Yeonguijeong
Yeonguijeong (Korean: 영의정; Korean pronunciation: [jʌŋ ɰi tɕʌŋ]) was a title created in 1400, during the Joseon and Korean Empire periods (1392–1910), and given to the Chief State Councillor[1][2] as the highest government position of "Uijeongbu" (State Council). Existing for over 500 years, the function was handed over in 1895 during the Gabo Reform to the newly formed position of the Prime Minister of Korea.[3][4] Only one official at a time was appointed to the position and though was generally called Yeongsang, was also referred to as Sangsang, Sugyu or Wonbo. Although the title of Yeonguijeong was legally defined as the highest post in charge of all state affairs, its practical functions changed drastically depending on the particular King and whether that King's power was strong or weak.[4]
| Yeonguijeong | |
Portrait of Ha Yeon who served as Yeonguijeong during the King Sejong's reign. | |
| Korean name | |
|---|---|
| Hangul | 영의정/영상/상상/수규/원보 |
| Hanja | 領議政/領相/上相/首揆/元輔 |
| Revised Romanization | yeong-uijeong[1]/ sangsang/ sugyu/ wonbo |
| McCune–Reischauer | yŏng'ŭijŏng/sangsang/sukyu/wonbo |
History edit
Establishment edit
The Korean Joseon inherited the state structure of its predecessor, the Goryeo (918–1392), but soon began to reorganize the government. In 1400, the second year after King Jeongjong ascended to the throne, he renamed the Privy Council or Dopyeonguisasa,[5] the highest assigned post in charge of the state affairs of Goryeo, to "Uijeongbu" and let the post be called "yeonguijeong busa" (領議政府事). As both functions of Uijeongbu got stronger, and its system was further revised, Yeonguijeong busa was renamed to Yeonguijeong in a firm establishment of the office.[4]
In 1466, the position was officially put in statutory form as Gyeongguk daejeon (Complete Code of Law)[6] was compiled.[7] The Yeongjuijeong title was generally conferred on a senior minister who had previously served as Jwauijeong (Left State Councilor[8]), a post immediately below that of Yeonguijeong, but higher than that of Uuijeong (Right State Councillor[9]). The three posts were collectively referred to as "Samjeongseung" 삼정승 [10] or "Samuijeong" (Three High Councillors).[4]
Changes in the role edit
Until April 1436, the 18th year of Sejong the Great's reign, Jwauijeong and Uuijeong concurrently served as Panijosa (判吏曹事) and Panbyeongjosa (判兵曹事) respectively, so that they governed personnel affairs of yangban (the literary and military nobility).
Yeonguijeong continued to exist as an honorary post, and so only managed to contemplate and adjust diplomatic documents or re-examine the cases of condemned people.
However, when Hwang Hui was appointed as "Yeonguijeong busa" in that same year, the king modified the government system to strengthen the power of Samjeongseung from the Yukjo (Six Ministries) centered system. With the reform, Sejong noted that a situation in which three highest senior advisors could not participate in the state affairs contravened the original intention to have them as the high state councillors.[4]
During the reform, Yukjo conferred with Uijeongbu regarding the responsibilities of each minister. Uijeongbu discussed legitimacy of the issues, and then reported to the king. After receiving an approval from the king, Uijeongbu returned to Yujo to enact the assigned affairs. As a result, Yeonguijeong came to participate more actively in the representative work as the head of Uijeongbu. However, other ministerial duities, such as the rights of Ijo (吏曹; Ministry of Personnel[11]) and Byeongjo (兵曹, Ministry of Military Affairs[12]) to implement personnel management, Byeongjo's mobilization of soldiers, Hyeongjo (刑曹, Ministry of Punishments[13])'s right to handle all criminals other than condemned people, were still directly operated by the related ministers.[4]
When Prince Suyang usurped the place of his nephew, King Danjong, the function of Yeonguijeong was relegated to its previous powerless position. This was because when the King Sejo was still a prince, his actions were greatly restricted by his political rivals, Yeonguijeong, Hwangbo In (皇甫仁) and Jwauijeong, Kim Jongseo (金宗瑞). So during the reigns of King Seongjong and Jungjong, there were several proposals to restore the former powers of Uijeongbu, but those suggestions were not implemented.[4]
Major affairs of the state were discussed when Bibyeonsa was established in 1558 (during the 10th year of King Myeongjong's reign). The three High Councillors attended meetings only as "Dojejo" (Supreme Commissioner[14][15]). So the power of Yeonguijeong tended to be increased or decreased, depending on the political atmosphere of the times, such as the degree of the king's power, the relationship between Uijeongbu and Yukjo, the establishment of Bibyeonsa (備邊司; Border Defense Command[16]), the later administration of Kyujanggak (the Royal Library), the conflicts between political parties, and the advancement of "in-law government" (勢道政治, Sedo jeongchi[17]), among others. Regardless, the title "Yeonguijeong" continued as the apex in the bureaucratic system throughout the entire Joseon period.[4]
List of Joseon Yeonguijeong edit
| Reign | King | Hangul | Date | Chief State Councillor | # | Hangul | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1392–1398 | Taejo | 태조 | 1 | 1392/07/17 | Jeong Dojeon | 정도전 | |
| 2 | 1398–1400 | Jeongjong | 정종 | |||||
| 3 | 1400–1418 | Taejong | 태종 | 1 | 1401/07/13-1402.4.18 | Yi Seo | 이서 | |
| 2 | 1402/10/04 | Seong Seok-rin | 성석린 | |||||
| 3 | 1403/07/16 | Jo Jun | 조준 | |||||
| 4 | 1405/07/03 | Seong Seok-rin | 2 | 성석린 | ||||
| 5 | 1406/12/04 | Yi Seo | 2 | 이서 | ||||
| 6 | 1407/07/04 | Uian Daegun (Yi Wa) | 의안대군 (이화) | |||||
| 7 | 1408/01/03 | Uian Daegun (Yi Wa) | 의안대군 … 사면 | |||||
| 8 | 1408/05/27-1412/08/21 | Ha Ryun | 하륜 | |||||
| 9 | 1409/08/10 | Yi Seo | 3 | 이서 | ||||
| 10 | 1408/10/11 | Ha Ryun | 2 | 하륜 | ||||
| 11 | 1412/08/21 | Seong Seok-rin | 3 | 성석린 | ||||
| 12 | 1414/04/17 | Ha Ryun | 3 | 하륜 | ||||
| 13 | 1415/10/28 | Seong Seok-rin | 4 | 성석린 | ||||
| 14 | 1416/05/25 | Nam Jae | 남재 | |||||
| 15 | 1416/11/02 | Yu Jung-hyun | 유정현 | |||||
| 16 | 1418/06/05 | Han Sanggyung | 한상경 | |||||
| 4 | 1418–1450 | Sejong | 세종 | 1 | 1418/09/03 | Sim On | 심온 | |
| 2 | 1418/12/07 | Yu Jung-hyun | 2 | 유정현 | ||||
| 3 | 1424/09/07 | Yi Jig | 이직 | |||||
| 4 | 1431/09/07 | Hwang Hui | 황희 | |||||
| 5 | 1449/10/05-1451/07/13 | Ha Yeon | 하연 | |||||
| 5 | 1450–1452 | Munjong | 문종 | 1 | 1451/10/27 | Hwangbo In | 황보인 | |
| 6 | 1452–1455 | Danjong | 단종 | 1 | 1453/10/11 | Suyangdaegun (K-Sejo) | 수양대군 (이유) | |
| 7 | 1455–1468 | Sejo | 세조 | 1 | 1455/06/11 | Jeong In-ji | 정인지 | |
| 2 | 1458/12/07 | Jeong Changson | 정창손 | |||||
| 3 | 1459/11/05 | Gang Maenggyung | 강맹경 | |||||
| 4 | 1461/04/29 | Jeong Changson | 2 | 정창손 | ||||
| 5 | 1461/05/20 | Shin Suk-ju | 신숙주 | |||||
| 6 | 1466/04/18 | Gu Chigwan | 구치관 | |||||
| 7 | 1466/10/19 | Han Myung-hoi | 한명회 | |||||
| 8 | 1467/04/06 | Hwang Su-sin | 황수신 | |||||
| 9 | 1467/05/20 | Sim Hoe | 심회 | |||||
| 10 | 1467/12/12 | Jo Seok-mun | 조석문 | |||||
| 11 | 1468/07/17 | Guseonggun | 구성군 (이준) | |||||
| 8 | 1468–1469 | Yejong | 예종 | 1 | 1468/12/20 | Bak Wonhyung | 박원형 | |
| 2 | 1469/01/23 | Han Myung-hoi | 2 | 한명회 | ||||
| 3 | 1469/08/22 | Hong Yun-seong | 홍윤성 | |||||
| 9 | 1469–1494 | Seongjong | 성종 | 1 | 1470/04/06 | Yun Jaun | 윤자운 | |
| 2 | 1471/10/23 | Shin Suk-ju | 2 | 신숙주 | ||||
| 3 | 1475/07/01 | Jeong Changson | 3 | 정창손 | ||||
| 4 | 1485/03/28 | Yun Pilsang | 윤필상 | |||||
| 5 | 1493/11/06 | Yi Geugbae | 이극배 | |||||
| 10 | 1494–1506 | Yeonsangun | 연산군 | 1 | 1495/03/20 | No Sasin | 노사신 | |
| 2 | 1495/10/04 | Shin Sung-seon | 신승선 | |||||
| 3 | 1500/04/11 | Han Chi-hyung | 한치형 | |||||
| 4 | 1503/01/04 | Seong Jun | 성준 | |||||
| 5 | 1504/04/04 | Yu Sun | 유순 | |||||
| 11 | 1506–1544 | Jungjong | 중종 | 1 | 1506/09/2 | Park Won-jong | 박원종 | |
| 2 | 1510/03/06 | Kim Sudong | 김수동 | |||||
| 3 | 1512/10/07 | Yu Sun-jung | 유순정 | |||||
| 4 | 1513/04/02 | Seong Hui-ahn | 성희안 | |||||
| 5 | 1513/10/27 | Song Il | 송일 | |||||
| 6 | 1514/10/01 | Yu Sun | 2 | 유순 | ||||
| 7 | 1516/04/09 | Jeong Gwangpil | 정광필 | |||||
| 8 | 1520/02/14 | Kim Jeon | 김전 | |||||
| 9 | 1523/04/18 | Nam Gon | 남곤 | |||||
| 10 | 1527/10/21 | Jeong Gwangpil | 2 | 정광필 | ||||
| 11 | Nam Gon | 2 | 남곤 | |||||
| 12 | 1527/03/10 | Jang Sun-son | 장순손 | |||||
| 13 | 1534/11/20 | Han Hyo-won | 한효원 | |||||
| 14 | 1535/03/26 | Kim Geun-sa | 김근사 | |||||
| 15 | 1537/11/02 | Yun Eunbo | 윤은보 | |||||
| 12 | 1544–1545 | Injong | 인종 | 1 | 1545/01/13 | Hong Eon-pil | 홍언필 | |
| 2 | 1545/01/06 | Yun In-gyung | 윤인경 | |||||
| 13 | 1545–1567 | Myeongjong | 명종 | 1 | 1548/05/17 | Hong Eon-pil | 2 | 홍언필 |
| 2 | 1549/05/21 | Yi Gi | 이기 | |||||
| 3 | 1551/08/23 | Sim Yeon-won | 심연원 | |||||
| 4 | 1558/05/29 | San Gjin | 상진 | |||||
| 5 | 1563/01/17 | Yun Won-hyung | 윤원형 | |||||
| 6 | 1565/08/15 | Yi Jungyung | 이준경 | |||||
| 14 | 1567–1608 | Seonjo | 선조 | 1 | 1573/03/22 | Gwon Cheol | 권철 | |
| 2 | 1574/04/11 | Hong Seom | 홍섬 | |||||
| 3 | 1576/08/18 | Gwon Cheol | 2 | 권철 | ||||
| 4 | 1580/05/25 | Bak Sun | 박순 | |||||
| 5 | 1588/05/11 | No Sunsin | 노수신 | |||||
| 6 | Choi Hung-won | 최흥원 | ||||||
| 7 | Yi Won-ik | 이원익 | ||||||
| 8 | Ryu Seong-ryong | 유성룡 | ||||||
| 9 | Yun Doo-su | 윤두수 | ||||||
| 10 | Yi San-hae | 이산해 | ||||||
| 11 | Yi Hang-bok | 이항복 | ||||||
| 12 | Yun Sung-hun | 윤승훈 | ||||||
| 13 | Yu Yung-gyung | 유영경 | ||||||
| 15 | 1608–1623 | Gwanghaegun | 광해군 | 1 | 1608 | Yi Won-ik | 2 | |
| 2 | Yi Deok-hyung | 이덕형 | ||||||
| 3 | Gi Ja-heon | 기자헌 | ||||||
| 4 | Chung In-hong | 정인홍 | ||||||
| 5 | Bak Sung-jong | 박승종 | ||||||
| 16 | 1623–1649 | Injo | 인조 | 1 | 1623 | Yi Won-ik | 3 | 이원익 |
| 2 | Sin Hum | 신흠 | ||||||
| 3 | Oh Yun-gyum | 오윤겸 | ||||||
| 4 | Yun Bang | 윤방 | ||||||
| 5 | Kim Ryu | 김류 | ||||||
| 6 | Yi Hong-ju | 이홍주 | ||||||
| 7 | Choi Myung-kil | 최명길 | ||||||
| 8 | Yi Seong-gu | 이성구 | ||||||
| 9 | Hong Seo-bong | 홍서봉 | ||||||
| 10 | Sim Yeol | 심열 | ||||||
| 11 | Kim Ja-jeom | 김자점 | ||||||
| 17 | 1649–1659 | Hyojong | 효종 | 1 | Kim Ja-jeom | 2 | 김자점 | |
| 2 | Yi Gyung-seok | 이경석 | ||||||
| 3 | Kim Yuk | 김육 | ||||||
| 4 | Yi Si-baek | 이시백 | ||||||
| 5 | Sim Ji-won | 심지원 | ||||||
| 6 | Jeong Tae-hwa | 정태화 | ||||||
| 18 | 1659–1674 | Hyeonjong | 현종 | 1 | Jeong Taehwa | 2 | 정태화 | |
| 2 | Hong Myungha | 홍명하 | ||||||
| 3 | Kim Su-hung | 김수흥 | ||||||
| 4 | Heo Jeok | 허적 | ||||||
| 19 | 1674–1720 | Sukjong | 숙종 | 1 | Heo Jeok | 2 | 허적 | |
| 2 | Kim Seok-ju | 김석주 | ||||||
| 3 | Kim Su-hang | 김수항 | ||||||
| 4 | Gwon Dae-un | 권대운 | ||||||
| 5 | Nam Gu-man | 남구만 | ||||||
| 6 | 1696–1699 | Yu Sangun | 유상운 | |||||
| 7 | 1700–1701 | Seo Mun-jung | 서문중 | |||||
| 8 | 1701 | Choi Seok-jung | 최석정 | |||||
| 9 | 1702 | Seo Mun-jung | 2 | 서문중 | ||||
| 10 | 1702–1703 | Choi Seok-jung | 2 | 최석정 | ||||
| 11 | 1703–1705 | Sin Wan | 신완 | |||||
| 12 | 1705–1710 | Choi Seok-jung | 3 | 최석정 | ||||
| 13 | 1710 | Yi Yeo | 이여 | |||||
| 14 | 1711–1712 | Seo Jong-tae | 서종태 | |||||
| 15 | 1712–1713 | Yi Yu | 이유 | |||||
| 16 | 1714–1716 | Seo Jong-tae | 2 | 서종태 | ||||
| 17 | 1717–1720 | Kim Chang-jip | 2 | 김창집 | ||||
| 20 | 1720–1724 | Gyeongjong | 경종 | 1 | 1720–1721 | Kim Chang-jip | 2 | 김창집 |
| 2 | 1721–1723 | Jo Tae-gu | 조태구 | |||||
| 3 | 1723–1724 | Choi Gyu-seo | 최규서 | |||||
| 21 | 1724–1776 | Yeongjo | 영조 | 1 | 1724-1729 | Yi Gwang-jwa | 이광좌 | |
| 2 | 1729–1732 | Hong Chi-jung | 홍치중 | |||||
| 3 | 1732–1735 | Shim Su-yun | 심수현 | |||||
| 4 | 1735–1737 | Yi Ui-hyun | 이의현 | |||||
| 5 | 1737–1740 | Yi Gwang-jwa | 2 | 이광좌 | ||||
| 6 | 1740–1754 | Kim Jae-ro | 김재로 | |||||
| 7 | 1754–1758 | Yi Chun-bo | 이천보 | |||||
| 8 | 1758–1759 | Yu Cheok-ki | 유척기 | |||||
| 9 | 1759 | Yi Chun-bo | 2 | 이천보 | ||||
| 10 | 1759–1760 | Kim Sang-ro | 김상로 | |||||
| 11 | 1761–1762 | Hong Bonghan | 홍봉한 | |||||
| 12 | 1762–1763 | Sim Man | 신 만 | |||||
| 13 | 1763–1766 | Hong Bong-han | 2 | 홍봉한 | ||||
| 14 | 1766–1767 | Seo Ji-su | 서지수 | |||||
| 15 | 1767–1768 | Kim Chi-in | 김치인 | |||||
| 16 | 1768 | Seo Ji-su | 2 | 서지수 | ||||
| 17 | 1768 | Kim Chi-in | 2 | 김치인 | ||||
| 18 | 1768–1770 | Hong Bong-han | 3 | 홍봉한 | ||||
| 19 | 1770–1772 | Kim Chi-in | 3 | 김치인 | ||||
| 20 | 1772 | Kim Sang-bok | 김상복 | |||||
| 21 | 1772 | Sin Hoe | 신회 | |||||
| 22 | 1772 | Kim Sang-bok | 2 | 김상복 | ||||
| 23 | 1772 | Han Ik-mo | 한익모 | |||||
| 24 | 1772 | Kim Sang-bok | 3 | 김상복 | ||||
| 25 | 1772–1773 | Sin Hoe | 2 | 신회 | ||||
| 26 | 1773 | Han Ik-mo | 2 | 한익모 | ||||
| 27 | 1773–1774 | Kim Sang-bok | 4 | 김상복 | ||||
| 28 | 1774 | Han Ik-mo | 3 | 한익모 | ||||
| 29 | 1774–1775 | Sin Hoe | 3 | 신회 | ||||
| 30 | 1775 | Han Ik-mo | 4 | 한익모 | ||||
| 31 | 1775–1776 | Kim Sang-chul | 김상철 | |||||
| ? | 1731 | Kim Hung-gyung | 김흥경 (조선) | |||||
| ? | Sin Im | 신임 | ||||||
| ? | Jeong Ho | 정호 | ||||||
| 22 | 1776–1800 | Jeongjo | 정조 | 1 | 1776–1779 | Kim Yang-taek | 김양택 | |
| 2 | 1779–1780 | Seo Myung-sun | 서명선 | |||||
| 3 | 1780–1781 | Kim Yang-taek | 2 | 김양택 | ||||
| 4 | 1781–1783 | Seo Myung-sun | 2 | 서명선 | ||||
| 5 | 1783–1784 | Jeong Jong-yeom | 정존겸 | |||||
| 6 | 1784–1785 | Seo Myung-sun | 3 | 서명선 | ||||
| 7 | 1785–1786 | Jeong Jong-yeom | 정존겸 | |||||
| 8 | 1786–1789 | Kim Chi-in | 2 | 김치인 | ||||
| 9 | 1789 | Kim Ik | 김익 | |||||
| 10 | 1789–1790 | Yi Jae-hyeop | 이재협 | |||||
| 11 | 1790 | Kim Ik | 2 | 김익 | ||||
| 12 | 1790–1793 | Choi Hyo-won | 최효원 | |||||
| 13 | 1793 | Chae Je-gong | 채제공 | |||||
| 14 | 1793–1798 | Hong Nak-sung | 홍낙성 | |||||
| 15 | 1799–1800 | Yi Byung-mo | 이병모 | |||||
| ? | Kim Jong-su | 김종수 | ||||||
| 23 | 1800–1834 | Sunjo | 순조 | 1 | 1800–1802 | Shim Hwan-ji | 심환지 | |
| 2 | 1802–1803 | Yi Si-su | 이시수 | |||||
| 3 | 1803–1805 | Yi Byung-mo | 이병모 | |||||
| 4 | 1805–1806 | Seo Mae-su | 서매수 | |||||
| 5 | 1806 | Yi Byung-mo | 2 | 이병모 | ||||
| 6 | 1806–1812 | vacant | ||||||
| 7 | 1812–1816 | Kim Jae-chan | 김재찬 | |||||
| 8 | 1816–1819 | vacant | ||||||
| 9 | 1819–1821 | Seo Yong-bo | 서용보 | |||||
| 10 | 1821 | Han Yong-gwi | 한용귀 | |||||
| 11 | 1821–1823 | Kim Jae-chan | 2 | 김재찬 | ||||
| 12 | 1823–1833 | Nam Gong-chul | 남공철 | |||||
| 13 | 1833–1834 | Yi Sang-hwang | 이상황 | |||||
| 24 | 1834–1849 | Heonjong | 헌종 | 1 | 1834–1835 | Shim Sang-gyu | 심상규 | |
| 2 | 1835–1837 | vacant | ||||||
| 3 | 1837–1838 | Yi Sang-hwang | 2 | 이상황 | ||||
| 4 | 1838–1841 | vacant | ||||||
| 5 | 1841–1844 | Jo In-young | 조인영 | |||||
| 6 | 1845–1848 | Gwon Don-in | 권돈인 | |||||
| 7 | 1848–1849 | Jeong Won-yong | 정원용 | |||||
| 25 | 1849–1863 | Cheoljong | 철종 | 1 | 1849–1850 | Jeong Won-yong | 정원용 | |
| 2 | 1850 | Jo In-young | 2 | 조인영 | ||||
| 3 | 1851–1852 | Gwon Don-in | 2 | 권돈인 | ||||
| 4 | 1853 | Kim Hunggun | 김흥근 | |||||
| 5 | 1853–1859 | Kim Jwa-geun | 김좌근 | |||||
| 6 | 1859–1861 | Jeong Won-yong | 2 | 정원용 | ||||
| 7 | 1861–1862 | Kim Jwa-geun | 2 | 김좌근 | ||||
| 8 | 1862–1863 | Jeong Won-yong | 3 | 정원용 | ||||
| 26 | 1863–1897 | Gojong | 고종 | 1 | 1863–1864 | Kim Jwa-geun | 2 | 김좌근 |
| 2 | 1864–1866 | Jo Du-seon | 조두선 | |||||
| 3 | 1866–1867 | Yi Kyung-jae | 이경재 | |||||
| 4 | 1867–1868 | Kim Byung-hak | 김병학 | |||||
| 5 | 1868 | Jeong Won-yong | 4 | 정원용 | ||||
| 6 | 1868–1872 | Kim Byung-hak | 2 | 김병학 | ||||
| 7 | 1872–1873 | Hong Sun-mok | 홍순목 | |||||
| 8 | 1873–1875 | Yi Yu-won | 이유원 | |||||
| 9 | 1875–1882 | Yi Choi-ung | 이최응/흥인군 | |||||
| ?? | 1878 | Min Gyu-ho | 민규호 | |||||
| 10 | 1882 | Seo Bang-bo | 서방보 | |||||
| 11 | 1882–1884 | Hong Sun-mok | 2 | 홍순목 | ||||
| 12 | 1884 | Kim Byung-guk | 김병국 | |||||
| 13 | 1884–1894 | Shim Sun-taek | 심선택 | |||||
| 14 | 1894 | Kim Byung-si | 김병시 | |||||
| 15 | 1894–1895 | Kim Hong-jip | 김홍집 | |||||
| 16 | 1895 | Bak Jung-yang | 박정양 | |||||
| 17 | 1895-1896/02/11 | Kim Hong-jip | 2 | 김홍집 | ||||
| 18 | 1896 | Kim Byung-si | 2 | 김병시 | ||||
| 19 | 1896–1898 | Yun Yong-sun | 윤용순 |
See also edit
References edit
- ^ a b "영의정(領議政 ), yeong-uijeong" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ Choi (2006), The Origin of the Roman Catholic Church in Korea p. 375
- ^ 영의정 (in Korean and English). Daum Korean-English Dictionary.
- ^ a b c d e f g h 영의정 (領議政) (in Korean). Empas /EncyKorea. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ "도평의사사 (都評議使司), Dopyeonguisasa" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-31.
- ^ "경국대전(經國大典), Gyeonggukdaejeon" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ John B. Duncan (2000). The Origins of the Chosŏn Dynasty. University of Washington Press. p. 229. ISBN 0-295-97985-2.
- ^ Choi (2006), The Origin of the Roman Catholic Church in Korea p. 372
- ^ "우의정(右議政), uuijeong" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ "정승(政丞), Jeongseung" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
- ^ "이조(吏曹), Ijo" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-31.
- ^ "병조(兵曹), Byeong-jo" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-31.
- ^ "형조(刑曹), Hyeongjo" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-31.
- ^ James B. Palais (1996). Confucian Statecraft and Korean Institutions: Yu Hyŏngwŏn and the Late Chosŏn Dynasty. University of Washington Press. p. 1271. ISBN 0-295-97455-9.
- ^ 도제조 (都提調) (in Korean). Empas/EncyKorea.
- ^ "비변사(備邊司), Bibyeonsa" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies.
- ^ "세도정치(勢道政治), sedo jeongchi" (in Korean and English). The Academy of Korean Studies.
- Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-61575-1.
- Choi, Jai-Keun (2006). The Origin of the Roman Catholic Church in Korea. The Hermit Kingdom Press. ISBN 1-59689-064-9.