Within biological systems, degeneracy occurs when structurally dissimilar components/pathways can perform similar functions (i.e. are effectively interchangeable) under certain conditions, but perform distinct functions in other conditions.[1][2] Degeneracy is thus a relational property that requires comparing the behavior of two or more components. In particular, if degeneracy is present in a pair of components, then there will exist conditions where the pair will appear functionally redundant but other conditions where they will appear functionally distinct.[1][3]
Note that this use of the term has practically no relevance to the questionably meaningful concept of evolutionarily degenerate populations that have lost ancestral functions.
Degeneracy contributes to the robustness of biological traits through several mechanisms. Degenerate components compensate for one another under conditions where they are functionally redundant, thus providing robustness against component or pathway failure. Because degenerate components are somewhat different, they tend to harbor unique sensitivities so that a targeted attack such as a specific inhibitor is less likely to present a risk to all components at once.[3] There are numerous biological examples where degeneracy contributes to robustness in this way. For instance, gene families can encode for diverse proteins with many distinctive roles yet sometimes these proteins can compensate for each other during lost or suppressed gene expression, as seen in the developmental roles of the adhesins gene family in Saccharomyces.[9] Nutrients can be metabolized by distinct metabolic pathways that are effectively interchangeable for certain metabolites even though the total effects of each pathway are not identical.[10][11] In cancer, therapies targeting the EGF receptor are thwarted by the co-activation of alternate receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) that have partial functional overlap with the EGF receptor (and are therefore degenerate), but are not targeted by the same specific EGF receptor inhibitor.[12][13] Other examples from various levels of biological organization can be found in.[1]
Theoryedit
Theoretical relationships between biological properties that are important to evolution. For a review of evidence that supports these relationships, see.[3]
Several theoretical developments have outlined links between degeneracy and important biological measurements related to robustness, complexity, and evolvability. These include:
Theoretical arguments supported by simulations have proposed that degeneracy can lead to distributed forms of robustness in protein interaction networks.[14] Those authors suggest that similar phenomena is likely to arise in other biological networks and potentially may contribute to the resilience of ecosystems as well.
Tononi et al. have found evidence that degeneracy is inseparable from the existence of hierarchical complexity in neural populations.[8] They argue that the link between degeneracy and complexity is likely to be much more general.
Fairly abstract simulations have supported the hypothesis that degeneracy fundamentally alters the propensity for a genetic system to access novel heritable phenotypes[15] and that degeneracy could therefore be a precondition for open-ended evolution.
The three hypotheses above have been integrated in[3] where they propose that degeneracy plays a central role in the open-ended evolution of biological complexity. In the same article, it was argued that the absence of degeneracy within many designed (abiotic) complex systems may help to explain why robustness appears to be in conflict with flexibility and adaptability, as seen in software, systems engineering, and artificial life.[3]
^ abcdEdelman and Gally; Gally, J. A. (2001). "Degeneracy and complexity in biological systems". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 98 (24): 13763–13768. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9813763E. doi:10.1073/pnas.231499798. PMC61115. PMID 11698650.
^Mason, Paul H. (2 January 2015). "Degeneracy: Demystifying and destigmatizing a core concept in systems biology". Complexity. 20 (3): 12–21. Bibcode:2015Cmplx..20c..12M. doi:10.1002/cplx.21534.
^ abcdeWhitacre (2010). "Degeneracy: a link between evolvability, robustness and complexity in biological systems". Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling. 7 (6): 6. arXiv:0910.2586. Bibcode:2009arXiv0910.2586W. doi:10.1186/1742-4682-7-6. PMC2830971. PMID 20167097.
^Atamas (2005). "Les affinités électives". Pour la Science. 46: 39–43.
^Wagner (2000). "The role of population size, pleiotropy and fitness effects of mutations in the evolution of overlapping gene functions". Genetics. 154 (3): 1389–1401. doi:10.1093/genetics/154.3.1389. PMC1461000. PMID 10757778.
^Kurakin (2009). "Scale-free flow of life: on the biology, economics, and physics of the cell". Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling. 6 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/1742-4682-6-6. PMC2683819. PMID 19416527.
^Newman (1994). "Generic physical mechanisms of tissue morphogenesis: A common basis for development and evolution". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 7 (4): 480. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1994.7040467.x. S2CID 14216659.
^ abTononi; Sporns, O.; Edelman, G. M.; et al. (1999). "Measures of degeneracy and redundancy in biological networks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 96 (6): 3257–3262. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.3257T. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.6.3257. PMC15929. PMID 10077671.
^Guo; Styles, C. A.; Feng, Q.; Fink, G. R.; et al. (2000). "A Saccharomyces gene family involved in invasive growth, cell-cell adhesion, and mating". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 97 (22): 12158–12163. Bibcode:2000PNAS...9712158G. doi:10.1073/pnas.220420397. PMC17311. PMID 11027318.
^Ma and Zeng; Zeng, AP (2003). "The connectivity structure, giant strong component and centrality of metabolic networks". Bioinformatics. 19 (11): 1423–1430. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btg177. PMID 12874056.
^Huang; Mukasa, A.; Bonavia, R.; Flynn, R. A.; Brewer, Z. E.; Cavenee, W. K.; Furnari, F. B.; White, F. M.; et al. (2007). "Quantitative analysis of EGFRvIII cellular signaling networks reveals a combinatorial therapeutic strategy for glioblastoma". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (31): 12867–72. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10412867H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705158104. PMC1937558. PMID 17646646.
^Stommel; Kimmelman, AC; Ying, H; Nabioullin, R; Ponugoti, AH; Wiedemeyer, R; Stegh, AH; Bradner, JE; et al. (2007). "Coactivation of receptor tyrosine kinases affects the response of tumor cells to targeted therapies". Science. 318 (5848): 287–90. Bibcode:2007Sci...318..287S. doi:10.1126/science.1142946. PMID 17872411. S2CID 36607054.
^Whitacre and Bender; Bender, Axel (2010). "Networked buffering: a basic mechanism for distributed robustness in complex adaptive systems". Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling. 7 (20): 20. doi:10.1186/1742-4682-7-20. PMC2901314. PMID 20550663.
^Whitacre and Bender; Bender, A (2010). "Degeneracy: a design principle for achieving robustness and evolvability". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 263 (1): 143–153. arXiv:0907.0510. Bibcode:2010JThBi.263..143W. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2009.11.008. PMID 19925810. S2CID 11511132.
Further readingedit
Because there are many distinct types of systems that undergo heritable variation and selection (see Universal Darwinism), degeneracy has become a highly interdisciplinary topic. The following provides a brief roadmap to the application and study of degeneracy within different disciplines.
Hebets E. A., Barron A. B., Balakrishnan C. N., Hauber M. E., Mason P. H., Hoke K. L. (2016). "A systems approach to animal communication". Proc. R. Soc. B. 283 (1826): 20152889. doi:10.1098/rspb.2015.2889. PMC4810859. PMID 26936240.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Downey G (2012). "Cultural variation in rugby skills: A preliminary neuroanthropological report". Annals of Anthropological Practice. 36 (1): 26–44. doi:10.1111/j.2153-9588.2012.01091.x.
Maleszka R., Mason P.H., Barron A.B. (2014). "Epigenomics and the concept of degeneracy in biological systems". Briefings in Functional Genomics. 13 (3): 191–202. doi:10.1093/bfgp/elt050. PMC4031454. PMID 24335757.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Solé R.V., Ferrer-Cancho R., Montoya J.M., Valverde S. (2002). "Selection, tinkering, and emergence in complex networks" (PDF). Complexity. 8 (1): 20–33. Bibcode:2002Cmplx...8a..20S. doi:10.1002/cplx.10055.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Whitacre J.M., Bender A. (2010). "Networked buffering: a basic mechanism for distributed robustness in complex adaptive systems". Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling. 7 (20): 20. arXiv:0912.1961. Bibcode:2009arXiv0912.1961W. doi:10.1186/1742-4682-7-20. PMC2901314. PMID 20550663.
Mason P.H. (2015). "Degeneracy: Demystifying and destigmatizing a core concept in systems biology". Complexity. 20 (3): 12–21. Bibcode:2015Cmplx..20c..12M. doi:10.1002/cplx.21534.
Mason P.H., Domínguez D. J.F., Winter B., Grignolio A. (2015). "Hidden in plain view: degeneracy in complex systems". BioSystems. 128: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2014.12.003. PMID 25543071.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Edelman G.M., Gally J.A. (2001). "Degeneracy and complexity in biological systems". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 98 (24): 13763–13768. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9813763E. doi:10.1073/pnas.231499798. PMC61115. PMID 11698650.
Whitacre J.M. (2010). "Degeneracy: a link between evolvability, robustness and complexity in biological systems". Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling. 7 (6): 6. arXiv:0910.2586. Bibcode:2009arXiv0910.2586W. doi:10.1186/1742-4682-7-6. PMC2830971. PMID 20167097.
Whitacre J.M., Bender A. (2010). "Degeneracy: a design principle for achieving robustness and evolvability". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 263 (1): 143–53. arXiv:0907.0510. Bibcode:2010JThBi.263..143W. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2009.11.008. PMID 19925810. S2CID 11511132.
Whitacre J.M., Atamas S.P. (2011). "The Diversity Paradox: How Nature Resolves an Evolutionary Dilemma". arXiv:1112.3115. Bibcode:2011arXiv1112.3115W. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Cohn M (2005). "Degeneracy, mimicry and crossreactivity in immune recognition". Molecular Immunology. 42 (5): 651–655. doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2004.09.010. PMID 15607824.
Cohen, I.R., U. Hershberg, and S. Solomon, 2004 Antigen-receptor degeneracy and immunological paradigms. Molecular Immunology, . 40(14–15) pp. 993–996.
Tieri, P., G.C. Castellani, D. Remondini, S. Valensin, J. Loroni, S. Salvioli, and C. Franceschi, Capturing degeneracy of the immune system. In Silico Immunology. Springer, 2007.
Tieri P., Grignolio A., Zaikin A., Mishto M., Remondini D., Castellani G.C., Franceschi C. (2010). "Network, degeneracy and bow tie. Integrating paradigms and architectures to grasp the complexity of the immune system". Theor Biol Med Model. 7: 32. doi:10.1186/1742-4682-7-32. PMC2927512. PMID 20701759.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Andrews, P.S. and J. Timmis, A Computational Model of Degeneracy in a Lymph Node. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2006. 4163: p. 164.
Mendao, M., J. Timmis, P.S. Andrews, and M. Davies. The Immune System in Pieces: Computational Lessons from Degeneracy in the Immune System. in Foundations of Computational Intelligence (FOCI). 2007.
Whitacre, J.M. and A. Bender. Degenerate neutrality creates evolvable fitness landscapes. in WorldComp-2009. 2009. Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.
Whitacre, J.M., P. Rohlfshagen, X. Yao, and A. Bender. The role of degenerate robustness in the evolvability of multi-agent systems in dynamic environments. in PPSN XI. 2010. Kraków, Poland.
Macia J., Solé R. (2009). "Distributed robustness in cellular networks: insights from synthetic evolved circuits". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 6 (33): 393–400. doi:10.1098/rsif.2008.0236. PMC2658657. PMID 18796402.
Fernandez-Leon, J.A. (2011). Evolving cognitive-behavioural dependencies in situated agents for behavioural robustness. BioSystems 106, pp. 94–110.[1]
Fernandez-Leon, J.A. (2011). Behavioural robustness: a link between distributed mechanisms and coupled transient dynamics. BioSystems 105, Elsevier, pp. 49–61.[2]
Fernandez-Leon, J.A. (2010). Evolving experience-dependent robust behaviour in embodied agents. BioSystems 103:1, Elsevier, pp. 45–56.[3]
Price, C. and K. Friston, Degeneracy and cognitive anatomy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2002. 6(10) pp. 416–421.
Tononi, G., O. Sporns, and G.M. Edelman, Measures of degeneracy and redundancy in biological networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 1999. 96(6) pp. 3257–3262.
Mason, P.H. (2014) What is normal? A historical survey and neuroanthropological perspective, in Jens Clausen and Neil Levy. (Eds.) Handbook of Neuroethics, Springer, pp. 343–363.
Winter B (2014). "Spoken language achieves robustness and evolvability by exploiting degeneracy and neutrality". BioEssays. 36 (10): 960–967. doi:10.1002/bies.201400028. PMID 25088374. S2CID 27876941.
^Fernandez-Leon, J.A. (2011). "Evolving cognitive-behavioural dependencies in situated agents for behavioural robustness". BioSystems. 106 (2–3): 94–110. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2011.07.003. PMID 21840371.
^Fernandez-Leon, J.A. (2011). "Behavioural robustness: a link between distributed mechanisms and coupled transient dynamics". BioSystems. 105 (1): 49–61. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2011.03.006. PMID 21466836.
^Fernandez-Leon, J.A. (2010). "Evolving experience-dependent robust behaviour in embodied agents". BioSystems. 103 (1): 45–56. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2010.09.010. PMID 20932875.
January 01, 1970
degeneracy, biology, within, biological, systems, degeneracy, occurs, when, structurally, dissimilar, components, pathways, perform, similar, functions, effectively, interchangeable, under, certain, conditions, perform, distinct, functions, other, conditions, . Within biological systems degeneracy occurs when structurally dissimilar components pathways can perform similar functions i e are effectively interchangeable under certain conditions but perform distinct functions in other conditions 1 2 Degeneracy is thus a relational property that requires comparing the behavior of two or more components In particular if degeneracy is present in a pair of components then there will exist conditions where the pair will appear functionally redundant but other conditions where they will appear functionally distinct 1 3 Note that this use of the term has practically no relevance to the questionably meaningful concept of evolutionarily degenerate populations that have lost ancestral functions Contents 1 Biological examples 2 Contribution to robustness 3 Theory 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 6 1 Researchers 7 External linksBiological examples editExamples of degeneracy are found in the genetic code when many different nucleotide sequences encode the same polypeptide in protein folding when different polypeptides fold to be structurally and functionally equivalent in protein functions when overlapping binding functions and similar catalytic specificities are observed in metabolism when multiple parallel biosynthetic and catabolic pathways may coexist More generally degeneracy is observed in proteins of every functional class e g enzymatic structural or regulatory 4 5 protein complex assemblies 6 ontogenesis 7 the nervous system 8 cell signalling crosstalk and numerous other biological contexts reviewed in 1 Contribution to robustness editDegeneracy contributes to the robustness of biological traits through several mechanisms Degenerate components compensate for one another under conditions where they are functionally redundant thus providing robustness against component or pathway failure Because degenerate components are somewhat different they tend to harbor unique sensitivities so that a targeted attack such as a specific inhibitor is less likely to present a risk to all components at once 3 There are numerous biological examples where degeneracy contributes to robustness in this way For instance gene families can encode for diverse proteins with many distinctive roles yet sometimes these proteins can compensate for each other during lost or suppressed gene expression as seen in the developmental roles of the adhesins gene family in Saccharomyces 9 Nutrients can be metabolized by distinct metabolic pathways that are effectively interchangeable for certain metabolites even though the total effects of each pathway are not identical 10 11 In cancer therapies targeting the EGF receptor are thwarted by the co activation of alternate receptor tyrosine kinases RTK that have partial functional overlap with the EGF receptor and are therefore degenerate but are not targeted by the same specific EGF receptor inhibitor 12 13 Other examples from various levels of biological organization can be found in 1 Theory edit nbsp Theoretical relationships between biological properties that are important to evolution For a review of evidence that supports these relationships see 3 Several theoretical developments have outlined links between degeneracy and important biological measurements related to robustness complexity and evolvability These include Theoretical arguments supported by simulations have proposed that degeneracy can lead to distributed forms of robustness in protein interaction networks 14 Those authors suggest that similar phenomena is likely to arise in other biological networks and potentially may contribute to the resilience of ecosystems as well Tononi et al have found evidence that degeneracy is inseparable from the existence of hierarchical complexity in neural populations 8 They argue that the link between degeneracy and complexity is likely to be much more general Fairly abstract simulations have supported the hypothesis that degeneracy fundamentally alters the propensity for a genetic system to access novel heritable phenotypes 15 and that degeneracy could therefore be a precondition for open ended evolution The three hypotheses above have been integrated in 3 where they propose that degeneracy plays a central role in the open ended evolution of biological complexity In the same article it was argued that the absence of degeneracy within many designed abiotic complex systems may help to explain why robustness appears to be in conflict with flexibility and adaptability as seen in software systems engineering and artificial life 3 See also editCanalisation EquifinalityReferences edit a b c d Edelman and Gally Gally J A 2001 Degeneracy and complexity in biological systems Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98 24 13763 13768 Bibcode 2001PNAS 9813763E doi 10 1073 pnas 231499798 PMC 61115 PMID 11698650 Mason Paul H 2 January 2015 Degeneracy Demystifying and destigmatizing a core concept in systems biology Complexity 20 3 12 21 Bibcode 2015Cmplx 20c 12M doi 10 1002 cplx 21534 a b c d e Whitacre 2010 Degeneracy a link between evolvability robustness and complexity in biological systems Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 7 6 6 arXiv 0910 2586 Bibcode 2009arXiv0910 2586W doi 10 1186 1742 4682 7 6 PMC 2830971 PMID 20167097 Atamas 2005 Les affinites electives Pour la Science 46 39 43 Wagner 2000 The role of population size pleiotropy and fitness effects of mutations in the evolution of overlapping gene functions Genetics 154 3 1389 1401 doi 10 1093 genetics 154 3 1389 PMC 1461000 PMID 10757778 Kurakin 2009 Scale free flow of life on the biology economics and physics of the cell Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 6 1 6 doi 10 1186 1742 4682 6 6 PMC 2683819 PMID 19416527 Newman 1994 Generic physical mechanisms of tissue morphogenesis A common basis for development and evolution Journal of Evolutionary Biology 7 4 480 doi 10 1046 j 1420 9101 1994 7040467 x S2CID 14216659 a b Tononi Sporns O Edelman G M et al 1999 Measures of degeneracy and redundancy in biological networks Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 96 6 3257 3262 Bibcode 1999PNAS 96 3257T doi 10 1073 pnas 96 6 3257 PMC 15929 PMID 10077671 Guo Styles C A Feng Q Fink G R et al 2000 A Saccharomyces gene family involved in invasive growth cell cell adhesion and mating Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 97 22 12158 12163 Bibcode 2000PNAS 9712158G doi 10 1073 pnas 220420397 PMC 17311 PMID 11027318 Kitano 2004 Biological robustness Nature Reviews Genetics 5 11 826 837 doi 10 1038 nrg1471 PMID 15520792 S2CID 7644586 Ma and Zeng Zeng AP 2003 The connectivity structure giant strong component and centrality of metabolic networks Bioinformatics 19 11 1423 1430 doi 10 1093 bioinformatics btg177 PMID 12874056 Huang Mukasa A Bonavia R Flynn R A Brewer Z E Cavenee W K Furnari F B White F M et al 2007 Quantitative analysis of EGFRvIII cellular signaling networks reveals a combinatorial therapeutic strategy for glioblastoma Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 31 12867 72 Bibcode 2007PNAS 10412867H doi 10 1073 pnas 0705158104 PMC 1937558 PMID 17646646 Stommel Kimmelman AC Ying H Nabioullin R Ponugoti AH Wiedemeyer R Stegh AH Bradner JE et al 2007 Coactivation of receptor tyrosine kinases affects the response of tumor cells to targeted therapies Science 318 5848 287 90 Bibcode 2007Sci 318 287S doi 10 1126 science 1142946 PMID 17872411 S2CID 36607054 Whitacre and Bender Bender Axel 2010 Networked buffering a basic mechanism for distributed robustness in complex adaptive systems Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 7 20 20 doi 10 1186 1742 4682 7 20 PMC 2901314 PMID 20550663 Whitacre and Bender Bender A 2010 Degeneracy a design principle for achieving robustness and evolvability Journal of Theoretical Biology 263 1 143 153 arXiv 0907 0510 Bibcode 2010JThBi 263 143W doi 10 1016 j jtbi 2009 11 008 PMID 19925810 S2CID 11511132 Further reading editBecause there are many distinct types of systems that undergo heritable variation and selection see Universal Darwinism degeneracy has become a highly interdisciplinary topic The following provides a brief roadmap to the application and study of degeneracy within different disciplines Animal Communication Hebets E A Barron A B Balakrishnan C N Hauber M E Mason P H Hoke K L 2016 A systems approach to animal communication Proc R Soc B 283 1826 20152889 doi 10 1098 rspb 2015 2889 PMC 4810859 PMID 26936240 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Cultural Variation Downey G 2012 Cultural variation in rugby skills A preliminary neuroanthropological report Annals of Anthropological Practice 36 1 26 44 doi 10 1111 j 2153 9588 2012 01091 x Ecosystems Atamas S Bell J 2009 Degeneracy Driven Self Structuring Dynamics in Selective Repertoires Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 71 6 1349 1365 doi 10 1007 s11538 009 9404 z PMC 3707519 PMID 19337776 Epigenetics Maleszka R Mason P H Barron A B 2014 Epigenomics and the concept of degeneracy in biological systems Briefings in Functional Genomics 13 3 191 202 doi 10 1093 bfgp elt050 PMC 4031454 PMID 24335757 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link History and philosophy of science Mason P H 2010 Degeneracy at Multiple Levels of Complexity Biological Theory 5 3 277 288 doi 10 1162 biot a 00041 S2CID 83846240 Systems biology Sole R V Ferrer Cancho R Montoya J M Valverde S 2002 Selection tinkering and emergence in complex networks PDF Complexity 8 1 20 33 Bibcode 2002Cmplx 8a 20S doi 10 1002 cplx 10055 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Whitacre J M Bender A 2010 Networked buffering a basic mechanism for distributed robustness in complex adaptive systems Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 7 20 20 arXiv 0912 1961 Bibcode 2009arXiv0912 1961W doi 10 1186 1742 4682 7 20 PMC 2901314 PMID 20550663 Mason P H 2015 Degeneracy Demystifying and destigmatizing a core concept in systems biology Complexity 20 3 12 21 Bibcode 2015Cmplx 20c 12M doi 10 1002 cplx 21534 Mason P H Dominguez D J F Winter B Grignolio A 2015 Hidden in plain view degeneracy in complex systems BioSystems 128 1 8 doi 10 1016 j biosystems 2014 12 003 PMID 25543071 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Evolution Edelman G M Gally J A 2001 Degeneracy and complexity in biological systems Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98 24 13763 13768 Bibcode 2001PNAS 9813763E doi 10 1073 pnas 231499798 PMC 61115 PMID 11698650 Whitacre J M 2010 Degeneracy a link between evolvability robustness and complexity in biological systems Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 7 6 6 arXiv 0910 2586 Bibcode 2009arXiv0910 2586W doi 10 1186 1742 4682 7 6 PMC 2830971 PMID 20167097 Whitacre J M Bender A 2010 Degeneracy a design principle for achieving robustness and evolvability Journal of Theoretical Biology 263 1 143 53 arXiv 0907 0510 Bibcode 2010JThBi 263 143W doi 10 1016 j jtbi 2009 11 008 PMID 19925810 S2CID 11511132 Whitacre J M Atamas S P 2011 The Diversity Paradox How Nature Resolves an Evolutionary Dilemma arXiv 1112 3115 Bibcode 2011arXiv1112 3115W a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Immunology Cohn M 2005 Degeneracy mimicry and crossreactivity in immune recognition Molecular Immunology 42 5 651 655 doi 10 1016 j molimm 2004 09 010 PMID 15607824 Cohen I R U Hershberg and S Solomon 2004 Antigen receptor degeneracy and immunological paradigms Molecular Immunology 40 14 15 pp 993 996 Tieri P G C Castellani D Remondini S Valensin J Loroni S Salvioli and C Franceschi Capturing degeneracy of the immune system In Silico Immunology Springer 2007 Tieri P Grignolio A Zaikin A Mishto M Remondini D Castellani G C Franceschi C 2010 Network degeneracy and bow tie Integrating paradigms and architectures to grasp the complexity of the immune system Theor Biol Med Model 7 32 doi 10 1186 1742 4682 7 32 PMC 2927512 PMID 20701759 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Artificial life Computational intelligence Andrews P S and J Timmis A Computational Model of Degeneracy in a Lymph Node Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2006 4163 p 164 Mendao M J Timmis P S Andrews and M Davies The Immune System in Pieces Computational Lessons from Degeneracy in the Immune System in Foundations of Computational Intelligence FOCI 2007 Whitacre J M and A Bender Degenerate neutrality creates evolvable fitness landscapes in WorldComp 2009 2009 Las Vegas Nevada USA Whitacre J M P Rohlfshagen X Yao and A Bender The role of degenerate robustness in the evolvability of multi agent systems in dynamic environments in PPSN XI 2010 Krakow Poland Macia J Sole R 2009 Distributed robustness in cellular networks insights from synthetic evolved circuits Journal of the Royal Society Interface 6 33 393 400 doi 10 1098 rsif 2008 0236 PMC 2658657 PMID 18796402 Fernandez Leon J A 2011 Evolving cognitive behavioural dependencies in situated agents for behavioural robustness BioSystems 106 pp 94 110 1 Fernandez Leon J A 2011 Behavioural robustness a link between distributed mechanisms and coupled transient dynamics BioSystems 105 Elsevier pp 49 61 2 Fernandez Leon J A 2010 Evolving experience dependent robust behaviour in embodied agents BioSystems 103 1 Elsevier pp 45 56 3 Brain Price C and K Friston Degeneracy and cognitive anatomy Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2002 6 10 pp 416 421 Tononi G O Sporns and G M Edelman Measures of degeneracy and redundancy in biological networks Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 1999 96 6 pp 3257 3262 Mason P H 2014 What is normal A historical survey and neuroanthropological perspective in Jens Clausen and Neil Levy Eds Handbook of Neuroethics Springer pp 343 363 Linguistics Winter B 2014 Spoken language achieves robustness and evolvability by exploiting degeneracy and neutrality BioEssays 36 10 960 967 doi 10 1002 bies 201400028 PMID 25088374 S2CID 27876941 Oncology Tian T S Olson J M Whitacre and A Harding The origins of cancer robustness and evolvability Integrative Biology 2011 3 pp 17 30 Peer Review Lehky S Peer Evaluation and Selection Systems Adaptation and Maladaptation of Individuals and Groups through Peer Review 2011 BioBitField Press Researchers edit Duarte Araujo Sergei Atamas Andrew Barron Keith Davids Gerald Edelman Ryszard Maleszka Archived 2013 03 19 at the Wayback Machine Paul Mason Ludovic Seifert Ricard Sole Giulio Tononi James WhitacreExternal links editdegeneracy research community Fernandez Leon J A 2011 Evolving cognitive behavioural dependencies in situated agents for behavioural robustness BioSystems 106 2 3 94 110 doi 10 1016 j biosystems 2011 07 003 PMID 21840371 Fernandez Leon J A 2011 Behavioural robustness a link between distributed mechanisms and coupled transient dynamics BioSystems 105 1 49 61 doi 10 1016 j biosystems 2011 03 006 PMID 21466836 Fernandez Leon J A 2010 Evolving experience dependent robust behaviour in embodied agents BioSystems 103 1 45 56 doi 10 1016 j biosystems 2010 09 010 PMID 20932875 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Degeneracy biology amp oldid 1198524805, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
