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Cinder cone

January 31, 2023

For peaks named "Cinder Cone", see List of peaks named Cinder Cone.

A cinder cone (or scoria cone[1]) is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as volcanic clinkers, volcanic ash, or scoria that has been built around a volcanic vent.[2][3] The pyroclastic fragments are formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from a single, typically cylindrical, vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders, clinkers, or scoria around the vent to form a cone that often is symmetrical; with slopes between 30 and 40°; and a nearly circular ground plan.[4] Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit.[2]

Schematic of the internal structure of a typical cinder cone

Mechanics of eruption

 
Cross-section diagram of a cinder cone or scoria cone

Cinder cones range in size from tens to hundreds of meters tall[3] and often have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit.[2] They are composed of loose pyroclastic material (cinder or scoria), which distinguishes them from spatter cones, which are composed of agglomerated volcanic bombs.[5]

The pyroclastic material making up a cinder cone is usually basaltic to andesitic in composition.[6] It is often glassy and contains numerous gas bubbles "frozen" into place as magma exploded into the air and then cooled quickly. Lava fragments larger than 64 mm across, known as volcanic bombs, are also a common product of cinder cone eruptions.[3]

The growth of a cinder cone may be divided into four stages. In the first stage, a low-rimmed scoria ring forms around the erupting event. During the second stage, the rim is built up and a talus slope begins to form outside the rim. The third stage is characterized by slumping and blast that destroy the original rim, while the fourth stage is characterized by the buildup of talus beyond the zone where cinder falls to the surface (the ballistic zone).[7]

During the waning stage of a cinder cone eruption, the magma has lost most of its gas content. This gas-depleted magma does not fountain but oozes quietly into the crater or beneath the base of the cone as lava.[8] Lava rarely issues from the top (except as a fountain) because the loose, uncemented cinders are too weak to support the pressure exerted by molten rock as it rises toward the surface through the central vent.[3] Because it contains so few gas bubbles, the molten lava is denser than the bubble-rich cinders.[8] Thus, it often burrows out along the bottom of the cinder cone, lifting the less dense cinders like corks on water, and advances outward, creating a lava flow around the cone's base.[8] When the eruption ends, a symmetrical cone of cinders sits at the center of a surrounding pad of lava.[8] If the crater is fully breached, the remaining walls form an amphitheater or horseshoe shape around the vent.

Occurrence

 
Cinders at a cinder cone in San Bernardino Valley, Arizona

Basaltic cinder cones are the most characteristic type of volcano associated with intraplate volcanism.[9] They are particularly common in association with alkaline magmatism, in which the erupted lava is enriched in sodium and potassium oxides.[10]

Cinder cones are also commonly found on the flanks of shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, and calderas.[3] For example, geologists have identified nearly 100 cinder cones on the flanks of Mauna Kea, a shield volcano located on the island of Hawaii.[3] Such cinder cones likely represent the final stages of activity of a mafic volcano.[11] However, most volcanic cones formed in Hawaiian-type eruptions are spatter cones rather than cinder cones, due to the fluid nature of the lava.[12]

The most famous cinder cone, Paricutin, grew out of a corn field in Mexico in 1943 from a new vent.[3] Eruptions continued for nine years, built the cone to a height of 424 meters (1,391 ft), and produced lava flows that covered 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi).[3]

The Earth's most historically active cinder cone is Cerro Negro in Nicaragua.[3] It is part of a group of four young cinder cones NW of Las Pilas volcano. Since its initial eruption in 1850, it has erupted more than 20 times, most recently in 1995 and 1999.[3]

Satellite images suggest that cinder cones occur on other terrestrial bodies in the solar system.[13] On Mars, they have been reported on the flanks of Pavonis Mons in Tharsis,[14][15] in the region of Hydraotes Chaos[16] on the bottom of the Coprates Chasma,[17] or in the volcanic field Ulysses Colles.[18] It is also suggested that domical structures in Marius Hills (on the Moon) might represent lunar cinder cones.[19]

Effect of environmental conditions

 
SP Crater, an extinct cinder cone in Arizona

The size and shape of cinder cones depend on environmental properties as different gravity and/or atmospheric pressure might change the dispersion of ejected scoria particles.[13] For example, cinder cones on Mars seem to be more than two times wider than terrestrial analogues[18] as lower atmospheric pressure and gravity enable wider dispersion of ejected particles over a larger area.[13][20] Therefore, it seems that erupted amount of material is not sufficient on Mars for the flank slopes to attain the angle of repose and Martian cinder cones seem to be ruled mainly by ballistic distribution and not by material redistribution on flanks as typical on Earth.[20]

Cinder cones often are highly symmetric, but strong prevailing winds at the time of eruption can cause a greater accumulation of cinder on the downwind side of the vent.[11]

Monogenetic cones

 
Parícutin erupting in 1943

Some cinder cones are monogenetic, forming from a single short eruptive episode that produces a very small volume of lava. The eruption typically last just weeks or months, but can occasionally last fifteen years or longer.[21] Parícutin in Mexico, Diamond Head, Koko Head, Punchbowl Crater, Mt Le Brun from the Coalstoun Lakes volcanic field, and some cinder cones on Mauna Kea are monogenetic cinder cones. However, not all cinder cones are monogenetic, with some ancient cinder cones showing intervals of soil formation between flows that indicate that eruptions were separated by thousands to tens of thousands of years.[21]

Monogenetic cones likely form when the rate of magma supply to a volcanic field is very low and the eruptions are spread out in space and time. This prevents any one eruption from establishing a system of "plumbing" that would provide an easy path to the surface for subsequent eruptions. Thus each eruption must find its own independent path to the surface.[22][23]

See also

References

  1. ^ Allaby, Michael (2013). "cinder cone". A dictionary of geology and earth sciences (Fourth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199653065.
  2. ^ a b c Poldervaart, A (1971). "Volcanicity and forms of extrusive bodies". In Green, J; Short, NM (eds.). Volcanic Landforms and Surface Features: A Photographic Atlas and Glossary. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-3-642-65152-6.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j   This article incorporates public domain material from . United States Geological Survey.
  4. ^ Clarke, Hilary; Troll, Valentin R.; Carracedo, Juan Carlos (2009-03-10). "Phreatomagmatic to Strombolian eruptive activity of basaltic cinder cones: Montaña Los Erales, Tenerife, Canary Islands". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. Models and products of mafic explosive activity. 180 (2): 225–245. Bibcode:2009JVGR..180..225C. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.11.014. ISSN 0377-0273.
  5. ^ Fisher, R.V.; Schmincke, H.-U. (1984). Pyroclastic rocks. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 96. ISBN 3540127569.
  6. ^ Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "cinder cone". Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349.
  7. ^ Fisher & Schmincke 1984, p. 150.
  8. ^ a b c d   This article incorporates public domain material from Susan S. Priest; Wendell A. Duffield; Nancy R. Riggs; Brian Poturalski; Karen Malis-Clark (2002). Red Mountain Volcano – A Spectacular and Unusual Cinder Cone in Northern Arizona. United States Geological Survey. USGS Fact Sheet 024-02. Retrieved 2012-05-18.
  9. ^ Fisher & Schmincke 1984, p. 14.
  10. ^ Fisher & Schmincke 1984, p. 198.
  11. ^ a b Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (1992). Physical geology : exploring the Earth. St. Paul: West Pub. Co. p. 98. ISBN 0314921958.
  12. ^ Macdonald, Gordon A.; Abbott, Agatin T.; Peterson, Frank L. (1983). Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii (2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0824808320.
  13. ^ a b c Wood, C.A. (1979). "Cinder cones on Earth, Moon and Mars". Lunar Planet. Sci. Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Vol. X. pp. 1370–72. Bibcode:1979LPI....10.1370W.
  14. ^ Bleacher, J.E.; Greeley, R.; Williams, D.A.; Cave, S.R.; Neukum, G. (2007). "Trends in effusive style at the Tharsis Montes, Mars, and implications for the development of the Tharsis province". J. Geophys. Res. 112 (E9): E09005. Bibcode:2007JGRE..112.9005B. doi:10.1029/2006JE002873.
  15. ^ Keszthelyi, L.; Jaeger, W.; McEwen, A.; Tornabene, L.; Beyer, R.A.; Dundas, C.; Milazzo, M. (2008). "High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images of volcanic terrains from the first 6 months of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter primary science phase". J. Geophys. Res. 113 (E4): E04005. Bibcode:2008JGRE..113.4005K. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.455.1381. doi:10.1029/2007JE002968.
  16. ^ Meresse, S; Costard, F; Mangold, N.; Masson, Philippe; Neukum, Gerhard; the HRSC Co-I Team (2008). "Formation and evolution of the chaotic terrains by subsidence and magmatism: Hydraotes Chaos, Mars". Icarus. 194 (2): 487. Bibcode:2008Icar..194..487M. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.10.023.
  17. ^ Brož, Petr; Hauber, Ernst; Wray, James J.; Michael, Gregory (2017). "Amazonian volcanism inside Valles Marineris on Mars". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 473: 122–130. Bibcode:2017E&PSL.473..122B. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.06.003.
  18. ^ a b Brož, P; Hauber, E (2012). "A unique volcanic field in Tharsis, Mars: Pyroclastic cones as evidence for explosive eruptions". Icarus. 218 (1): 88–99. Bibcode:2012Icar..218...88B. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.030.
  19. ^ Lawrence, SJ; Stopar, Julie D.; Hawke, B. Ray; Greenhagen, Benjamin T.; Cahill, Joshua T. S.; Bandfield, Joshua L.; Jolliff, Bradley L.; Denevi, Brett W.; Robinson, Mark S.; Glotch, Timothy D.; Bussey, D. Benjamin J.; Spudis, Paul D.; Giguere, Thomas A.; Garry, W. Brent (2013). "LRO observations of morphology and surface roughness of volcanic cones and lobate lava flows in the Marius Hills". J. Geophys. Res. Planets. 118 (4): 615–34. Bibcode:2013JGRE..118..615L. doi:10.1002/jgre.20060.
  20. ^ a b Brož, Petr; Čadek, Ondřej; Hauber, Ernst; Rossi, Angelo Pio (2014). "Shape of scoria cones on Mars: Insights from numerical modeling of ballistic pathways". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 406: 14–23. Bibcode:2014E&PSL.406...14B. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.09.002.
  21. ^ a b Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003). Volcanism. Berlin: Springer. pp. 99–101, 340. ISBN 978-3-540-43650-8.
  22. ^ McGee, Lucy E.; Smith, Ian E. M.; Millet, Marc-Alban; Handley, Heather K.; Lindsay, Jan M. (October 2013). "Asthenospheric Control of Melting Processes in a Monogenetic Basaltic System: a Case Study of the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand". Journal of Petrology. 54 (10): 2125–2153. doi:10.1093/petrology/egt043.
  23. ^ "Monogenetic fields". Volcano World. Oregon State University. 15 April 2010. Retrieved 17 December 2021.

External links

  •   Media related to Cinder cones (category) at Wikimedia Commons

January 31, 2023
cinder, cone, peaks, named, cinder, cone, list, peaks, named, cinder, cone, cinder, cone, scoria, cone, steep, conical, hill, loose, pyroclastic, fragments, such, volcanic, clinkers, volcanic, scoria, that, been, built, around, volcanic, vent, pyroclastic, fra. For peaks named Cinder Cone see List of peaks named Cinder Cone A cinder cone or scoria cone 1 is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments such as volcanic clinkers volcanic ash or scoria that has been built around a volcanic vent 2 3 The pyroclastic fragments are formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from a single typically cylindrical vent As the gas charged lava is blown violently into the air it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders clinkers or scoria around the vent to form a cone that often is symmetrical with slopes between 30 and 40 and a nearly circular ground plan 4 Most cinder cones have a bowl shaped crater at the summit 2 Schematic of the internal structure of a typical cinder cone Contents 1 Mechanics of eruption 2 Occurrence 3 Effect of environmental conditions 4 Monogenetic cones 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksMechanics of eruption Edit Cross section diagram of a cinder cone or scoria cone Cinder cones range in size from tens to hundreds of meters tall 3 and often have a bowl shaped crater at the summit 2 They are composed of loose pyroclastic material cinder or scoria which distinguishes them from spatter cones which are composed of agglomerated volcanic bombs 5 The pyroclastic material making up a cinder cone is usually basaltic to andesitic in composition 6 It is often glassy and contains numerous gas bubbles frozen into place as magma exploded into the air and then cooled quickly Lava fragments larger than 64 mm across known as volcanic bombs are also a common product of cinder cone eruptions 3 The growth of a cinder cone may be divided into four stages In the first stage a low rimmed scoria ring forms around the erupting event During the second stage the rim is built up and a talus slope begins to form outside the rim The third stage is characterized by slumping and blast that destroy the original rim while the fourth stage is characterized by the buildup of talus beyond the zone where cinder falls to the surface the ballistic zone 7 During the waning stage of a cinder cone eruption the magma has lost most of its gas content This gas depleted magma does not fountain but oozes quietly into the crater or beneath the base of the cone as lava 8 Lava rarely issues from the top except as a fountain because the loose uncemented cinders are too weak to support the pressure exerted by molten rock as it rises toward the surface through the central vent 3 Because it contains so few gas bubbles the molten lava is denser than the bubble rich cinders 8 Thus it often burrows out along the bottom of the cinder cone lifting the less dense cinders like corks on water and advances outward creating a lava flow around the cone s base 8 When the eruption ends a symmetrical cone of cinders sits at the center of a surrounding pad of lava 8 If the crater is fully breached the remaining walls form an amphitheater or horseshoe shape around the vent Occurrence Edit Cinders at a cinder cone in San Bernardino Valley Arizona Basaltic cinder cones are the most characteristic type of volcano associated with intraplate volcanism 9 They are particularly common in association with alkaline magmatism in which the erupted lava is enriched in sodium and potassium oxides 10 Cinder cones are also commonly found on the flanks of shield volcanoes stratovolcanoes and calderas 3 For example geologists have identified nearly 100 cinder cones on the flanks of Mauna Kea a shield volcano located on the island of Hawaii 3 Such cinder cones likely represent the final stages of activity of a mafic volcano 11 However most volcanic cones formed in Hawaiian type eruptions are spatter cones rather than cinder cones due to the fluid nature of the lava 12 The most famous cinder cone Paricutin grew out of a corn field in Mexico in 1943 from a new vent 3 Eruptions continued for nine years built the cone to a height of 424 meters 1 391 ft and produced lava flows that covered 25 km2 9 7 sq mi 3 The Earth s most historically active cinder cone is Cerro Negro in Nicaragua 3 It is part of a group of four young cinder cones NW of Las Pilas volcano Since its initial eruption in 1850 it has erupted more than 20 times most recently in 1995 and 1999 3 Satellite images suggest that cinder cones occur on other terrestrial bodies in the solar system 13 On Mars they have been reported on the flanks of Pavonis Mons in Tharsis 14 15 in the region of Hydraotes Chaos 16 on the bottom of the Coprates Chasma 17 or in the volcanic field Ulysses Colles 18 It is also suggested that domical structures in Marius Hills on the Moon might represent lunar cinder cones 19 Effect of environmental conditions Edit SP Crater an extinct cinder cone in Arizona The size and shape of cinder cones depend on environmental properties as different gravity and or atmospheric pressure might change the dispersion of ejected scoria particles 13 For example cinder cones on Mars seem to be more than two times wider than terrestrial analogues 18 as lower atmospheric pressure and gravity enable wider dispersion of ejected particles over a larger area 13 20 Therefore it seems that erupted amount of material is not sufficient on Mars for the flank slopes to attain the angle of repose and Martian cinder cones seem to be ruled mainly by ballistic distribution and not by material redistribution on flanks as typical on Earth 20 Cinder cones often are highly symmetric but strong prevailing winds at the time of eruption can cause a greater accumulation of cinder on the downwind side of the vent 11 Monogenetic cones Edit Paricutin erupting in 1943 Some cinder cones are monogenetic forming from a single short eruptive episode that produces a very small volume of lava The eruption typically last just weeks or months but can occasionally last fifteen years or longer 21 Paricutin in Mexico Diamond Head Koko Head Punchbowl Crater Mt Le Brun from the Coalstoun Lakes volcanic field and some cinder cones on Mauna Kea are monogenetic cinder cones However not all cinder cones are monogenetic with some ancient cinder cones showing intervals of soil formation between flows that indicate that eruptions were separated by thousands to tens of thousands of years 21 Monogenetic cones likely form when the rate of magma supply to a volcanic field is very low and the eruptions are spread out in space and time This prevents any one eruption from establishing a system of plumbing that would provide an easy path to the surface for subsequent eruptions Thus each eruption must find its own independent path to the surface 22 23 See also EditList of cinder cones Volcanic cone Landform of ejecta from a volcanic vent piled up in a conical shape Capulin Volcano National Monument U S National Monument in New MexicoReferences Edit Allaby Michael 2013 cinder cone A dictionary of geology and earth sciences Fourth ed Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199653065 a b c Poldervaart A 1971 Volcanicity and forms of extrusive bodies In Green J Short NM eds Volcanic Landforms and Surface Features A Photographic Atlas and Glossary New York Springer Verlag pp 1 18 ISBN 978 3 642 65152 6 a b c d e f g h i j This article incorporates public domain material from Photo glossary of volcano terms Cinder cone United States Geological Survey Clarke Hilary Troll Valentin R Carracedo Juan Carlos 2009 03 10 Phreatomagmatic to Strombolian eruptive activity of basaltic cinder cones Montana Los Erales Tenerife Canary Islands Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research Models and products of mafic explosive activity 180 2 225 245 Bibcode 2009JVGR 180 225C doi 10 1016 j jvolgeores 2008 11 014 ISSN 0377 0273 Fisher R V Schmincke H U 1984 Pyroclastic rocks Berlin Springer Verlag p 96 ISBN 3540127569 Jackson Julia A ed 1997 cinder cone Glossary of geology Fourth ed Alexandria Virginia American Geological Institute ISBN 0922152349 Fisher amp Schmincke 1984 p 150 a b c d This article incorporates public domain material from Susan S Priest Wendell A Duffield Nancy R Riggs Brian Poturalski Karen Malis Clark 2002 Red Mountain Volcano A Spectacular and Unusual Cinder Cone in Northern Arizona United States Geological Survey USGS Fact Sheet 024 02 Retrieved 2012 05 18 Fisher amp Schmincke 1984 p 14 Fisher amp Schmincke 1984 p 198 a b Monroe James S Wicander Reed 1992 Physical geology exploring the Earth St Paul West Pub Co p 98 ISBN 0314921958 Macdonald Gordon A Abbott Agatin T Peterson Frank L 1983 Volcanoes in the sea the geology of Hawaii 2nd ed Honolulu University of Hawaii Press pp 16 17 ISBN 0824808320 a b c Wood C A 1979 Cinder cones on Earth Moon and Mars Lunar Planet Sci Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Vol X pp 1370 72 Bibcode 1979LPI 10 1370W Bleacher J E Greeley R Williams D A Cave S R Neukum G 2007 Trends in effusive style at the Tharsis Montes Mars and implications for the development of the Tharsis province J Geophys Res 112 E9 E09005 Bibcode 2007JGRE 112 9005B doi 10 1029 2006JE002873 Keszthelyi L Jaeger W McEwen A Tornabene L Beyer R A Dundas C Milazzo M 2008 High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment HiRISE images of volcanic terrains from the first 6 months of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter primary science phase J Geophys Res 113 E4 E04005 Bibcode 2008JGRE 113 4005K CiteSeerX 10 1 1 455 1381 doi 10 1029 2007JE002968 Meresse S Costard F Mangold N Masson Philippe Neukum Gerhard the HRSC Co I Team 2008 Formation and evolution of the chaotic terrains by subsidence and magmatism Hydraotes Chaos Mars Icarus 194 2 487 Bibcode 2008Icar 194 487M doi 10 1016 j icarus 2007 10 023 Broz Petr Hauber Ernst Wray James J Michael Gregory 2017 Amazonian volcanism inside Valles Marineris on Mars Earth and Planetary Science Letters 473 122 130 Bibcode 2017E amp PSL 473 122B doi 10 1016 j epsl 2017 06 003 a b Broz P Hauber E 2012 A unique volcanic field in Tharsis Mars Pyroclastic cones as evidence for explosive eruptions Icarus 218 1 88 99 Bibcode 2012Icar 218 88B doi 10 1016 j icarus 2011 11 030 Lawrence SJ Stopar Julie D Hawke B Ray Greenhagen Benjamin T Cahill Joshua T S Bandfield Joshua L Jolliff Bradley L Denevi Brett W Robinson Mark S Glotch Timothy D Bussey D Benjamin J Spudis Paul D Giguere Thomas A Garry W Brent 2013 LRO observations of morphology and surface roughness of volcanic cones and lobate lava flows in the Marius Hills J Geophys Res Planets 118 4 615 34 Bibcode 2013JGRE 118 615L doi 10 1002 jgre 20060 a b Broz Petr Cadek Ondrej Hauber Ernst Rossi Angelo Pio 2014 Shape of scoria cones on Mars Insights from numerical modeling of ballistic pathways Earth and Planetary Science Letters 406 14 23 Bibcode 2014E amp PSL 406 14B doi 10 1016 j epsl 2014 09 002 a b Schmincke Hans Ulrich 2003 Volcanism Berlin Springer pp 99 101 340 ISBN 978 3 540 43650 8 McGee Lucy E Smith Ian E M Millet Marc Alban Handley Heather K Lindsay Jan M October 2013 Asthenospheric Control of Melting Processes in a Monogenetic Basaltic System a Case Study of the Auckland Volcanic Field New Zealand Journal of Petrology 54 10 2125 2153 doi 10 1093 petrology egt043 Monogenetic fields Volcano World Oregon State University 15 April 2010 Retrieved 17 December 2021 External links Edit Media related to Cinder cones category at Wikimedia Commons Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Cinder cone amp oldid 1136711843, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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