyubomirsky S Kasri F Zehm K 2003 Dysphoric rumination impairs concentration on academic tasks Cognitive Therapy and Research 27 3 309 330 doi 10 1023 A 1023918517378 S2CID 14204781 Joormann J Dkane M Gotlib IH September 2006 Adaptive and maladaptive components of rumination Diagnostic specificity and relation to depressive biases PDF Behavior Therapy 37 3 269 280 doi 10 1016 j beth 2006 01 002 PMID 16942978 Archived from the original PDF on 2014 06 01 Zhou Hui Xia Chen Xiao Shen Yang Qian Li Le Chen Ning Xuan Zhu Zhi Chen Castellanos Francisco Xavier Yan Chao Gan 2020 Rumination and the default mode network Meta analysis of brain imaging studies and implications for depression NeuroImage 206 116287 doi 10 1016 j neuroimage 2019 116287 ISSN 1053 8119 PMID 31655111 S2CID 204837753 Coleman Sophie E Dunlop Brendan J Hartley Samantha Taylor Peter J 22 November 2021 The relationship between rumination and NSSI A systematic review and meta analysis British Journal of Clinical Psychology 61 2 405 443 doi 10 1111 bjc 12350 ISSN 0144 6657 PMID 34806214 S2CID 244519847 a b Yang Yingkai Cao Songfeng Shields Grant S Teng Zhaojun Liu Yanling 5 July 2016 The relationships between rumination and core executive functions A meta analysis Depression and Anxiety 34 1 37 50 doi 10 1002 da 22539 ISSN 1091 4269 PMID 27378739 S2CID 27626857 a b Vălenaș Sergiu P Szentagotai Tătar Aurora 1 September 2017 The relationship between rumination and executive functions A meta analysis Journal of Evidence Based Psychotherapies 17 2 23 52 doi 10 24193 jebp 2017 2 2 ISSN 2360 0853 Zetsche Ulrike Burkner Paul Christian Schulze Lars 7 June 2018 Shedding light on the association between repetitive negative thinking and deficits in cognitive control a meta analysis PsyArXiv doi 10 31234 osf io bz2ck S2CID 242102055 Zetsche Ulrike Burkner Paul Christian Schulze Lars 2018 Shedding light on the association between repetitive negative thinking and deficits in cognitive control A meta analysis Clinical Psychology Review 63 56 65 doi 10 1016 j cpr 2018 06 001 ISSN 0272 7358 PMID 29913351 S2CID 49313189 Trapnell D Campbell D 1999 Private self consciousness and the five factor model of personality distinguishing rumination from reflection Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 2 284 304 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 76 2 284 PMID 10074710 a b Robinson M Alloy L 2003 Negative cognitive styles and stress reactive rumination interact to predict depression a prospective study Cognitive Therapy and Research 27 3 275 291 doi 10 1023 A 1023914416469 S2CID 13358745 a b Clark M Wells A 1995 A cognitive model of social phobia In Heimberg R Liebowitz M Hope D Schneier F eds Social phobia diagnosis assessment and treatment London Guilford Publications ISBN 1572300124 a b c Mikulincer M 1996 Mental rumination and learned helplessness Cognitive shifts during helplessness training and their behavioral consequences In Sarason I Sarason B Pierce G eds Cognitive interference Theories methods and findings Hillsdale NJ Lawrence Erlbaum pp 191 210 Ciarocco NJ Vohs KD Baumeister RF 2010 Some Good News About Rumination Task Focused Thinking After Failure Facilitates Performance Improvement Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 29 10 1057 1073 doi 10 1521 jscp 2010 29 10 1057 S2CID 14689415 Fehm L Schneider G Hoyer J 2007 Is post event processing specific for social anxiety Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 38 1 11 22 doi 10 1016 j jbtep 2006 02 004 PMID 16730328 Rood L Roelofs J Bogels M 2012 Stress reactive rumination negative cognitive style and stressors in relationship to depressive symptoms in non clinical youth Journal of Youth and Adolescence 41 4 414 425 doi 10 1007 s10964 011 9657 3 PMC 3298737 PMID 21451946 S2CID 254740492 Nolen Hoeksema S November 1991 Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 4 569 582 doi 10 1037 0021 843X 100 4 569 ISSN 1939 1846 PMID 1757671 Bernstein EE Heeren A McNally RJ June 2019 Reexamining trait rumination as a system of repetitive negative thoughts A network analysis Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 63 21 27 doi 10 1016 j jbtep 2018 12 005 PMID 30590225 S2CID 58536838 Roelofs J Muris P Huibers M Peeters F Arntz A December 2006 On the measurement of rumination a psychometric evaluation of the ruminative response scale and the rumination on sadness scale in undergraduates Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 37 4 299 313 doi 10 1016 j jbtep 2006 03 002 PMID 16678121 Mahoney AE McEvoy PM Moulds ML March 2012 Psychometric properties of the Repetitive Thinking Questionnaire in a clinical sample Journal of Anxiety Disorders 26 2 359 367 doi 10 1016 j janxdis 2011 12 003 PMID 22204788 McEvoy Peter M Mahoney Alison E J Moulds Michelle L 2010 Are worry rumination and post event processing one and the same Journal of Anxiety Disorders 24 5 509 519 doi 10 1016 j janxdis 2010 03 008 ISSN 0887 6185 PMID 20409676 Janssen R 1 February 2021 The Pleated Dress of Nywty PalArch s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt Egyptology 17 1 1 11 doi 10 48080 jae v17i1 3 ISSN 1567 214X S2CID 234010733 Hoebeke Yorgo Blanchard M Annelise Contreras Alba Heeren Alexandre 2022 An Experience Sampling Measure of the Key Features of Rumination Clinical Neuropsychiatry 19 5 288 297 doi 10 36131 cnfioritieditore20220504 PMC 9597648 PMID 36340270 Nolen Hoeksema S March 1987 Sex differences in unipolar depression evidence and theory Psychological Bulletin 101 2 259 282 doi 10 1037 0033 2909 101 2 259 PMID 3562707 S2CID 5026228 Johnson Daniel P Whisman Mark A 2013 Gender differences in rumination A meta analysis Personality and Individual Differences 55 4 367 374 doi 10 1016 j paid 2013 03 019 ISSN 0191 8869 PMC 3786159 PMID 24089583 Strauss J Muday T McNall K Wong M 1997 Response Style Theory revisited Gender differences and stereotypes in rumination and distraction Sex Roles 36 11 12 771 792 doi 10 1023 A 1025679223514 S2CID 142916986 Johnson DP Whisman MA August 2013 Gender differences in rumination A meta analysis Personality and Individual Differences 55 4 367 374 doi 10 1016 j paid 2013 03 019 PMC 3786159 PMID 24089583 Pennebaker JW 1989 Confession Inhibition and Disease Advances in Experimental Social Psychology Vol 22 pp 211 244 doi 10 1016 S0065 2601 08 60309 3 ISBN 9780120152223 Rose AJ 2002 Co rumination in the friendships of girls and boys Child Development 73 6 1830 1843 doi 10 1111 1467 8624 00509 PMID 12487497 Watkins Ed Scott Jan Wingrove Janet Rimes Katharine Bathurst Neil Steiner Herbert Kennell Webb Sandra Moulds Michelle Malliaris Yanni 2007 Rumination focused cognitive behaviour therapy for residual depression A case series Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 9 2144 2154 doi 10 1016 j brat 2006 09 018 hdl 10871 11164 ISSN 0005 7967 PMID 17367751 Borkovec TD Robinson E Pruzinsky T DePree JA 1983 Preliminary exploration of worry some characteristics and processes Behaviour Research and Therapy 21 1 9 16 doi 10 1016 0005 7967 83 90121 3 PMID 6830571 Winterman D 17 October 2013 Rumination The Danger of Dwelling BBC News Retrieved 2022 01 21 Beck R Perkins T S 2001 Cognitive Content Specificity for Anxiety and Depression A Meta Analysis Cognitive Therapy and Research 25 6 651 663 doi 10 1023 A 1012911104891 S2CID 30854969 via SpringerLink McLaughlin KA Borkovec TD Sibrava NJ March 2007 The effects of worry and rumination on affect states and cognitive activity Behavior Therapy 38 1 23 38 doi 10 1016 j beth 2006 03 003 PMID 17292692 Papageorgiou C Wells A 1999 Process and meta cognitive dimensions of depressive and anxious thoughts and relationships with emotional intensity Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 5 2 152 doi 10 1002 sici 1099 0879 199905 6 2 lt 156 aid cpp196 gt 3 0 co 2 a Watkins E Moulds M Mackintosh B December 2005 Comparisons between rumination and worry in a non clinical population Behaviour Research and Therapy 43 12 1577 1585 doi 10 1016 j brat 2004 11 008 PMID 16239152 Nolen Hoeksema S 2004 The Response Styles Theory In Papageorgiou C Wells A eds Depressive Rumination Nature Theory and Treatment West Sussex John Wiley amp Sons pp 105 123 doi 10 1002 9780470713853 ch6 ISBN 9780470713853 Further reading editPedersen WC Denson TF Goss RJ Vasquez EA Kelley NJ Miller N June 2011 The impact of rumination on aggressive thoughts feelings arousal and behaviour The British Journal of Social Psychology 50 Pt 2 281 301 doi 10 1348 014466610X515696 PMID 21545459 S2CID 207265785 Tsai W Chang EC Sanna LJ Herringshaw AJ September 2011 An examination of happiness as a buffer of the rumination adjustment link Ethnic differences between European and Asian American students Asian American Journal of Psychology 2 3 168 180 doi 10 1037 a0025319 S2CID 43930297 Baer RA Sauer SE April 2011 Relationships between depressive rumination anger rumination and borderline personality features Personality Disorders 2 2 142 150 doi 10 1037 a0019478 PMID 22448733 S2CID 17006066 Simonson J Mezulis A Davis K November 2011 Socialized to ruminate Gender role mediates the sex difference in rumination for interpersonal events Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 30 9 937 959 doi 10 1521 jscp 2011 30 9 937 S2CID 30249771 Dickson KS Ciesla JA Reilly LC September 2012 Rumination worry cognitive avoidance and behavioral avoidance examination of temporal effects Behavior Therapy 43 3 629 640 doi 10 1016 j beth 2011 11 002 PMID 22697450 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Rumination psychology amp oldid 1188554663, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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