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Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute

November 02, 2023

The Republic of Cyprus (Cyprus) and Turkey have been engaged in a dispute over the extent of their exclusive economic zones (EEZ), ostensibly sparked by oil and gas exploration in the area. Turkey objects to Cypriot drilling in waters that Cyprus has asserted a claim to under international maritime law. The present maritime zones dispute touches on the perennial Cyprus and Aegean disputes; Turkey is the only member state of the United Nations that does not recognise Cyprus, and is one of the few not signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which Cyprus has signed and ratified.

  Turkey
  Northern Cyprus
  Cyprus

Turkey claims a portion of Cyprus' EEZ based on Turkey's definition that no islands, including Cyprus, can have a full 200 nautical mile EEZ [1][2] authorized to coastal states and should only be entitled to their 12 nautical mile territorial seas. Turkey's definition creates a dispute over the rights to waters south of Cyprus containing an offshore gas field. This definition is not shared by most other states.[3][4][5][6][7] Furthermore, the internationally unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which was created as result of the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus, also claims portions of Cypriot EEZ. Cyprus and other countries including Israel, France, Russia and Greece view these claims[8][9][10][11] on Cyprus' land and sea as illegal under international law[a] and urge Turkey to refrain from illegal drilling for gas in the island's EEZ.[b] The European Union has threatened Turkey with economic and political sanctions for violating the Cypriot EEZ.[28][29]

Since Turkey does not recognise the Republic of Cyprus, there are no diplomatic relations between the two states. The Republic of Cyprus has refused to negotiate the maritime dispute and natural resources found in Republic of Cyprus' EEZ with the Turkish Cypriot leadership.[30]

Chronology edit

Initial discoveries and agreements edit

The first discoveries in the Eastern Mediterranean were made between June 1999 and February 2000 offshore Israel. In 2003 Shell made the first significant discoveries of gas, offshore Egypt.[30]

In February 2003 an EEZ delineation agreement was signed between Republic of Cyprus and Egypt.[30] TRNC responded by stating that they do not recognise the agreement.[30]

In February 2004, after performing drillings in the area, Shell's Matthias Bichsel announced that 'The drilling results have demonstrated that this ultra-deepwater area is a rich hydrocarbon province'.[30]

In April of the same year, in two separate referendums, the Annan Plan was rejected by the Greek Cypriots, while accepted by the Turkish Cypriots. Regarding the maritime dispute, the acceptance of the Annan Plan would mean that after the solution the natural resources would be under the authority of the bicommunal Presidential Council.[30] On May 1, Republic of Cyprus joined the European Union.

In January 2007 an EEZ delineation agreement was reached between Republic of Cyprus and Lebanon.[30] However, it has not been ratified by the Parliament of Lebanon yet. Some argue that the reason is a dispute between Lebanon and Israel over their maritime borders,[31] pressure from Turkey,[30] the relations between Turkey and Lebanon,[32] and a potential trade agreement between Lebanon and Turkey, which was eventually signed in 2010.[33]

First Licensing Round and growing interest in the region edit

In May, 2007, the Republic of Cyprus announced the 1st Licensing Round Offshore Cyprus, for Blocks 1, 2, 4-12, which received 3 bids.[30] In October, 2008, Noble Energy granted a Hydrocarbon Exploration Licence for Block 12.[34]

In November 2008, vessels performing research activities in the Republic of Cyprus' EEZ under contract with the Republic of Cyprus were intercepted by vessels of the Turkish Navy, and were asked to leave, as they claimed that their activities were conducted in areas under Turkish jurisdiction.[35][36]

In January, 2009 the first big offshore discoveries were made in the Tamar 1, offshore Israel.[30] Later, in March, 2009, new discoveries were made offshore Israel, at the Dalit 1 site.[30]

In March, 2010, the US Geological Survey revealed that “the waters of the Levant Basin […] contain a mean of 122 tcf (3,455 bcm) of recoverable natural gas and 1.7 billion barrels of recoverable crude oil”, increasing the interest in the region.[30]

Break in Turkish–Israeli relations and form of new alliances edit

On May 31 of 2010, the Mavi Marmara incident took place. In the Mavi Marmara or Flotilla incident, activists' boats were blocked by Israeli forces in international waters, on their way to provide humanitarian assistance to Gaza. The Israeli soldiers were met with resistance while boarding the Mavi Marmara and opened fire, killing nine Turkish citizens. The incident resulted to the sudden end of all diplomatic relations between Turkey and Israel.[37][38]

The deterioration of Turkish-Israeli relations, which reached its peak with the Mavi Marmara incident; in connection to the discoveries made in the Leviathan field offshore Israel, the greatest discoveries of gas made until then in the region, in October, 2010[30] and the new geopolitical realities in the Eastern Mediterranean;[38] led to an "unprecedented political, military and energy cooperation" between Israel and Cyprus and Greece.[33][37][38] In December 2010, an EEZ agreement was signed between The Republic of Cyprus and Israel,[30] with Turkey reacting by questioning the Greek Cypriots' willingness to achieve a solution to the Cypriot Problem, stating that they "ignor[e] Turkish Cypriots' rights".[30]

First explorations, reaction of Turkey and TRNC, and Eroğlu's proposal edit

During September, 2011, Noble initiated the first exploratory drilling for Republic of Cyprus, in Block 12,[30][35] with Turkey reacting by delineating their EEZ with TRNC.[30] Turkish Prime Minister, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan described the action as a 'reciprocal decision' to the actions of Republic of Cyprus.[30] During September, Turkish officials issued harsh warnings towards The Republic of Cyprus in several occasions.[30] On September 22 and 23 of 2011, TPAO received exploration licences from the TRNC, including areas overlapping with blocks licensed by The Republic of Cyprus, and Turkish vessel Piri Reis began seismographic research south of Cyprus and near Noble's platform, accompanied by Turkish warships.[30][35]

In September 2011, Turkish Cypriot leader Derviş Eroğlu submitted a proposal for mutual suspension of activities within the maritime space around Cyprus, or the cooperation between the two communities on hydrocarbons, on issues such as distribution of profits.[30] Republic of Cyprus rejected Eroğlu's proposal, responding that "exploration and exploitation of our natural resources constitutes a sovereign right of the Republic of Cyprus. [...] Our sovereign right is not negotiable".[30]

In December 2011, Noble announced discoveries in Block 12, close to Israel's Leviathan.[30][35] The discovered gas field, 'Aphrodite', was declared 'commercial' in June 2015.[35]

Second Licensing Round and new proposal by Eroğlu edit

In February 2012, Republic of Cyprus announced the 2nd Licensing Round, for 12 blocks, which received 15 bids.[30][35][39] Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in response stated that they would not allow activities in blocks 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, which Turkey also claims theirs, and would "take all necessary measures to protect its rights and interests in the maritime areas falling within its continental shelf".[30]

On September 29, 2012, a new proposal was submitted by the Turkish Cypriot side but was again rejected by the Greek-Cypriot side. The proposal included a bicommunal technical committee for natural resources and related agreements and revenues, with a chairman appointed by the Secretary General of the UN, and a pipeline transporting hydrocarbons through Turkey.[30]

In January 2013, ENI-Kogas granted Hydrocarbon Exploration Licences for Blocks 2, 3 and 9, and on the following February Total granted Hydrocarbon Exploration Licences for Blocks 10, 11.[35][39]

Barbaros and NAVTEX in Cyprus waters edit

In February 2013, TPAO finalized the purchase of 3D seismic vessel Polarcus Samur, which was renamed RV Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa.[40] Barbaros was used for explorations within Republic of Cyprus EEZ.[32] In October 2014, Barbaros entered Republic of Cyprus' EEZ, accompanied by Turkish warships. President of Cyprus Nicos Anastasiades reacted by withdrawing from the bi-communal negotiation process for the Cypriot problem, in protest for Turkey's violation of Republic of Cyprus' sovereign rights.[35][41]

In January 2015, Turkey issued a NAVTEX for the period between January and April, reserving areas in the Eastern Mediterranean that included parts of Republic of Cyprus's EEZ, while Barbaros conducted research in the region, in the presence of the Turkish navy.[35][41] Negotiations for the Cypriot Problem resumed after Turkey's NAVTEX expired, in May, 2015, with newly elected Turkish Cypriot leader Mustafa Akinci.[35]

Eastern Mediterranean Gas Pipeline edit

In May 2015, the European Commission grants €2 million to Eastern Mediterranean Gas Pipeline (EMGP), a proposed pipeline transferring gas from the Eastern Mediterranean to Europe through Greece, for pre-FEED studies.[42] In January 2017, a study by Edison presented to the EU's Directorate-General for Energy described the project as 'commercially viable and technically feasible',[35] while in January 2018, the Commission granted the project another €34.5 million for the FEED study and other expenses.[42] In December 2018, a framework agreement regarding the project was signed between the governments of Israel, Republic of Cyprus, Greece and Italy.[35]

On 19 May 2023, Claudio Descalzi, the CEO of Italian energy company Eni, said that any agreement for the construction of the EastMed pipeline must include Turkey; he added that "there are disputes between Turkey and Cyprus that are difficult to remedy, furthermore Turkey has made an agreement with Libya to define a very vast platform that covers almost the entire EastMed, therefore not only Turkey but also Libya will have a say." In response to these comments, George Papanastasiou, the Cypriot Minister of Energy, Commerce and Industry, stated that not all people agree with the opinions expressed by Descalzi, and that he respects his opinion.[43] These remarks follow reports that Eni, Cyprus and Israel are working on a deal for constructing a natural gas pipeline in the Eastern Mediterranean, connecting both the Cypriot and Israeli offshore gas fields to a processing plant in Cyprus, where the gas will be liquefied for export by ship to Italy and the rest of Europe.[44][45]

Zohr and Third Licensing Round edit

In August, 2015, the biggest to-date discovery in the Eastern Mediterranean was made, within the EEZ of Egypt, in the Zohr gas field, by ENI. Zohr was found six kilometres away from Republic of Cyprus' EEZ.[46]

In February, 2016, the 3rd licensing round for Republic of Cyprus was announced, for Blocks 6, 8 and 10.[46][35]

Turkey's new NAVTEX and drillings edit

In March, 2017, Turkey announced their intention to proceed to exploration drillings in areas delimited by the Republic of Cyprus.[46] In April, 2017, Turkey released a NAVTEX for maritime areas east of Cyprus, overlapping with the EEZ of the Republic of Cyprus, for Barbaros to perform seismic surveys between April and June,[35] with Republic of Cyprus again protesting for Turkey's violation of its sovereignty and sovereign rights.[47]

ENI's discoveries and increasing tensions edit

In April 2017, ENI was granted Block 8, ENI/TOTAL granted Block 6, and Block 10 was given to a cooperative bid of Exxon and QatarEnergy.[42] On February 8, 2018, ENI announced discoveries of lean gas within Republic of Cyprus's EEZ, in well 'Calypso 1' of Block 6, which is also claimed by Turkey.[46][48]

Three days later, on February 11, 2018, ENI's drill ship was blocked by the Turkish navy on its way to perform drillings within Republic of Cyprus's EEZ, in Block 3, and the drilling was prevented, with the ship returning to the port two weeks later.[46][35] The incident has been described as "the first (and only one until now) serious incident of military activity of this kind since the beginning of the Cypriot exploratory programme".[46]

In November 2018, Exxon Mobil started exploratory drillings in Block 10, in the Delphyne-1 well.[46][35]

Barbaros seismic surveys, new discoveries, and Fatih's drilling in Republic of Cyprus' EEZ edit

In January 2019, Barbaros began a new round of seismic surveys within the EEZ of Republic of Cyprus, while the Turkish navy released a NAVTEX for military exercises within Blocks 7 and 8.[35]

On February 28, 2019, ExxonMobil announced the largest to-date discoveries within the EEZ of Republic of Cyprus, at Glaucus-1, within Block 10.[35]

In early May 2019, Turkish drilling ship Fatih 1 arrived west of Cyprus, in order to perform drillings,[49] with Republic of Cyprus reacting by issuing arrest warrants for the staff of Fatih and accompanying ships.[50]

On June 16, 2019, Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu stated that Fatih began performing drillings, while also announcing the arrival of a second drilling ship in the region.[51] Four days later, on June 20, Turkish drilling ship Yavuz began drillings northeast Cyprus, as announced earlier by Turkish officials.[52][53] Republic of Cyprus and Greece reacted by pushing for EU's reaction to Turkey's actions.[52] As a result, on 16 of July 2019, the EU suspended funding of $163 million towards Turkey, as a reaction to Turkey's activities within the EEZ of Republic of Cyprus.[54]

Meanwhile, on July 13, Turkish Cypriot leader Mustafa Akinci submitted a new proposal for a joint committee on hydrocarbons consisting of members from both communities, receiving the support of the Turkish government.[55][56] Akinci's proposal was rejected by president of Cyprus Nicos Anastiasiades, after a meeting with the leaders of Greek-Cypriot political parties.[57]

European Union position edit

In November 2019, European Union foreign ministers have approved a mechanism to sanction entities involved in unauthorized oil drilling in Cypriot waters.[58] The sanctions would involve travel bans and asset freezes on people, companies and organizations. EU citizens and firms will not be allowed to provide any funds or technical support to Turkey for the drilling operations.[59]

United States position edit

The United States respects Cyprus's right to develop its resources and has repeated caution to Turkey interrupting the oil and gas research within the Cypriot EEZ.[60][61] The "US remains deeply concerned by Turkey's repeated attempts to conduct drilling operations in the waters off Cyprus... This provocative step raises tensions in the region. We urge Turkish authorities to halt these operations and encourage all parties to act with restraint and refrain from actions that increase tensions in the region" stated Morgan Ortagus of the United States Department of State in 2019.[62][63][64]

Republic of Cyprus position edit

 
Maritime boundaries according to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

The Republic of Cyprus adopted the Territorial Sea Law in 1964. The law established 12-nautical-mile (22 km; 14 mi) territorial sea. Coordinates of the territorial sea were submitted to the United Nations in 1993 and their validity was reconfirmed in 1996.[30] The continental shelf of Cyprus is defined according to the Continental Shelf Law which was adopted in 1974. After ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1988, Cyprus adopted a new law in 2004, which limited its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) by 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi). The EEZ was delimited by bilateral agreements with Israel, Lebanon and Egypt.[30] Cyprus has called on Turkey to delineate the sea boundaries between the two countries.[65][66][67][68]

The area of highest interest to Cyprus is Block 12, approximately 800,000 acres (3,200 km2) in size, and on the border with Israel's own EEZ. Cyprus has actively sought to reinforce its position on the global stage through congress with major international players in the situation. Cypriot Foreign Minister Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis began her term in office in late 2011 by visiting both Greece and Israel to request support for the drilling program,[69] though it is not clear if military support was also requested. It is also widely believed that Cyprus has requested support from the United States of America and the Russian Federation, though the exact specifics of any representations have not been made public.

As of August 2011, the Cypriot media has shown widespread alarm at Turkish threats to intervene against the drilling program, and has remonstrated with the Turkish position as evidence of a violation of national sovereignty and the rights of the Cypriot people. In late February 2014, Cypriot president Nicos Anastasiades threatened to pull out of the new round of negotiations over the Cyprus dispute if Turkish vessels continue to intrude in Cyprus' exclusive economic zone.[70]

Turkish and Turkish Cypriot position edit

Turkey is not a party to UNCLOS, mainly due to the Aegean dispute with Greece and due to provisions of the article 121 of UNCLOS which states that maritime zones of islands (except uninhabited rocks) are determined by the same principles as for the other territories.[30][71] It has limited its territorial waters by 6 nautical miles (11 km; 6.9 mi) and by 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) in the Mediterranean Sea, established by the Council of Ministers of Turkey. There is no national legislation on EEZ or continental shelf. No EEZ proclamation exists for the Mediterranean Sea; however, it has signed an agreement in 2011 with the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus to delimit continental shelf.[30]

Turkey does not recognize Cyprus' EEZ agreements with Egypt, Lebanon, and Israel due to the position that as a de facto divided island Republic of Cyprus cannot represent the interests of Northern Cyprus in the case the island will be reunified with a single EEZ.[71] Turkey has disputed the EEZ agreement between Cyprus and Egypt based on its claims to the part of the continental shelf in that area.[30] These claims are based on the viewpoint that the capacity of islands to generate maritime zones should be limited in competition with the continental coastal states.[30] As a result, Turkey's claims are partly overlapping with Cyprus' EEZ blocks 1, 4, 6, and 7.[71] Turkey also supports Northern Cyprus' claims in blocks 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 12, and 13, including seabed within a few kilometers of the Aphrodite gas field. In addition to the blocks contested between Northern Cyprus and Turkey, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus has issued exploration licenses also in above-mentioned disputed blocks.[71] Turkish oil company TPAO has also begun conducting oil and gas exploratory drilling off the shores of Northern Cyprus.[71][72]

The European Union (EU) acquis communautaire requires UNCLOS membership.[73] The European Parliament called on Turkey to sign UNCLOS in adopting the Commission's annual report on paving the ground for EU–Turkey accession negotiations in 2012, 2013 and 2014.[73][74][75]

Turkey has repeatedly threatened to not allow the Republic of Cyprus to proceed with pursuing claims to hydrocarbon deposits in waters south of the island. It has warned international oil companies not to conduct exploration and production activities in disputed zones, under the threat of an exclusion from the business operations in Turkey.[71] It is not clear whether the incident could escalate to violence, as the Turkish Government has not made clear whether it regards oil and gas exploration by the Republic of Cyprus as an act of aggression.

However, in November 2008, Turkish naval vessels harassed Cyprus contracted vessels conducting seismic exploration for hydrocarbon deposits in waters south of the island.[76]

Blue Homeland edit

 
Depiction of the irredentist and expansionist "Blue Homeland" concept created by Cihat Yaycı

The Blue Homeland (Turkish: Mavi Vatan), is an irredentist and expansionist concept and doctrine,[c] created by the Chief of Staff of the Turkish Navy Commander Cihat Yaycı, and developed with Admiral Cem Gurdeniz in 2006.[85][86][87][78] The doctrine is representing Turkey's territorial sea, continental shelf, and exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around the Black Sea, as well as its claims of continental shelf and EEZ in the eastern Mediterranean, and the Aegean.[88]

History edit

Further information: Aegean dispute

On 2 September 2019, Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan appeared in a photograph with a map that depicted nearly half of the Aegean Sea and an area up to the eastern coast of Crete as belonging to Turkey. The map was displayed during an official ceremony at the National Defense University of Turkey in Istanbul[89] and shows an area labelled as "Turkey's Blue Homeland" stretching up to the median line of the Aegean,[90] enclosing the Greek islands in that part of the sea without any indication of the Greek territorial waters around them.

On 13 November 2019, Turkey submitted to the United Nations a series of claims to Exclusive Economic Zones in the Eastern Mediterranean that are in conflict with Greek claims to the same areas – including a sea zone extending west of the southeastern Aegean island of Rhodes and south of Crete. The Turkish claims were made in an official letter by Turkey's Permanent Representative to the UN Feridun Sinirlioglu, which reflect Ankara's notion of a "Blue Homeland" (Mavi Vatan). Greece condemned these claims as legally unfounded, incorrect and arbitrary, and an outright violation of Greece's sovereignty.[91]

Turkish view edit

Turkey's position is that islands cannot have a full Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)[92][93] and should only be entitled to a 12 nautical mile reduced EEZ or no EEZ at all, rather than the usual 200 miles that Turkey and every other country are entitled to according to Article 121 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Turkey has not ratified UNCLOS, and argues that it is not bound by its provisions that award islands maritime zones. In this context, Turkey, for the first time on December 1, 2019, claimed that the Greek island of Kastellorizo shouldn't have any EEZ at all, because, from the equity-based[94][95] Turkish viewpoint, it is a small island immediately across the Turkish mainland (which, according to Turkey, has the longest coastline), and isn't supposed to generate a maritime jurisdiction area four thousand times larger than its own surface. Furthermore, according to Turkey's Foreign Ministry, an EEZ has to be coextensive with the continental shelf, based on the relative lengths of adjacent coastlines[96] and described any opposing views supporting the right of islands to their EEZ as "maximalist and uncompromising Greek and Greek Cypriot claims".[95][94][97] On 20 January 2020, the Turkish President Erdogan challenged even the rights of Crete, Greece's largest island and 5th largest in the Mediterranean, stating that "They talk about a continental shelf around Crete. There is no continental shelf around the islands, there is no such thing, there, it is only sovereign waters."[98]

Views of international community edit

The Turkish position regarding the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a unique interpretation not shared by any other country, and not in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) treaty which is signed by 168 parties, but not Turkey.[99][100][101][102][103][104][96]

The Ambassadors of the United States and Russia to Athens, Geoffrey Pyatt and Andrey Maslov respectively, while commenting on Turkey's view, stated that all the islands have the same rights to EEZ and continental shelf as the mainland does.[105][106][107] The then US Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs, Aaron Wess Mitchell, criticized the Turkish view, stating that it "is a minority of one versus the rest of the world."[108]

Potential for escalation to armed conflict edit

Turkey organised a major air and naval exercise at the same time as drilling by Cypriot contractors was to begin in September 2011.[76]

The Russian Navy in late August 2011 scrambled two nuclear attack submarines to the Eastern Mediterranean to observe the situation,[109] as Cyprus and Russia have enjoyed close political and economic ties recently.[110]

In 2011, Israel has increased the number of surveillance flights in the Eastern Mediterranean,[111][112] though it is not clear if these operations include the Nicosia Flight Information Region.

Views in the academic literature edit

On the dispute edit

Writing in 2018, Michalis Kontos and George Bitsis argue that, despite great asymmetry of power, Turkey will not reach their objective to have relative gains and "revise the status quo offshore Cyprus", due to the involvement of big oil and gas companies in Republic of Cyprus' EEZ. Moreover, they argue that Turkey's actions are not compatible with Alexander L. George's notion of 'coercive diplomacy', neither are Republic of Cyprus' actions compatible with George's notion of deterrence, as neither's actions involve the use of military force.[46]

On the approaches edit

Kontos and Bitsis argue that there has been a shift in Turkey's approach on the issue after 2011, from military threats to questioning the sovereign rights of Republic of Cyprus over their EEZ and proceeding with their own explorations in the region, only to shift back to military threats in February, 2018.[46]

Meanwhile, Ayla Gürel, Fiona Mullen and Harry Tzimitras also note a shift on the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot approach, from protesting and warning to block Republic of Cyprus' activities, to taking reciprocal actions as a reaction to Republic of Cyprus' unilateral actions.[30]

Prospects for peace and conflict edit

Peace edit

Many academics recognise that discoveries of gas in the region can serve as an economic incentive to resolve long-lasting conflicts, including the Cyprus problem, and form a new energy cooperation.[32][113]

Vedat Yorucu and Özay Mehmet argue that regional geopolitical developments and economic conditions in Cyprus have made the solution to the Cyprus problem more urgent. A solution to the Cyprus problem, and the consequent EEZ dispute would be a win-win scenario for all parties involved, and transform Cyprus to an energy sub-hub, if connected to Ceyhan, Turkey.[32]

Others, however, argue that geopolitical realities don't favour peace and regional cooperation between the actors involved, including Turkey, Greece and Cyprus.[33]

Conflict edit

Academics also recognise the possibility that recent gas discoveries in the region can exacerbate existing conflicts.[32][113]

According to Andreas Stergiou, the actions of Eastern Mediterranean states in regard to their energy projects show that states prioritize security concerns over economic. The discoveries made in the region have only exacerbated existing conflicts and made reconciliation even more improbable.[33]

European energy security edit

Writing in 2012, ELIAMEP's Thanos Dokos noted that the need for oil and gas for Europe would be a motive for NATO and the EU to actively secure their supply through operations in the Eastern Mediterranean, highlighting the region's importance for European energy and economic security.[114]

Writing in 2018, Theodoros Tsakiris argued that the discoveries made in the Eastern Mediterranean, including those within Republic of Cyprus' EEZ, could help EU's efforts to diversify their gas supply, in order to decrease their dependency on Russian gas, which limits the EU's energy security and the capacity to act politically and economically against Russia. If transferred as LNG or through the EMGP, EU could also avoid a future overdependence on Turkey's Trans Anatolian pipeline.[42]

Exploitation options edit

According to Tsakiris, despite the interest shown by Italy, Greece, Republic of Cyprus, Israel and EU, the profitability of the EMGP project is debatable due to various reasons, such as the pipeline's length and depth, and limited findings of gas in Republic of Cyprus' EEZ. Tsakiris argues that the use of Egypt's LNG facilities would be the only realistic option, currently.[42]

Vedat Yorucu and Özay Mehmet argue that Cyprus LNG would not be competitive in the gas market and that the EMGP might present technical difficulties. Instead, they argue that a pipeline between Israel, Cyprus and Turkey would be the most economically beneficial option, acknowledging, however, its improbability due to the Cyprus problem.[32]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ See:[12][13][14][15][16]
  2. ^ See:[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]
  3. ^ See:[77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84]
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  2. ^ "Greece's maritime claims 'maximalist,' violate international boundaries law". Daily Sabah. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  3. ^ "Im östlichen Mittelmeer sollen Erdgasvorkommen von mehreren Billionen Kubikmetern liegen. Das befeuert den Zypernkonflikt". Neue Zürcher Zeitung. 12 November 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
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  7. ^ "US official sends clear message to Turkey over Cyprus drilling". Kathimerini. 16 December 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2018. Turkey's view "is a minority of one versus the rest of the world," he said. "The rest of the world has a very clear, straightforward view that the exclusive economic zone of Cyprus is grounded in international law."
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  15. ^ Dr Anders Wivel; Robert Steinmetz (28 March 2013). Small States in Europe: Challenges and Opportunities. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-4094-9958-9. To this day, it remains unrecognised by the international community, except by Turkey
  16. ^ Peter Neville (22 March 2013). Historical Dictionary of British Foreign Policy. Scarecrow Press. p. 293. ISBN 978-0-8108-7371-1. ...Ecevit ordered the army to occupy the Turkish area on 20 July 1974. It became the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, but Britain, like the rest of the international community, except Turkey, refused to extend diplomatic recognition to the enclave. British efforts to secure Turkey's removal from its surrogate territory after 1974 failed.
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Further reading edit

  • Wählisch, Martin (2011-12-05). "Israel-Lebanon Offshore Oil & Gas Dispute – Rules of International Maritime Law". ASIL Insights. 15 (3).

November 02, 2023
cyprus, turkey, maritime, zones, dispute, republic, cyprus, cyprus, turkey, have, been, engaged, dispute, over, extent, their, exclusive, economic, zones, ostensibly, sparked, exploration, area, turkey, objects, cypriot, drilling, waters, that, cyprus, asserte. The Republic of Cyprus Cyprus and Turkey have been engaged in a dispute over the extent of their exclusive economic zones EEZ ostensibly sparked by oil and gas exploration in the area Turkey objects to Cypriot drilling in waters that Cyprus has asserted a claim to under international maritime law The present maritime zones dispute touches on the perennial Cyprus and Aegean disputes Turkey is the only member state of the United Nations that does not recognise Cyprus and is one of the few not signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea which Cyprus has signed and ratified Turkey Northern Cyprus Cyprus Turkey claims a portion of Cyprus EEZ based on Turkey s definition that no islands including Cyprus can have a full 200 nautical mile EEZ 1 2 authorized to coastal states and should only be entitled to their 12 nautical mile territorial seas Turkey s definition creates a dispute over the rights to waters south of Cyprus containing an offshore gas field This definition is not shared by most other states 3 4 5 6 7 Furthermore the internationally unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus TRNC which was created as result of the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus also claims portions of Cypriot EEZ Cyprus and other countries including Israel France Russia and Greece view these claims 8 9 10 11 on Cyprus land and sea as illegal under international law a and urge Turkey to refrain from illegal drilling for gas in the island s EEZ b The European Union has threatened Turkey with economic and political sanctions for violating the Cypriot EEZ 28 29 Since Turkey does not recognise the Republic of Cyprus there are no diplomatic relations between the two states The Republic of Cyprus has refused to negotiate the maritime dispute and natural resources found in Republic of Cyprus EEZ with the Turkish Cypriot leadership 30 Contents 1 Chronology 1 1 Initial discoveries and agreements 1 2 First Licensing Round and growing interest in the region 1 3 Break in Turkish Israeli relations and form of new alliances 1 4 First explorations reaction of Turkey and TRNC and Eroglu s proposal 1 5 Second Licensing Round and new proposal by Eroglu 1 6 Barbaros and NAVTEX in Cyprus waters 1 7 Eastern Mediterranean Gas Pipeline 1 8 Zohr and Third Licensing Round 1 9 Turkey s new NAVTEX and drillings 1 10 ENI s discoveries and increasing tensions 1 11 Barbaros seismic surveys new discoveries and Fatih s drilling in Republic of Cyprus EEZ 2 European Union position 3 United States position 4 Republic of Cyprus position 5 Turkish and Turkish Cypriot position 5 1 Blue Homeland 5 1 1 History 5 1 2 Turkish view 5 1 3 Views of international community 6 Potential for escalation to armed conflict 7 Views in the academic literature 7 1 On the dispute 7 2 On the approaches 7 3 Prospects for peace and conflict 7 3 1 Peace 7 3 2 Conflict 7 4 European energy security 7 5 Exploitation options 8 See also 9 References 10 Further readingChronology editInitial discoveries and agreements edit The first discoveries in the Eastern Mediterranean were made between June 1999 and February 2000 offshore Israel In 2003 Shell made the first significant discoveries of gas offshore Egypt 30 In February 2003 an EEZ delineation agreement was signed between Republic of Cyprus and Egypt 30 TRNC responded by stating that they do not recognise the agreement 30 In February 2004 after performing drillings in the area Shell s Matthias Bichsel announced that The drilling results have demonstrated that this ultra deepwater area is a rich hydrocarbon province 30 In April of the same year in two separate referendums the Annan Plan was rejected by the Greek Cypriots while accepted by the Turkish Cypriots Regarding the maritime dispute the acceptance of the Annan Plan would mean that after the solution the natural resources would be under the authority of the bicommunal Presidential Council 30 On May 1 Republic of Cyprus joined the European Union In January 2007 an EEZ delineation agreement was reached between Republic of Cyprus and Lebanon 30 However it has not been ratified by the Parliament of Lebanon yet Some argue that the reason is a dispute between Lebanon and Israel over their maritime borders 31 pressure from Turkey 30 the relations between Turkey and Lebanon 32 and a potential trade agreement between Lebanon and Turkey which was eventually signed in 2010 33 First Licensing Round and growing interest in the region edit In May 2007 the Republic of Cyprus announced the 1st Licensing Round Offshore Cyprus for Blocks 1 2 4 12 which received 3 bids 30 In October 2008 Noble Energy granted a Hydrocarbon Exploration Licence for Block 12 34 In November 2008 vessels performing research activities in the Republic of Cyprus EEZ under contract with the Republic of Cyprus were intercepted by vessels of the Turkish Navy and were asked to leave as they claimed that their activities were conducted in areas under Turkish jurisdiction 35 36 In January 2009 the first big offshore discoveries were made in the Tamar 1 offshore Israel 30 Later in March 2009 new discoveries were made offshore Israel at the Dalit 1 site 30 In March 2010 the US Geological Survey revealed that the waters of the Levant Basin contain a mean of 122 tcf 3 455 bcm of recoverable natural gas and 1 7 billion barrels of recoverable crude oil increasing the interest in the region 30 Break in Turkish Israeli relations and form of new alliances edit On May 31 of 2010 the Mavi Marmara incident took place In the Mavi Marmara or Flotilla incident activists boats were blocked by Israeli forces in international waters on their way to provide humanitarian assistance to Gaza The Israeli soldiers were met with resistance while boarding the Mavi Marmara and opened fire killing nine Turkish citizens The incident resulted to the sudden end of all diplomatic relations between Turkey and Israel 37 38 The deterioration of Turkish Israeli relations which reached its peak with the Mavi Marmara incident in connection to the discoveries made in the Leviathan field offshore Israel the greatest discoveries of gas made until then in the region in October 2010 30 and the new geopolitical realities in the Eastern Mediterranean 38 led to an unprecedented political military and energy cooperation between Israel and Cyprus and Greece 33 37 38 In December 2010 an EEZ agreement was signed between The Republic of Cyprus and Israel 30 with Turkey reacting by questioning the Greek Cypriots willingness to achieve a solution to the Cypriot Problem stating that they ignor e Turkish Cypriots rights 30 First explorations reaction of Turkey and TRNC and Eroglu s proposal edit During September 2011 Noble initiated the first exploratory drilling for Republic of Cyprus in Block 12 30 35 with Turkey reacting by delineating their EEZ with TRNC 30 Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan described the action as a reciprocal decision to the actions of Republic of Cyprus 30 During September Turkish officials issued harsh warnings towards The Republic of Cyprus in several occasions 30 On September 22 and 23 of 2011 TPAO received exploration licences from the TRNC including areas overlapping with blocks licensed by The Republic of Cyprus and Turkish vessel Piri Reis began seismographic research south of Cyprus and near Noble s platform accompanied by Turkish warships 30 35 In September 2011 Turkish Cypriot leader Dervis Eroglu submitted a proposal for mutual suspension of activities within the maritime space around Cyprus or the cooperation between the two communities on hydrocarbons on issues such as distribution of profits 30 Republic of Cyprus rejected Eroglu s proposal responding that exploration and exploitation of our natural resources constitutes a sovereign right of the Republic of Cyprus Our sovereign right is not negotiable 30 In December 2011 Noble announced discoveries in Block 12 close to Israel s Leviathan 30 35 The discovered gas field Aphrodite was declared commercial in June 2015 35 Second Licensing Round and new proposal by Eroglu edit In February 2012 Republic of Cyprus announced the 2nd Licensing Round for 12 blocks which received 15 bids 30 35 39 Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in response stated that they would not allow activities in blocks 1 4 5 6 7 which Turkey also claims theirs and would take all necessary measures to protect its rights and interests in the maritime areas falling within its continental shelf 30 On September 29 2012 a new proposal was submitted by the Turkish Cypriot side but was again rejected by the Greek Cypriot side The proposal included a bicommunal technical committee for natural resources and related agreements and revenues with a chairman appointed by the Secretary General of the UN and a pipeline transporting hydrocarbons through Turkey 30 In January 2013 ENI Kogas granted Hydrocarbon Exploration Licences for Blocks 2 3 and 9 and on the following February Total granted Hydrocarbon Exploration Licences for Blocks 10 11 35 39 Barbaros and NAVTEX in Cyprus waters edit In February 2013 TPAO finalized the purchase of 3D seismic vessel Polarcus Samur which was renamed RV Barbaros Hayreddin Pasa 40 Barbaros was used for explorations within Republic of Cyprus EEZ 32 In October 2014 Barbaros entered Republic of Cyprus EEZ accompanied by Turkish warships President of Cyprus Nicos Anastasiades reacted by withdrawing from the bi communal negotiation process for the Cypriot problem in protest for Turkey s violation of Republic of Cyprus sovereign rights 35 41 In January 2015 Turkey issued a NAVTEX for the period between January and April reserving areas in the Eastern Mediterranean that included parts of Republic of Cyprus s EEZ while Barbaros conducted research in the region in the presence of the Turkish navy 35 41 Negotiations for the Cypriot Problem resumed after Turkey s NAVTEX expired in May 2015 with newly elected Turkish Cypriot leader Mustafa Akinci 35 Eastern Mediterranean Gas Pipeline edit In May 2015 the European Commission grants 2 million to Eastern Mediterranean Gas Pipeline EMGP a proposed pipeline transferring gas from the Eastern Mediterranean to Europe through Greece for pre FEED studies 42 In January 2017 a study by Edison presented to the EU s Directorate General for Energy described the project as commercially viable and technically feasible 35 while in January 2018 the Commission granted the project another 34 5 million for the FEED study and other expenses 42 In December 2018 a framework agreement regarding the project was signed between the governments of Israel Republic of Cyprus Greece and Italy 35 On 19 May 2023 Claudio Descalzi the CEO of Italian energy company Eni said that any agreement for the construction of the EastMed pipeline must include Turkey he added that there are disputes between Turkey and Cyprus that are difficult to remedy furthermore Turkey has made an agreement with Libya to define a very vast platform that covers almost the entire EastMed therefore not only Turkey but also Libya will have a say In response to these comments George Papanastasiou the Cypriot Minister of Energy Commerce and Industry stated that not all people agree with the opinions expressed by Descalzi and that he respects his opinion 43 These remarks follow reports that Eni Cyprus and Israel are working on a deal for constructing a natural gas pipeline in the Eastern Mediterranean connecting both the Cypriot and Israeli offshore gas fields to a processing plant in Cyprus where the gas will be liquefied for export by ship to Italy and the rest of Europe 44 45 Zohr and Third Licensing Round edit In August 2015 the biggest to date discovery in the Eastern Mediterranean was made within the EEZ of Egypt in the Zohr gas field by ENI Zohr was found six kilometres away from Republic of Cyprus EEZ 46 In February 2016 the 3rd licensing round for Republic of Cyprus was announced for Blocks 6 8 and 10 46 35 Turkey s new NAVTEX and drillings edit In March 2017 Turkey announced their intention to proceed to exploration drillings in areas delimited by the Republic of Cyprus 46 In April 2017 Turkey released a NAVTEX for maritime areas east of Cyprus overlapping with the EEZ of the Republic of Cyprus for Barbaros to perform seismic surveys between April and June 35 with Republic of Cyprus again protesting for Turkey s violation of its sovereignty and sovereign rights 47 ENI s discoveries and increasing tensions edit In April 2017 ENI was granted Block 8 ENI TOTAL granted Block 6 and Block 10 was given to a cooperative bid of Exxon and QatarEnergy 42 On February 8 2018 ENI announced discoveries of lean gas within Republic of Cyprus s EEZ in well Calypso 1 of Block 6 which is also claimed by Turkey 46 48 Three days later on February 11 2018 ENI s drill ship was blocked by the Turkish navy on its way to perform drillings within Republic of Cyprus s EEZ in Block 3 and the drilling was prevented with the ship returning to the port two weeks later 46 35 The incident has been described as the first and only one until now serious incident of military activity of this kind since the beginning of the Cypriot exploratory programme 46 In November 2018 Exxon Mobil started exploratory drillings in Block 10 in the Delphyne 1 well 46 35 Barbaros seismic surveys new discoveries and Fatih s drilling in Republic of Cyprus EEZ edit In January 2019 Barbaros began a new round of seismic surveys within the EEZ of Republic of Cyprus while the Turkish navy released a NAVTEX for military exercises within Blocks 7 and 8 35 On February 28 2019 ExxonMobil announced the largest to date discoveries within the EEZ of Republic of Cyprus at Glaucus 1 within Block 10 35 In early May 2019 Turkish drilling ship Fatih 1 arrived west of Cyprus in order to perform drillings 49 with Republic of Cyprus reacting by issuing arrest warrants for the staff of Fatih and accompanying ships 50 On June 16 2019 Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlut Cavusoglu stated that Fatih began performing drillings while also announcing the arrival of a second drilling ship in the region 51 Four days later on June 20 Turkish drilling ship Yavuz began drillings northeast Cyprus as announced earlier by Turkish officials 52 53 Republic of Cyprus and Greece reacted by pushing for EU s reaction to Turkey s actions 52 As a result on 16 of July 2019 the EU suspended funding of 163 million towards Turkey as a reaction to Turkey s activities within the EEZ of Republic of Cyprus 54 Meanwhile on July 13 Turkish Cypriot leader Mustafa Akinci submitted a new proposal for a joint committee on hydrocarbons consisting of members from both communities receiving the support of the Turkish government 55 56 Akinci s proposal was rejected by president of Cyprus Nicos Anastiasiades after a meeting with the leaders of Greek Cypriot political parties 57 European Union position editIn November 2019 European Union foreign ministers have approved a mechanism to sanction entities involved in unauthorized oil drilling in Cypriot waters 58 The sanctions would involve travel bans and asset freezes on people companies and organizations EU citizens and firms will not be allowed to provide any funds or technical support to Turkey for the drilling operations 59 United States position editThe United States respects Cyprus s right to develop its resources and has repeated caution to Turkey interrupting the oil and gas research within the Cypriot EEZ 60 61 The US remains deeply concerned by Turkey s repeated attempts to conduct drilling operations in the waters off Cyprus This provocative step raises tensions in the region We urge Turkish authorities to halt these operations and encourage all parties to act with restraint and refrain from actions that increase tensions in the region stated Morgan Ortagus of the United States Department of State in 2019 62 63 64 Republic of Cyprus position edit nbsp Maritime boundaries according to the UN Convention on the Law of the SeaThe Republic of Cyprus adopted the Territorial Sea Law in 1964 The law established 12 nautical mile 22 km 14 mi territorial sea Coordinates of the territorial sea were submitted to the United Nations in 1993 and their validity was reconfirmed in 1996 30 The continental shelf of Cyprus is defined according to the Continental Shelf Law which was adopted in 1974 After ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCLOS in 1988 Cyprus adopted a new law in 2004 which limited its exclusive economic zone EEZ by 12 nautical miles 22 km 14 mi The EEZ was delimited by bilateral agreements with Israel Lebanon and Egypt 30 Cyprus has called on Turkey to delineate the sea boundaries between the two countries 65 66 67 68 The area of highest interest to Cyprus is Block 12 approximately 800 000 acres 3 200 km2 in size and on the border with Israel s own EEZ Cyprus has actively sought to reinforce its position on the global stage through congress with major international players in the situation Cypriot Foreign Minister Erato Kozakou Marcoullis began her term in office in late 2011 by visiting both Greece and Israel to request support for the drilling program 69 though it is not clear if military support was also requested It is also widely believed that Cyprus has requested support from the United States of America and the Russian Federation though the exact specifics of any representations have not been made public As of August 2011 the Cypriot media has shown widespread alarm at Turkish threats to intervene against the drilling program and has remonstrated with the Turkish position as evidence of a violation of national sovereignty and the rights of the Cypriot people In late February 2014 Cypriot president Nicos Anastasiades threatened to pull out of the new round of negotiations over the Cyprus dispute if Turkish vessels continue to intrude in Cyprus exclusive economic zone 70 Turkish and Turkish Cypriot position editTurkey is not a party to UNCLOS mainly due to the Aegean dispute with Greece and due to provisions of the article 121 of UNCLOS which states that maritime zones of islands except uninhabited rocks are determined by the same principles as for the other territories 30 71 It has limited its territorial waters by 6 nautical miles 11 km 6 9 mi and by 12 nautical miles 22 km 14 mi in the Mediterranean Sea established by the Council of Ministers of Turkey There is no national legislation on EEZ or continental shelf No EEZ proclamation exists for the Mediterranean Sea however it has signed an agreement in 2011 with the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus to delimit continental shelf 30 Turkey does not recognize Cyprus EEZ agreements with Egypt Lebanon and Israel due to the position that as a de facto divided island Republic of Cyprus cannot represent the interests of Northern Cyprus in the case the island will be reunified with a single EEZ 71 Turkey has disputed the EEZ agreement between Cyprus and Egypt based on its claims to the part of the continental shelf in that area 30 These claims are based on the viewpoint that the capacity of islands to generate maritime zones should be limited in competition with the continental coastal states 30 As a result Turkey s claims are partly overlapping with Cyprus EEZ blocks 1 4 6 and 7 71 Turkey also supports Northern Cyprus claims in blocks 1 2 3 8 9 12 and 13 including seabed within a few kilometers of the Aphrodite gas field In addition to the blocks contested between Northern Cyprus and Turkey the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus has issued exploration licenses also in above mentioned disputed blocks 71 Turkish oil company TPAO has also begun conducting oil and gas exploratory drilling off the shores of Northern Cyprus 71 72 The European Union EU acquis communautaire requires UNCLOS membership 73 The European Parliament called on Turkey to sign UNCLOS in adopting the Commission s annual report on paving the ground for EU Turkey accession negotiations in 2012 2013 and 2014 73 74 75 Turkey has repeatedly threatened to not allow the Republic of Cyprus to proceed with pursuing claims to hydrocarbon deposits in waters south of the island It has warned international oil companies not to conduct exploration and production activities in disputed zones under the threat of an exclusion from the business operations in Turkey 71 It is not clear whether the incident could escalate to violence as the Turkish Government has not made clear whether it regards oil and gas exploration by the Republic of Cyprus as an act of aggression However in November 2008 Turkish naval vessels harassed Cyprus contracted vessels conducting seismic exploration for hydrocarbon deposits in waters south of the island 76 Blue Homeland edit This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia s quality standards The specific problem is Needs integration with the rest of the article following the merger of the Blue Homeland article Please help improve this section if you can January 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message nbsp Depiction of the irredentist and expansionist Blue Homeland concept created by Cihat YayciThe Blue Homeland Turkish Mavi Vatan is an irredentist and expansionist concept and doctrine c created by the Chief of Staff of the Turkish Navy Commander Cihat Yayci and developed with Admiral Cem Gurdeniz in 2006 85 86 87 78 The doctrine is representing Turkey s territorial sea continental shelf and exclusive economic zone EEZ around the Black Sea as well as its claims of continental shelf and EEZ in the eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean 88 History edit Further information Aegean dispute On 2 September 2019 Turkey s President Recep Tayyip Erdogan appeared in a photograph with a map that depicted nearly half of the Aegean Sea and an area up to the eastern coast of Crete as belonging to Turkey The map was displayed during an official ceremony at the National Defense University of Turkey in Istanbul 89 and shows an area labelled as Turkey s Blue Homeland stretching up to the median line of the Aegean 90 enclosing the Greek islands in that part of the sea without any indication of the Greek territorial waters around them On 13 November 2019 Turkey submitted to the United Nations a series of claims to Exclusive Economic Zones in the Eastern Mediterranean that are in conflict with Greek claims to the same areas including a sea zone extending west of the southeastern Aegean island of Rhodes and south of Crete The Turkish claims were made in an official letter by Turkey s Permanent Representative to the UN Feridun Sinirlioglu which reflect Ankara s notion of a Blue Homeland Mavi Vatan Greece condemned these claims as legally unfounded incorrect and arbitrary and an outright violation of Greece s sovereignty 91 Turkish view edit Turkey s position is that islands cannot have a full Exclusive Economic Zone EEZ 92 93 and should only be entitled to a 12 nautical mile reduced EEZ or no EEZ at all rather than the usual 200 miles that Turkey and every other country are entitled to according to Article 121 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCLOS Turkey has not ratified UNCLOS and argues that it is not bound by its provisions that award islands maritime zones In this context Turkey for the first time on December 1 2019 claimed that the Greek island of Kastellorizo shouldn t have any EEZ at all because from the equity based 94 95 Turkish viewpoint it is a small island immediately across the Turkish mainland which according to Turkey has the longest coastline and isn t supposed to generate a maritime jurisdiction area four thousand times larger than its own surface Furthermore according to Turkey s Foreign Ministry an EEZ has to be coextensive with the continental shelf based on the relative lengths of adjacent coastlines 96 and described any opposing views supporting the right of islands to their EEZ as maximalist and uncompromising Greek and Greek Cypriot claims 95 94 97 On 20 January 2020 the Turkish President Erdogan challenged even the rights of Crete Greece s largest island and 5th largest in the Mediterranean stating that They talk about a continental shelf around Crete There is no continental shelf around the islands there is no such thing there it is only sovereign waters 98 Views of international community edit The Turkish position regarding the Exclusive Economic Zone EEZ is a unique interpretation not shared by any other country and not in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCLOS treaty which is signed by 168 parties but not Turkey 99 100 101 102 103 104 96 The Ambassadors of the United States and Russia to Athens Geoffrey Pyatt and Andrey Maslov respectively while commenting on Turkey s view stated that all the islands have the same rights to EEZ and continental shelf as the mainland does 105 106 107 The then US Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs Aaron Wess Mitchell criticized the Turkish view stating that it is a minority of one versus the rest of the world 108 nbsp 6 nautical miles Current territorial sea limits as recognized by Greece and Turkey in the Aegean nbsp 12 nautical miles Upper limit of territorial sea limits defined as a legal right by UNCLOS possible future claims by Greece and Turkey in the Aegean nbsp Conflicting claims to continental shelf and EEZ areas in the eastern Mediterranean Blue areas claimed by Greece and Cyprus based on UNCLOS red areas claimed by Turkey based on its own interpretation of international law nbsp Memorandum of Understanding between Turkey and the Government of National Accord in Libya on the delimitation of the maritime jurisdiction areas in the MediterraneanPotential for escalation to armed conflict editTurkey organised a major air and naval exercise at the same time as drilling by Cypriot contractors was to begin in September 2011 76 The Russian Navy in late August 2011 scrambled two nuclear attack submarines to the Eastern Mediterranean to observe the situation 109 as Cyprus and Russia have enjoyed close political and economic ties recently 110 In 2011 Israel has increased the number of surveillance flights in the Eastern Mediterranean 111 112 though it is not clear if these operations include the Nicosia Flight Information Region Views in the academic literature editOn the dispute edit Writing in 2018 Michalis Kontos and George Bitsis argue that despite great asymmetry of power Turkey will not reach their objective to have relative gains and revise the status quo offshore Cyprus due to the involvement of big oil and gas companies in Republic of Cyprus EEZ Moreover they argue that Turkey s actions are not compatible with Alexander L George s notion of coercive diplomacy neither are Republic of Cyprus actions compatible with George s notion of deterrence as neither s actions involve the use of military force 46 On the approaches edit Kontos and Bitsis argue that there has been a shift in Turkey s approach on the issue after 2011 from military threats to questioning the sovereign rights of Republic of Cyprus over their EEZ and proceeding with their own explorations in the region only to shift back to military threats in February 2018 46 Meanwhile Ayla Gurel Fiona Mullen and Harry Tzimitras also note a shift on the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot approach from protesting and warning to block Republic of Cyprus activities to taking reciprocal actions as a reaction to Republic of Cyprus unilateral actions 30 Prospects for peace and conflict edit Peace edit Many academics recognise that discoveries of gas in the region can serve as an economic incentive to resolve long lasting conflicts including the Cyprus problem and form a new energy cooperation 32 113 Vedat Yorucu and Ozay Mehmet argue that regional geopolitical developments and economic conditions in Cyprus have made the solution to the Cyprus problem more urgent A solution to the Cyprus problem and the consequent EEZ dispute would be a win win scenario for all parties involved and transform Cyprus to an energy sub hub if connected to Ceyhan Turkey 32 Others however argue that geopolitical realities don t favour peace and regional cooperation between the actors involved including Turkey Greece and Cyprus 33 Conflict edit Academics also recognise the possibility that recent gas discoveries in the region can exacerbate existing conflicts 32 113 According to Andreas Stergiou the actions of Eastern Mediterranean states in regard to their energy projects show that states prioritize security concerns over economic The discoveries made in the region have only exacerbated existing conflicts and made reconciliation even more improbable 33 European energy security edit Writing in 2012 ELIAMEP s Thanos Dokos noted that the need for oil and gas for Europe would be a motive for NATO and the EU to actively secure their supply through operations in the Eastern Mediterranean highlighting the region s importance for European energy and economic security 114 Writing in 2018 Theodoros Tsakiris argued that the discoveries made in the Eastern Mediterranean including those within Republic of Cyprus EEZ could help EU s efforts to diversify their gas supply in order to decrease their dependency on Russian gas which limits the EU s energy security and the capacity to act politically and economically against Russia If transferred as LNG or through the EMGP EU could also avoid a future overdependence on Turkey s Trans Anatolian pipeline 42 Exploitation options edit According to Tsakiris despite the interest shown by Italy Greece Republic of Cyprus Israel and EU the profitability of the EMGP project is debatable due to various reasons such as the pipeline s length and depth and limited findings of gas in Republic of Cyprus EEZ Tsakiris argues that the use of Egypt s LNG facilities would be the only realistic option currently 42 Vedat Yorucu and Ozay Mehmet argue that Cyprus LNG would not be competitive in the gas market and that the EMGP might present technical difficulties Instead they argue that a pipeline between Israel Cyprus and Turkey would be the most economically beneficial option acknowledging however its improbability due to the Cyprus problem 32 See also edit2018 Cyprus gas dispute Cyprus dispute Northern Cyprus Neo Ottomanism Exclusive economic zone of Greece Aegean dispute Libya GNA Turkey maritime dealReferences edit See 12 13 14 15 16 See 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 See 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 Turkey sends non paper to EU warning to stay away from Cyprus EEZ KeepTalkingGreece 23 June 2019 Retrieved 11 July 2019 Greece s maritime claims maximalist violate international boundaries law Daily Sabah 13 June 2019 Retrieved 11 July 2019 Im ostlichen Mittelmeer sollen Erdgasvorkommen von mehreren Billionen Kubikmetern liegen Das befeuert den Zypernkonflikt Neue Zurcher Zeitung 12 November 2018 Retrieved 13 November 2018 NZZ Boreholes rekindle the Cyprus problem original NZZ Oi gewtrhseis anazwpyrwnoyn to Kypriako Kathimerini 13 November 2018 Retrieved 13 November 2018 Cypriot EEZ and Kastellorizo Erdogan s geostrategic stakes Original Kypriakh AOZ kai Kastellorizo To gewstrathgiko diakybeyma toy Erntogan SLPress 4 August 2019 Retrieved 5 August 2019 Turkey Libya maritime agreement draws Greek ire ArabNews 30 November 2019 Retrieved 30 November 2019 Last year Wess Mitchell US assistant secretary of state for European and Eurasian affairs sent a message to Ankara over the drilling activities for hydrocarbons underway in Cyprus s exclusive economic zone He said that Turkey s view is a minority of one versus the rest of the world US official sends clear message to Turkey over Cyprus drilling Kathimerini 16 December 2018 Retrieved 16 December 2018 Turkey s view is a minority of one versus the rest of the world he said The rest of the world has a very clear straightforward view that the exclusive economic zone of Cyprus is grounded in international law Wess Mitchell sends clear message to Turkey over Cyprus Kathimerini 21 December 2018 Retrieved 18 July 2019 Gas Partnership Netanyahu Visits Cyprus Retrieved 1 April 2017 Makris A Cyprus Calls on Turkey to Steer Away From Threats GreekReporter com Retrieved 1 April 2017 Athens Paris Moscow and Cairo urge Ankara not to violate Cyprus sovereignty Kathimerini 9 July 2019 Retrieved 10 July 2017 European Consortium for Church State Research Conference 2007 Churches and Other Religious Organisations as Legal Persons Proceedings of the 17th Meeting of the European Consortium for Church and State Research Hoor Sweden 17 20 November 2005 Peeters Publishers p 50 ISBN 978 90 429 1858 0 There is little data concerning recognition of the legal status of religions in the occupied territories since any acts of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus are not recognized by either the Republic of Cyprus or the international community Quigley 2010 09 06 The Statehood of Palestine Cambridge University Press p 164 ISBN 978 1 139 49124 2 The international community found this declaration invalid on the ground that Turkey had occupied territory belonging to Cyprus and that the putative state was therefore an infringement on Cypriot sovereignty Nathalie Tocci January 2004 EU Accession Dynamics and Conflict Resolution Catalysing Peace Or Consolidating Partition in Cyprus Ashgate Publishing Ltd p 56 ISBN 978 0 7546 4310 4 The occupied territory included 70 percent of the island s economic potential with over 50 percent of the industrial In addition since partition Turkey encouraged mainland immigration to northern Cyprus The international community excluding Turkey condemned the unilateral declaration of independence UDI as a Dr Anders Wivel Robert Steinmetz 28 March 2013 Small States in Europe Challenges and Opportunities Ashgate Publishing Ltd p 165 ISBN 978 1 4094 9958 9 To this day it remains unrecognised by the international community except by Turkey Peter Neville 22 March 2013 Historical Dictionary of British Foreign Policy Scarecrow Press p 293 ISBN 978 0 8108 7371 1 Ecevit ordered the army to occupy the Turkish area on 20 July 1974 It became the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus but Britain like the rest of the international community except Turkey refused to extend diplomatic recognition to the enclave British efforts to secure Turkey s removal from its surrogate territory after 1974 failed U S and EU concerned by Turkey s plans to drill off Cyprus Reuters 2019 05 06 Retrieved 10 July 2019 Southern EU leaders express support for Cyprus amid Turkish energy ambitions Kathimerini Retrieved 10 July 2019 EPP Group urges prompt EU answer to Turkish actions in Cyprus eppgroup eu Retrieved 10 July 2019 France Urges Turkey to Halt Illegal Activities in Cyprus aawsat com Retrieved 10 July 2019 France sends strict warning to Turkey on Cyprus EEZ EP President also expresses support balkaneu com 2019 05 06 Retrieved 10 July 2019 US urges Turkey against drilling off Cyprus france24 com 2019 05 06 Retrieved 10 July 2019 Armenia urges Turkey to cease all activities within Cyprus EEZ panorama am Retrieved 10 July 2019 Israel backs Cyprus as Turkey vows to continue drilling in its waters Times of Israel Retrieved 10 July 2019 Israel gives Cyprus full support in gas drilling dispute with Turkey The Jerusalem Post Retrieved 10 July 2019 EEZ Switzerland s Foreign Minister on Cyprus s side original AOZ Sto pleyro ths Kyproy kai o Elbetos YPE3 onalert gr 2019 07 10 Retrieved 10 July 2019 Saudi Arabia We support our ally Cyprus against Turkey s activities in Mediterranean Middle East Monitor 13 September 2019 Retrieved 15 September 2019 EU leaders blast Turkey over Cyprus EEZ order list of sanctions tovima gr 2019 06 21 Retrieved 10 July 2019 Turkey s East Med ambitions facing EU roadblock Bloomberg ahvalnews com Retrieved 10 July 2019 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Gurel Ayla Mullen Fiona Tzimitras Harry 2013 The Cyprus Hydrocarbons Issue Context Positions and Future Scenarios PDF PCC Report Peace Research Institute Oslo pp 1 64 ISBN 9788272884863 Bilgin Mert 2019 Prospects of Natural Gas in Turkey and Israel Contemporary Israeli Turkish Relations in Comparative Perspective Springer International Publishing pp 195 215 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 05786 2 8 ISBN 9783030057855 S2CID 159215985 a b c d e f Yorucu Vedat Mehmet Ozay 2018 The Southern Energy Corridor Turkey s Role in European Energy Security Lecture Notes in Energy Vol 60 Springer International Publishing doi 10 1007 978 3 319 63636 8 ISBN 978 3 319 63635 1 a b c d Stergiou Andreas 2017 Energy security in the Eastern Mediterranean International Journal of Global Energy Issues 40 5 320 doi 10 1504 ijgei 2017 10008015 ISSN 0954 7118 Republic of Cyprus 1st Licensing Round www mcit gov cy Retrieved 2019 07 24 permanent dead link a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Hazou Elias 2016 Drilling for Cyprus gas a timeline Cyprus Mail Inan Yuksel Ercan Pinar Gozen 2017 Maritime Relations of Peninsular Turkey Surrounded by Hostile or Peaceful Waters Turkish Foreign Policy Springer International Publishing pp 281 301 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 50451 3 14 ISBN 9783319504506 a b Almog Orna Sever Aysegul 2019 The Mavi Marmara An Embattled Voyage and Its Consequences Contemporary Israeli Turkish Relations in Comparative Perspective Springer International Publishing pp 61 100 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 05786 2 4 ISBN 9783030057855 S2CID 134666064 a b c Ersoy Tugce 2019 Emerging Alliances Deteriorating Relations Turkey Israel and Greece in the Eastern Mediterranean Contemporary Israeli Turkish Relations in Comparative Perspective Springer International Publishing pp 101 137 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 05786 2 5 ISBN 9783030057855 S2CID 159222985 a b Republic of Cyprus 2nd Licensing Round www mcit gov cy Retrieved 2019 07 24 permanent dead link Polarcus 11 February 2013 Polarcus completes sale of Polarcus Samur www polarcus com Retrieved 2019 07 24 a b Skordas Aggelos 2 April 2015 Turkish Research Vessel Barbaros Leaves Cyprus EEZ Greek Reporter Retrieved 24 July 2019 a b c d e Tsakiris Theodoros 2018 The Importance of East Mediterranean Gas for EU Energy Security The Role of Cyprus Israel and Egypt The Cyprus Review 30 1 23 48 No EastMed pipeline without Turkey ENI says Cyprus Mail 19 May 2023 Retrieved 20 May 2023 Israel pushes for increased gas exports to Italy Euro News 10 March 2023 Retrieved 23 May 2023 Cyprus Israel working on deal for natural gas pipeline processing plant in Cyprus Associated Press 15 May 2023 Retrieved 23 May 2023 a b c d e f g h i Kontos Michalis Bitsis George 2018 Power Games in the Exclusive Economic Zone of the Republic of Cyprus The Trouble with Turkey s Coercive Diplomacy The Cyprus Review 30 1 51 70 Republic of Cyprus 19 April 2017 Press release by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the NAVTEX issued by Turkey on 19 04 2017 www mfa gov cy Retrieved 2019 07 24 ENI 2018 02 08 Eni announces a gas discovery Offshore Cyprus www eni com Retrieved 2019 07 24 Greece Cyprus pressure EU to act over Turkey gas drilling as Reuters 2019 06 18 Retrieved 2019 07 24 Fatih arrest warrants paying off sources say ekathimerini com 15 June 2019 Retrieved 2019 07 24 Turkish FM says Fatih has started drilling west of Cyprus ekathimerini com 14 June 2019 Retrieved 2019 07 24 a b Turkey sends second ship to drill near Cyprus EU warns of action Reuters 2019 06 20 Retrieved 2019 07 24 Smith Helena 2019 06 18 Greece and Cyprus call on EU to punish Turkey in drilling dispute The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 2019 07 24 Stevis Gridneff Matina 2019 07 15 E U Punishes Turkey for Gas Drilling Off Cyprus Coast The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 2019 07 24 Christou Jean 2019 07 13 Akinci submits gas cooperation proposal through UN Update 3 Cyprus Mail Retrieved 2019 07 24 Republic of Turkey No 203 13 July 2019 Press Release Regarding The New Cooperation Proposal of TRNC on Hydrocarbon Resources Republic of Turkey s Ministry of Foreign Affairs Retrieved 2019 07 24 Christou Jean 2019 07 16 Party leaders reject Akinci proposal in joint statement update 3 Cyprus Mail Retrieved 2019 07 24 Christou EU targets Turkey s oil drilling off Cyprus coast Deutsche Welle Retrieved 2019 11 12 EU Unveils Sanctions Plan to Hit Turkey Over Cyprus Drilling The New York Times Retrieved 2019 11 12 The Race for Natural Gas Will the Eastern Mediterranean Become a World Center for the Natural Gas Retrieved 2019 08 22 US Worry Grows Over Turkey s Drilling Plan Off Cyprus 2019 06 07 Retrieved 2019 08 22 U S Embassy in Cyprus Statement on Turkish Drilling in Cypriot Claimed Waters 2019 07 10 Archived from the original on 2019 07 23 Retrieved 2019 08 10 US cautions Turkey over Cyprus Retrieved 2019 08 10 U S tightens links with Cyprus warns Turkey over EEZ infractions Archived from the original on 2019 08 23 Retrieved 2019 08 10 U S Embassy in Cyprus Ambassador Garber s Interview with Thanasis Athanasiou published in Alithia 2019 07 29 Archived from the original on 2019 08 23 Retrieved 2019 08 22 Cyprus gas discoveries spark US Russian gamesmanship Deutsche Welle Retrieved 2019 08 22 Turkey s Big Energy Grab 25 July 2019 Retrieved 2019 08 22 EU draws up measures against Turkey over Cyprus drilling 2019 07 12 Retrieved 2019 08 22 Evripidou Stefanos August 26 2011 Marcoullis we got the support we needed and are very satisfied Cyprus Mail Report Archived from the original on September 8 2011 Retrieved August 31 2011 Negotiations will end if Turkey violates South s EEZ Anastasiades LGC news Lemon Grove Cyprus 2014 02 24 Retrieved 2014 03 07 a b c d e f Emerson Michael 2013 Fishing for Gas and More in Cypriot Waters PDF Insight Turkey SETA 15 1 165 181 ISSN 1302 177X Archived from the original PDF on 2014 03 09 Retrieved 2014 03 09 Hadjicostis Menelaos 2012 04 26 Turkey starts oil gas search in north Cyprus Associated Press Retrieved 2014 03 10 a b Gultasli Selcuk 2012 01 06 European Parliament tells EU to cooperate against terrorist PKK Today s Zaman Archived from the original on 2014 03 17 Retrieved 2014 03 17 EP resolution calls for the withdrawal of occupation troops from Cyprus Famagusta Gazette 2013 04 19 Archived from the original on 2013 04 30 Retrieved 2014 03 17 Eyrwboylh PShfisma gia ola ta goysta O Fileley8eros 2014 03 13 Retrieved 2014 03 17 a b Evripidou Stefanos August 24 2011 As drilling looms Wikileaks reveals previous tensions Cyprus Mail Report Archived from the original on August 31 2011 Retrieved August 31 2011 How two 16th century pirates inspired Erdogan s foreign policy David Lepeska The National News 14 October 2019 Retrieved 30 November 2019 a b Turkish admiral s resignation exposes a new showdown in Ankara Yavuz Baydar Ahval News 20 May 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Turkish presidency releases video promoting Blue Homeland doctrine Kathimerini 28 September 2020 Retrieved 30 November 2019 Biden and Erdogan Five Potential Flashpoints in US Turkish Relations Aykan Erdemir Balkan Insight 19 November 2020 Retrieved 30 November 2019 How Erodgan led Turkey went from NATO ally to liability David Romano Arab News 4 September 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Turkey Greece tensions Mediterranean waters roiled by Blue Homeland doctine Washington Post 27 September 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Turkey s unfinished war with the West Simon Schofield Jerusalem Post 1 November 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Nicolas Baverez Il faut arreter Recep Tayyip Erdogan Le Figaro 1 November 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Fatih again in the Cypriot EEZ BalkanEU 15 November 2019 Retrieved 26 October 2020 Turkey Erdogan dismisses the father of the Blue Homeland BalkanEU 16 May 2020 Retrieved 26 October 2020 Blue Homeland the doctrine behind Turkey s Mediterranean claims Andrew Wilks The National News 14 August 2020 Retrieved 26 November 2020 Aydinlik 2020 12 04 Archived from the original on 2020 12 04 Retrieved 2020 12 09 Erdogan takes photograph in front of Blue Homeland map Kathimerini 2 September 2019 Retrieved 30 November 2019 Mariano Giustino Dentro la dottrina marittima turca della Mavi Vatan che accende lo scontro con la Grecia huffingtonpost 26 08 2020 Turkey eyeing area west of Rhodes Kathimerini 28 November 2019 Retrieved 30 November 2019 Turkey sends non paper to EU warning to stay away from Cyprus EEZ KeepTalkingGreece 23 June 2019 Retrieved 11 July 2019 Greece s maritime claims maximalist violate international boundaries law Daily Sabah 13 June 2019 Retrieved 11 July 2019 a b QA 73 1 December 2019 Statement of the Spokesperson of the Ministry of the Foreign Affairs Mr Hami Aksoy in Response to a Question Regarding the Statements Made by Greece and Egypt on the Agreement Signed With Libya on the Maritime Jurisdiction Areas Ministry of the Foreign Affairs of Turkey 1 December 2019 Retrieved 12 December 2020 a b Turkey defends maritime deal with Libya Kathimerini 1 December 2019 Retrieved 5 December 2019 a b Turkey Libya delimitation deal raises geopolitical tensions New Europe 1 December 2019 Retrieved 2 December 2019 Turkey defines its EEZ to be coextensive with its continental shelf based the relative lengths of adjacent coastlines which completely disadvantages islands It is a unique interpretation not shared by any other country and not in accordance to the United Nations UNCLOS treaty ratified by 167 countries but not Turkey New provocation by Turkey disputes openly the continental shelf in Kastellorizo original Nea proklhsh ths Toyrkias Amfisbhtei anoixta thn yfalokrhpida sto Kastelorizo in gr 1 December 2019 Retrieved 1 December 2019 Erdogan claims that Crete islands have no continental shelf Kathimerini 20 January 2020 Retrieved 8 June 2020 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea CHAPTER XXI LAW OF THE SEA treaties un org Retrieved 2022 05 31 Im ostlichen Mittelmeer sollen Erdgasvorkommen von mehreren Billionen Kubikmetern liegen Das befeuert den Zypernkonflikt Neue Zurcher Zeitung 12 November 2018 Retrieved 13 November 2018 NZZ Boreholes rekindle the Cyprus problem original NZZ Oi gewtrhseis anazwpyrwnoyn to Kypriako Kathimerini 13 November 2018 Retrieved 13 November 2018 Cypriot EEZ and Kastellorizo Erdogan s geostrategic stakes Original Kypriakh AOZ kai Kastellorizo To gewstrathgiko diakybeyma toy Erntogan SLPress 4 August 2019 Retrieved 5 August 2019 Turkey Libya maritime agreement draws Greek ire ArabNews 30 November 2019 Retrieved 30 November 2019 Last year Wess Mitchell US assistant secretary of state for European and Eurasian affairs sent a message to Ankara over the drilling activities for hydrocarbons underway in Cyprus s exclusive economic zone He said that Turkey s view is a minority of one versus the rest of the world US official sends clear message to Turkey over Cyprus drilling Kathimerini 16 December 2018 Retrieved 16 December 2018 Turkey s view is a minority of one versus the rest of the world he said The rest of the world has a very clear straightforward view that the exclusive economic zone of Cyprus is grounded in international law US envoy Islands are entitled to EEZ continental shelf Kathimerini 8 February 2020 Retrieved 8 June 2020 Geoffrey Pyatt All Greek islands have EEZ Ethnos 20 February 2020 Retrieved 8 June 2020 Russian Ambassador to Athens The islands have continental shelf and EEZ Original Rwsos presbhs sthn A8hna Ta nhsia exoyn yfalokrhpida kai AOZ CNN 14 June 2020 Retrieved 14 June 2020 Wess Mitchell sends clear message to Turkey over Cyprus Kathimerini 21 December 2018 Retrieved 8 June 2020 Fenwick Sarah 2011 08 25 Russia Sends Nuclear Subs To Patrol Cyprus Waters Cyprus News Report Retrieved 2014 02 13 Barnes Taylor 2010 07 01 Russian spy ring paymaster disappears from Cyprus The Christian Science Monitor Retrieved 2014 02 13 NPR dead link Cyprus and Turkey Oil Troubles Cyprus Echo December 2014 Archived from the original on 14 February 2017 Retrieved 13 February 2017 a b Cohen Erez 2018 Development of Israel s natural gas resources Political security and economic dimensions Resources Policy 57 137 146 Bibcode 2018RePol 57 137C doi 10 1016 j resourpol 2018 02 011 ISSN 0301 4207 S2CID 158298944 Dokos Thanos 2012 11 26 The evolving security environment in the eastern Mediterranean is NATO still a relevant actor Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 12 4 575 590 doi 10 1080 14683857 2012 744160 ISSN 1468 3857 S2CID 153386236 Further reading editWahlisch Martin 2011 12 05 Israel Lebanon Offshore Oil amp Gas Dispute Rules of International Maritime Law ASIL Insights 15 3 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Cyprus Turkey maritime zones dispute amp oldid 1164615545, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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