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Aghlabids

May 04, 2023

The Aghlabids (Arabic: الأغالبة) were an Arab[8] dynasty of emirs from the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim,[9] who ruled Ifriqiya and parts of Southern Italy, Sicily, and possibly Sardinia, nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Caliph,[10] for about a century, until they were overthrown by the new power of the Fatimids.

Aghlabid dynasty
Banū al-Aghlab (بنو الأغلب)
800–909
Maximal extent of Aghlabid authority[a]
StatusDe facto Independent emirate since 801.[1][2][3]
CapitalKairouan, with royal court at:[4][5]
Common languagesArabic[6]
Religion
Sunni Islam (Hanafi, Mu'tazila)
GovernmentEmirate
Emir 
• 800–812
Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab ibn Salim
• 903–909
Abu Mudhar Ziyadat Allah III ibn Abdallah
History 
• Established
800
• Overthrown by the Fatimids
909
• Disestablished
909
CurrencyAghlabid Dinar[7]
Preceded by		 Succeeded by

History

Independence and consolidation

In 800, the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid appointed Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab, son of a Khurasanian Arab commander from the Banu Tamim tribe,[11] as hereditary Emir of Ifriqiya, in response to the anarchy that had reigned in that province following the fall of the Muhallabids. At that time there were perhaps 100,000 Arabs living in Ifriqiya, although the Berbers (Imazighen) still constituted the great majority.[12]

Ibrahim was to control an area that encompassed what is now eastern Algeria, Tunisia and Tripolitania.[13] Although independent in all but name, his dynasty never ceased to recognise Abbasid overlordship. The Aghlabids paid an annual tribute to the Abbasid Caliph and their suzerainty was referenced in the khutba at Friday prayers.[14]

After the pacification of the country Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab established a residence at a new capital, al-Abbasiyya, founded outside Kairouan in 800[15] and built between 801 and 810.[16] This was done partly to distance himself from the opposition of the Malikite jurists and theologians, who condemned what they saw as the luxurious life of the Aghlabids (not to mention the fact that the Aghlabids were mu'tazilites in theology, and Hanafis in fiqh-jurisprudence), and disliked the unequal treatment of the Muslim Berbers.[citation needed] Additionally, border defenses such as ribats were set up, including in coastal cities like Sousse (Susa) and Monastir. The Aghlabids also built up the irrigation of the area and enhanced the public buildings and mosques of Ifriqiya.[13] Slaves were obtained through the trans-Saharan trade, through Mediterranean commerce, and from raids on other lands like Sicily and Italy.[16]

The Aghlabid army was composed of two main elements. The first was the jund, or Arab troops descended from the Arab tribesmen who had participated in the early Muslim conquests of North Africa.[16] The other component of the army was recruited from slaves, put in place partly to counterbalance to the power of the jund. It was recorded that 5,000 black Zanj slaves were stationed in Abbasiya as part of its garrison.[16] Under Ziyadat Allah I (r. 817–838) came a revolt of Arab troops (the jund) in 824, the last but most serious episode of confrontation between them and the Aghlabid emirs.[17][18]: 55  The rebellion was led by a commander named Mansur ibn Nasr al-Tunbudhi, who owned a fortress near Tunis. By September 824 the rebels had occupied Tunis and Kairouan, but the Aghlabids managed to repel them from Kairouan a month later and killed Mansur. Another chief, Amir ibn Nafi', took over leadership of the rebels and inflicted a severe defeat on Ziyadat Allah's forces. Eventually, the emir was able to gain the upper hand with the help of the Ibadite Berbers of the Nafwaza region and finally crushed the rebellion in 827.[17][18]: 55 

In 838/839 (224 AH) the southwestern province of Qastiliya (the Djerid region), largely inhabited by Ibadi Muslims, revolted,[19] prompting the Aghlabids to recapture Tozeur, its main city, that year.[20]

Conquest of Sicily

In 827, soon after Ziyadat Allah defeated the rebellion, the Aghlabid conquest of Sicily began. Asad ibn al-Furat, a qadi from Kairouan, was appointed as commander of the Aghlabid forces.[21][22]: 135–136  The pretense for this invasion was an internal revolt in Byzantine Sicily led by a military commander named Euphemios who requested support from the Aghlabids.[23]

Despite the political differences and rivalry between the Aghlabids, who served under the Abbasid Caliphate, and the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba, the Muslims of al-Andalus (in the Iberian Peninsula) also sent a fleet under Asba' ibn Wakil to aid the Aghlabid conquest of Sicily. Ibn Kathir recorded that a joint force of 300 Umayyad and Aghlabid ships were present.[24] The Aghlabid garrison at Mineo managed to get into contact with the Andalusian Umayyads, who immediately agreed to the alliance, provided that Asba' was recognized as the overall commander, and, together with fresh troops from Ifriqiya, they marched on Mineo. Theodotus[who?] retreated to Enna and the siege of Mineo was broken in July or August 830.[25][26][27] The combined Ifriqiyan and Andalusian army then torched Mineo and laid siege to another town, possibly Calloniana (modern Barrafranca). However, a plague broke out in their camp, causing the death of Asba' and many others. The town fell later, in autumn, but the Arabs' numbers were depleted to the point where they were forced to abandon it and retreat west. Theodotus launched a pursuit and inflicted heavy casualties, and, thereafter, most of the Andalusians departed the island. However, Theodotus too was killed at this time, possibly in one of these skirmishes.[28][29]

The conquest of Sicily proceeded slowly and at an uneven pace, progressing roughly from west to east through multiple campaigns over many years.[30][31] Palermo was conquered in 831 and became the capital of Muslim rule on the island and the base for further conquests.[31][32] Messina was besieged and captured in 842 or 843, possibly with the support of some Neapolitans, and became a base for further campaigns into the Italian mainland.[33]: 26 [34][35] Syracuse was captured in 878.[31] The conquest of the island was not fully completed until 902, when Taormina was conquered.[31][36]: 107  Even after this, however, some patches of local Byzantine/Christian resistance continued until 967, long after the Aghlabid dynasty had ended.[30][37]: 207 

Italian Peninsula

Even as the conquest of Sicily was ongoing, the Aghlabids began campaigning on the Italian mainland. Their invasions of Calabria and Apulia, as well as their attacks on other central Mediterranean islands, were probably undertaken as an extension of their conquest of Sicily, aiming to aid the latter by attacking other Byzantine positions in the region.[38]: 476 [39]: 208  The first major expeditions to the peninsula took place between 835 and 843.[39]: 208  Amantea was taken in 839 or 846 and occupied until 886, when the Byzantines retook it.[39]: 208 [40]: 249  Taranto was captured in 840 and occupied until 880.[39]: 208  Bari was captured by Muslims either in 840 or 847.[38] Rome was raided by a Muslim force in 846, although it is not certain that the raiders came from Aghlabid territory.[41]: 26 [42]: 122  Another attack towards Rome took place in 849, leading to a great naval battle near Ostia during which a fleet of Muslim ships was destroyed, marking a halt to Muslim advances on the peninsula.[33]: 35 [35]

Many of the Muslim forces that operated on the peninsula or occupied some of its cities seem to have had only tenuous allegiances to the Aghlabid dynasty.[41]: 49  Some Muslim mercenaries even entered into the service of Naples or local Lombard rulers at various times.[41]: 19–26, 49–54  The early Muslim occupiers of Bari, for example, appear to have served as mercenaries of Radelchis I of Benevento. The Emirate of Bari, which existed from 847 to 871,[39]: 209  had its own rulers whose relations to the Aghlabids are not clearly known.[38]

Malta, Sardinia and Corsica

Elsewhere in the central Mediterranean, the Aghlabids conquered the island of Malta in 870.[43]: 208  They also attacked or raided Sardinia and Corsica.[44][45]: 153, 244  Some modern references state that Sardinia came under Aghlabid control around 810 or after the beginning of the conquest of Sicily in 827.[46][47][48][49] Historian Corrado Zedda argues that the island hosted a Muslim presence during the Aghlabid period, possibly a limited foothold along the coasts that forcibly coexisted with the local Byzantine government.[50] Historian Alex Metcalfe argues that the available evidence for any Muslim occupation or colonisation of the island during this period is limited and inconclusive, and that Muslim attacks were limited to raids.[45] According to Fabio Pinna, most Sardinian historians and archaeologists studying this period of the island's history have reached the same conclusion, denying that a Muslim conquest and occupation of Sardinia took place, due to insufficient supporting evidence from archaeology and local historical records.[51][52][53][54][55][56][57]

Apogee in Ifriqiya

The expansion campaign into Sicily, which Ziyadat Allah launched right after defeating the jund rebellion that started in 824, gave the restless Arab troops of Ifriqiya a new outlet for their military energies. It also brought in new revenues to the Aghlabid state.[58] At home, the Aghlabid emirs faced significant criticism from Maliki religious scholars, who held great influence as religious elites in the region. They dealt with this problem by drawing the Maliki scholars into the orbit of the state and granting them appointments to high religious offices. They also countered criticism of their wealth and privilege by publicly dispensing charity to the poor and sponsoring the construction and expansion of mosques.[18]: 55–58  All of these factors led to greater internal stability and peace in Ifriqiya after 827.[58][18]: 58  Agriculture and trans-Saharan trade were further developed under Aghlabid rule, leading to economic expansion and a growing urban population.[18]: 58 

The Aghlabid kingdom reached its high point under Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Aghlabi (856–863).[citation needed] Ifriqiya was a significant economic power thanks to its fertile agriculture, aided by the expansion of the Roman irrigation system. It became the focal point of trade between the Islamic world and Byzantium and Italy, especially the lucrative slave trade. Kairouan became the most important centre of learning in the Maghreb, most notably in the fields of theology and law, and a gathering place for poets.[citation needed] The Aghlabid emirs sponsored building projects, notably the rebuilding of the Great Mosque of Kairouan, and the kingdom developed an architectural style which combined Abbasid and Byzantine architecture.[59] In 876 Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad moved his residence from al-Abbasiya to a new palace-city that he founded, called Raqqada. The new city contained a mosque, baths, market, and several palaces. For the rest of his life, Ibrahim II resided in a palace called Qasr al-Fath (Arabic: قصر الفتح, lit. 'Palace of Victory'), which also remained the residence of his successors (except for some periods where they moved to Tunis).[60]

Decline and fall

Further information: Fatimid Caliphate § Conquest of Aghlabid Ifriqiya

The decline of the dynasty began under Ibrahim II (875–902). An attack by the Tulunids of Egypt had to be repelled and a revolt of the Berbers put down with much loss of life.[citation needed] In 893 there began amongst the Kutama Berbers the movement of the Isma'ili Fatimids, led by Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i, the dā'ī of the future caliph Abdallah al-Mahdi, although it took almost a decade before they were able to seriously threaten Aghlabid power.[36]

In 902 Ibrahim II became the only Aghlabid emir to personally lead a military campaign in Sicily and the Italian mainland.[42]: 119  While he was away in Sicily, Abu Abdallah struck the first significant blow against Aghlabid authority in North Africa by attacking and capturing the city of Mila (present-day eastern Algeria). This news triggered a serious response from the Aghlabids, who sent a punitive expedition of 12,000 men from Tunis in October of the same year. Abu Abdallah's forces were forced to flee their base at Tazrut and re-establish themselves at Ikjan.[36]: 106–107 

Ibrahim II died in October 902 while besieging Cosenza in Italy and was succeeded by Abdallah II. On 27 July 903 Abdallah was assassinated and his son Ziyadat Allah III took power, basing himself in Tunis.[36]: 107–108  These internal Aghlabid troubles gave Abu Abdallah the opportunity to recapture Mila and then go on to capture Setif by October or November 904.[36]: 108 [18]: 61  Further Aghlabid attempts to crush his movement had little success. In 907, in response to the growing threat, Ziyadat Allah III moved his court back to Raqqada, which he fortified.[36]: 109–111  Later in 907 the heavily fortified city of Baghaya, on the southern Roman road between Ifriqiya and the central Maghreb, fell to the Kutama.[36]: 112–113  This opened a hole in the wider defensive system of Ifriqiya and created panic in Raqqada. Ziyadat Allah III stepped up anti-Fatimid propaganda, recruited volunteers, and took measures to defend the weakly-fortified city of Kairouan.[36]: 113–115  In 908 he personally led his army in an indecisive battle against the Kutama army near Dar Madyan (probably a site between Sbeitla and Kasserine), with neither side gaining the upper hand. During the winter of 908-909 Abu Abdallah conquered the region around Chott el-Jerid. An Aghlabid counterattack against Baghaya failed.[36]: 115–117 

On 25 February 909, Abu Abdallah set out from Ikjan with an army of 200,000 men for a final invasion of Kairouan. The remaining Aghlabid army, led by an Aghlabid prince named Ibrahim Ibn Abi al-Aghlab, met them near al-Aribus on 18 March. The battle lasted until the afternoon, when a contingent of Kutama horsemen outflanked the Aghlabid army and finally caused a rout.[36]: 118  When news of the defeat reached Raqqada, Ziyadat Allah III packed his valuable treasures and fled towards Egypt. The population of Kairouan looted the abandoned palaces of Raqqada. When Ibn Abi al-Aghlab arrived on the scene after his defeat, he called on the population to mount a last-ditch resistance, but they refused.[36]: 119–120  On 25 March 909 (Saturday, 1 Rajab 296), Abu Abdallah entered Raqqada and took up residence here. That same year his forces retrieved the Fatimid caliph, Abdallah al-Mahdi, from Sijilmasa (in the western Maghreb) and brought him to Ifriqiya, thus establishing the Fatimid Caliphate.[36]: 119–120 [61]

Architecture

Main article: Aghlabid architecture

The Aghlabids were major builders and erected many of the oldest Islamic-era monuments in present-day Tunisia, including military structures like the Ribat of Sousse and the Ribat of Monastir, religious buildings like the Great Mosque of Sousse and the Great Mosque of Sfax, and practical infrastructure works like the Aghlabid Reservoirs of Kairouan.[62] Much of their architecture, even their mosques, had a heavy and almost fortress-like appearance, but they nonetheless left an influential artistic legacy.[62][63][64]

 
The Great Mosque of Kairouan, rebuilt by Ziyadat Allah I in 836

One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which was completely rebuilt by the emir Ziyadat Allah I in 836, although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate the chronology of its construction.[62] The mosque features an enormous rectangular courtyard, a large hypostyle prayer hall, and a thick three-story minaret (tower from which the call to prayer was issued). The minaret is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and its shape may have been modeled on existing Roman lighthouses.[65][66] The mihrab (niche symbolizing the direction of prayer) of the prayer hall is among the oldest examples of its kind, richly decorated with marble panels carved in high-relief vegetal motifs and with ceramic tiles with overglaze and luster.[62][67] Next to the mihrab is the oldest surviving minbar (pulpit) in the world, made of richly-carved teakwood panels. Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from Abbasid Iraq.[62] An elegant dome in front of the mihrab wall is an architectural highlight of this period. Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of the surrounding mosque and the dome's drum is elaborately decorated with a frieze of blind arches, squinches carved in the shape of shells, and carved low-relief motifs.[62]

The Mosque of Ibn Khayrun (also known as the "Mosque of the Three Doors") possesses an external façade featuring carved Kufic inscriptions and vegetal motifs, which some scholars have called the oldest decorated external façade in Islamic architecture[63] and which may contain the oldest foundation inscription crediting a private individual (rather than a ruler) for a mosque's construction.[68] The al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis, which was founded earlier around 698, also owes its overall current form to the Aghlabid emir Abu Ibrahim Ahmad (r. 856–863).[69][70]: 38 

Aghlabid rulers

 
Gold dinar of Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab (184–196 AH), anonymous (but dynastic motto 'Ghalab' on the reverse), no mint name (probably Kairouan, Ifriqiya). Struck in 192 AH (807/808 AD). Preserved at the Musée national d'art islamique de Raqqada [fr].

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The occupation of Sardinia by the Aghlabids is debated among historians. See article for details.

Citations

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References

  • Marçais, Georges, "Aghlabids", Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Vol. I, pp. 699–700.
  • Talbi, Mohamed, Emirat Aghlabide, Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1967.
  • Vonderheyden, Maurice, La Berbérie orientale sous la dynastie des Benoû l-Aṛlab, 800–909, Paris: Geuthner, 1927.
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  • Versteegh, Kees (1997). The Arabic Language. Columbia University Press.

May 04, 2023
aghlabids, arabic, الأغالبة, were, arab, dynasty, emirs, from, najdi, tribe, banu, tamim, ruled, ifriqiya, parts, southern, italy, sicily, possibly, sardinia, nominally, behalf, abbasid, caliph, about, century, until, they, were, overthrown, power, fatimids, a. The Aghlabids Arabic الأغالبة were an Arab 8 dynasty of emirs from the Najdi tribe of Banu Tamim 9 who ruled Ifriqiya and parts of Southern Italy Sicily and possibly Sardinia nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Caliph 10 for about a century until they were overthrown by the new power of the Fatimids Aghlabid dynastyBanu al Aghlab بنو الأغلب 800 909Maximal extent of Aghlabid authority a StatusDe facto Independent emirate since 801 1 2 3 CapitalKairouan with royal court at 4 5 al Abbasiyya 800 876 Raqqada 876 909 Common languagesArabic 6 ReligionSunni Islam Hanafi Mu tazila GovernmentEmirateEmir 800 812Ibrahim I ibn al Aghlab ibn Salim 903 909Abu Mudhar Ziyadat Allah III ibn AbdallahHistory Established800 Overthrown by the Fatimids909 Disestablished909CurrencyAghlabid Dinar 7 Preceded by Succeeded byAbbasid Caliphate Fatimid Caliphate Contents 1 History 1 1 Independence and consolidation 1 2 Conquest of Sicily 1 3 Italian Peninsula 1 4 Malta Sardinia and Corsica 1 5 Apogee in Ifriqiya 1 6 Decline and fall 2 Architecture 3 Aghlabid rulers 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Citations 7 ReferencesHistory EditIndependence and consolidation Edit In 800 the Abbasid Caliph Harun al Rashid appointed Ibrahim I ibn al Aghlab son of a Khurasanian Arab commander from the Banu Tamim tribe 11 as hereditary Emir of Ifriqiya in response to the anarchy that had reigned in that province following the fall of the Muhallabids At that time there were perhaps 100 000 Arabs living in Ifriqiya although the Berbers Imazighen still constituted the great majority 12 Ibrahim was to control an area that encompassed what is now eastern Algeria Tunisia and Tripolitania 13 Although independent in all but name his dynasty never ceased to recognise Abbasid overlordship The Aghlabids paid an annual tribute to the Abbasid Caliph and their suzerainty was referenced in the khutba at Friday prayers 14 After the pacification of the country Ibrahim ibn al Aghlab established a residence at a new capital al Abbasiyya founded outside Kairouan in 800 15 and built between 801 and 810 16 This was done partly to distance himself from the opposition of the Malikite jurists and theologians who condemned what they saw as the luxurious life of the Aghlabids not to mention the fact that the Aghlabids were mu tazilites in theology and Hanafis in fiqh jurisprudence and disliked the unequal treatment of the Muslim Berbers citation needed Additionally border defenses such as ribats were set up including in coastal cities like Sousse Susa and Monastir The Aghlabids also built up the irrigation of the area and enhanced the public buildings and mosques of Ifriqiya 13 Slaves were obtained through the trans Saharan trade through Mediterranean commerce and from raids on other lands like Sicily and Italy 16 The Aghlabid army was composed of two main elements The first was the jund or Arab troops descended from the Arab tribesmen who had participated in the early Muslim conquests of North Africa 16 The other component of the army was recruited from slaves put in place partly to counterbalance to the power of the jund It was recorded that 5 000 black Zanj slaves were stationed in Abbasiya as part of its garrison 16 Under Ziyadat Allah I r 817 838 came a revolt of Arab troops the jund in 824 the last but most serious episode of confrontation between them and the Aghlabid emirs 17 18 55 The rebellion was led by a commander named Mansur ibn Nasr al Tunbudhi who owned a fortress near Tunis By September 824 the rebels had occupied Tunis and Kairouan but the Aghlabids managed to repel them from Kairouan a month later and killed Mansur Another chief Amir ibn Nafi took over leadership of the rebels and inflicted a severe defeat on Ziyadat Allah s forces Eventually the emir was able to gain the upper hand with the help of the Ibadite Berbers of the Nafwaza region and finally crushed the rebellion in 827 17 18 55 In 838 839 224 AH the southwestern province of Qastiliya the Djerid region largely inhabited by Ibadi Muslims revolted 19 prompting the Aghlabids to recapture Tozeur its main city that year 20 Conquest of Sicily Edit In 827 soon after Ziyadat Allah defeated the rebellion the Aghlabid conquest of Sicily began Asad ibn al Furat a qadi from Kairouan was appointed as commander of the Aghlabid forces 21 22 135 136 The pretense for this invasion was an internal revolt in Byzantine Sicily led by a military commander named Euphemios who requested support from the Aghlabids 23 Despite the political differences and rivalry between the Aghlabids who served under the Abbasid Caliphate and the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba the Muslims of al Andalus in the Iberian Peninsula also sent a fleet under Asba ibn Wakil to aid the Aghlabid conquest of Sicily Ibn Kathir recorded that a joint force of 300 Umayyad and Aghlabid ships were present 24 The Aghlabid garrison at Mineo managed to get into contact with the Andalusian Umayyads who immediately agreed to the alliance provided that Asba was recognized as the overall commander and together with fresh troops from Ifriqiya they marched on Mineo Theodotus who retreated to Enna and the siege of Mineo was broken in July or August 830 25 26 27 The combined Ifriqiyan and Andalusian army then torched Mineo and laid siege to another town possibly Calloniana modern Barrafranca However a plague broke out in their camp causing the death of Asba and many others The town fell later in autumn but the Arabs numbers were depleted to the point where they were forced to abandon it and retreat west Theodotus launched a pursuit and inflicted heavy casualties and thereafter most of the Andalusians departed the island However Theodotus too was killed at this time possibly in one of these skirmishes 28 29 The conquest of Sicily proceeded slowly and at an uneven pace progressing roughly from west to east through multiple campaigns over many years 30 31 Palermo was conquered in 831 and became the capital of Muslim rule on the island and the base for further conquests 31 32 Messina was besieged and captured in 842 or 843 possibly with the support of some Neapolitans and became a base for further campaigns into the Italian mainland 33 26 34 35 Syracuse was captured in 878 31 The conquest of the island was not fully completed until 902 when Taormina was conquered 31 36 107 Even after this however some patches of local Byzantine Christian resistance continued until 967 long after the Aghlabid dynasty had ended 30 37 207 Italian Peninsula Edit Even as the conquest of Sicily was ongoing the Aghlabids began campaigning on the Italian mainland Their invasions of Calabria and Apulia as well as their attacks on other central Mediterranean islands were probably undertaken as an extension of their conquest of Sicily aiming to aid the latter by attacking other Byzantine positions in the region 38 476 39 208 The first major expeditions to the peninsula took place between 835 and 843 39 208 Amantea was taken in 839 or 846 and occupied until 886 when the Byzantines retook it 39 208 40 249 Taranto was captured in 840 and occupied until 880 39 208 Bari was captured by Muslims either in 840 or 847 38 Rome was raided by a Muslim force in 846 although it is not certain that the raiders came from Aghlabid territory 41 26 42 122 Another attack towards Rome took place in 849 leading to a great naval battle near Ostia during which a fleet of Muslim ships was destroyed marking a halt to Muslim advances on the peninsula 33 35 35 Many of the Muslim forces that operated on the peninsula or occupied some of its cities seem to have had only tenuous allegiances to the Aghlabid dynasty 41 49 Some Muslim mercenaries even entered into the service of Naples or local Lombard rulers at various times 41 19 26 49 54 The early Muslim occupiers of Bari for example appear to have served as mercenaries of Radelchis I of Benevento The Emirate of Bari which existed from 847 to 871 39 209 had its own rulers whose relations to the Aghlabids are not clearly known 38 Malta Sardinia and Corsica Edit Elsewhere in the central Mediterranean the Aghlabids conquered the island of Malta in 870 43 208 They also attacked or raided Sardinia and Corsica 44 45 153 244 Some modern references state that Sardinia came under Aghlabid control around 810 or after the beginning of the conquest of Sicily in 827 46 47 48 49 Historian Corrado Zedda argues that the island hosted a Muslim presence during the Aghlabid period possibly a limited foothold along the coasts that forcibly coexisted with the local Byzantine government 50 Historian Alex Metcalfe argues that the available evidence for any Muslim occupation or colonisation of the island during this period is limited and inconclusive and that Muslim attacks were limited to raids 45 According to Fabio Pinna most Sardinian historians and archaeologists studying this period of the island s history have reached the same conclusion denying that a Muslim conquest and occupation of Sardinia took place due to insufficient supporting evidence from archaeology and local historical records 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 Apogee in Ifriqiya Edit The expansion campaign into Sicily which Ziyadat Allah launched right after defeating the jund rebellion that started in 824 gave the restless Arab troops of Ifriqiya a new outlet for their military energies It also brought in new revenues to the Aghlabid state 58 At home the Aghlabid emirs faced significant criticism from Maliki religious scholars who held great influence as religious elites in the region They dealt with this problem by drawing the Maliki scholars into the orbit of the state and granting them appointments to high religious offices They also countered criticism of their wealth and privilege by publicly dispensing charity to the poor and sponsoring the construction and expansion of mosques 18 55 58 All of these factors led to greater internal stability and peace in Ifriqiya after 827 58 18 58 Agriculture and trans Saharan trade were further developed under Aghlabid rule leading to economic expansion and a growing urban population 18 58 The Aghlabid kingdom reached its high point under Ahmad ibn Muhammad al Aghlabi 856 863 citation needed Ifriqiya was a significant economic power thanks to its fertile agriculture aided by the expansion of the Roman irrigation system It became the focal point of trade between the Islamic world and Byzantium and Italy especially the lucrative slave trade Kairouan became the most important centre of learning in the Maghreb most notably in the fields of theology and law and a gathering place for poets citation needed The Aghlabid emirs sponsored building projects notably the rebuilding of the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the kingdom developed an architectural style which combined Abbasid and Byzantine architecture 59 In 876 Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad moved his residence from al Abbasiya to a new palace city that he founded called Raqqada The new city contained a mosque baths market and several palaces For the rest of his life Ibrahim II resided in a palace called Qasr al Fath Arabic قصر الفتح lit Palace of Victory which also remained the residence of his successors except for some periods where they moved to Tunis 60 Decline and fall Edit Further information Fatimid Caliphate Conquest of Aghlabid Ifriqiya The decline of the dynasty began under Ibrahim II 875 902 An attack by the Tulunids of Egypt had to be repelled and a revolt of the Berbers put down with much loss of life citation needed In 893 there began amongst the Kutama Berbers the movement of the Isma ili Fatimids led by Abu Abdallah al Shi i the da i of the future caliph Abdallah al Mahdi although it took almost a decade before they were able to seriously threaten Aghlabid power 36 In 902 Ibrahim II became the only Aghlabid emir to personally lead a military campaign in Sicily and the Italian mainland 42 119 While he was away in Sicily Abu Abdallah struck the first significant blow against Aghlabid authority in North Africa by attacking and capturing the city of Mila present day eastern Algeria This news triggered a serious response from the Aghlabids who sent a punitive expedition of 12 000 men from Tunis in October of the same year Abu Abdallah s forces were forced to flee their base at Tazrut and re establish themselves at Ikjan 36 106 107 Ibrahim II died in October 902 while besieging Cosenza in Italy and was succeeded by Abdallah II On 27 July 903 Abdallah was assassinated and his son Ziyadat Allah III took power basing himself in Tunis 36 107 108 These internal Aghlabid troubles gave Abu Abdallah the opportunity to recapture Mila and then go on to capture Setif by October or November 904 36 108 18 61 Further Aghlabid attempts to crush his movement had little success In 907 in response to the growing threat Ziyadat Allah III moved his court back to Raqqada which he fortified 36 109 111 Later in 907 the heavily fortified city of Baghaya on the southern Roman road between Ifriqiya and the central Maghreb fell to the Kutama 36 112 113 This opened a hole in the wider defensive system of Ifriqiya and created panic in Raqqada Ziyadat Allah III stepped up anti Fatimid propaganda recruited volunteers and took measures to defend the weakly fortified city of Kairouan 36 113 115 In 908 he personally led his army in an indecisive battle against the Kutama army near Dar Madyan probably a site between Sbeitla and Kasserine with neither side gaining the upper hand During the winter of 908 909 Abu Abdallah conquered the region around Chott el Jerid An Aghlabid counterattack against Baghaya failed 36 115 117 On 25 February 909 Abu Abdallah set out from Ikjan with an army of 200 000 men for a final invasion of Kairouan The remaining Aghlabid army led by an Aghlabid prince named Ibrahim Ibn Abi al Aghlab met them near al Aribus on 18 March The battle lasted until the afternoon when a contingent of Kutama horsemen outflanked the Aghlabid army and finally caused a rout 36 118 When news of the defeat reached Raqqada Ziyadat Allah III packed his valuable treasures and fled towards Egypt The population of Kairouan looted the abandoned palaces of Raqqada When Ibn Abi al Aghlab arrived on the scene after his defeat he called on the population to mount a last ditch resistance but they refused 36 119 120 On 25 March 909 Saturday 1 Rajab 296 Abu Abdallah entered Raqqada and took up residence here That same year his forces retrieved the Fatimid caliph Abdallah al Mahdi from Sijilmasa in the western Maghreb and brought him to Ifriqiya thus establishing the Fatimid Caliphate 36 119 120 61 Architecture EditMain article Aghlabid architecture An Aghlabid cistern in KairouanThe Aghlabids were major builders and erected many of the oldest Islamic era monuments in present day Tunisia including military structures like the Ribat of Sousse and the Ribat of Monastir religious buildings like the Great Mosque of Sousse and the Great Mosque of Sfax and practical infrastructure works like the Aghlabid Reservoirs of Kairouan 62 Much of their architecture even their mosques had a heavy and almost fortress like appearance but they nonetheless left an influential artistic legacy 62 63 64 The Great Mosque of Kairouan rebuilt by Ziyadat Allah I in 836 One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan which was completely rebuilt by the emir Ziyadat Allah I in 836 although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate the chronology of its construction 62 The mosque features an enormous rectangular courtyard a large hypostyle prayer hall and a thick three story minaret tower from which the call to prayer was issued The minaret is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and its shape may have been modeled on existing Roman lighthouses 65 66 The mihrab niche symbolizing the direction of prayer of the prayer hall is among the oldest examples of its kind richly decorated with marble panels carved in high relief vegetal motifs and with ceramic tiles with overglaze and luster 62 67 Next to the mihrab is the oldest surviving minbar pulpit in the world made of richly carved teakwood panels Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from Abbasid Iraq 62 An elegant dome in front of the mihrab wall is an architectural highlight of this period Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of the surrounding mosque and the dome s drum is elaborately decorated with a frieze of blind arches squinches carved in the shape of shells and carved low relief motifs 62 The Mosque of Ibn Khayrun also known as the Mosque of the Three Doors possesses an external facade featuring carved Kufic inscriptions and vegetal motifs which some scholars have called the oldest decorated external facade in Islamic architecture 63 and which may contain the oldest foundation inscription crediting a private individual rather than a ruler for a mosque s construction 68 The al Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis which was founded earlier around 698 also owes its overall current form to the Aghlabid emir Abu Ibrahim Ahmad r 856 863 69 70 38 Aghlabid rulers Edit Gold dinar of Ibrahim I ibn al Aghlab 184 196 AH anonymous but dynastic motto Ghalab on the reverse no mint name probably Kairouan Ifriqiya Struck in 192 AH 807 808 AD Preserved at the Musee national d art islamique de Raqqada fr Ibrahim I ibn al Aghlab ibn Salim 800 812 Abdallah I ibn Ibrahim 812 817 Ziyadat Allah I ibn Ibrahim 817 838 al Aghlab Abu Iqal ibn Ibrahim 838 841 Abu l Abbas Muhammad I ibn al Aghlab Abi Affan 841 856 Ahmad ibn Muhammad al Aghlabi 856 863 Ziyadat Allah II ibn Abil Abbas 863 Abu l Gharaniq Muhammad II ibn Ahmad 863 875 Abu Ishaq Ibrahim II ibn Ahmad 875 902 Abu l Abbas Abdallah II ibn Ibrahim 902 903 Abu Mudhar Ziyadat Allah III ibn Abdallah 903 909 See also EditBattle of Manu History of medieval Tunisia History of Islam in southern Italy List of Sunni dynasties History of Algeria History of Libya Early Caliphate navyNotes Edit The occupation of Sardinia by the Aghlabids is debated among historians See article for details Citations Edit Naylor Phillip C 5 September 2006 Historical Dictionary of Algeria Lanham Md Scarecrow Press p 58 ISBN 978 0 8108 6480 1 Libya Ediz Inglese Anthony Ham Freeman Grenville Greville Stewart Parker Munro Hay Stuart Christopher 26 January 2006 Islam An Illustrated History Bloomsbury Publishing USA p 57 ISBN 978 1 4411 6533 6 Mazot Sibylle 2011 Tunisia and Egypt the Aghlabids and Fatimids In Hattstein Markus Delius Peter eds Islam Art and Architecture h f ullmann pp 131 136 137 ISBN 9783848003808 Anderson Glaire D Fenwick Corisande Rosser Owen Mariam eds 2018 The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors An Introduction The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century North Africa Brill p 2 ISBN 978 90 04 35566 8 Versteegh 1997 p 209 Logistics of Warfare in the Age of the Crusades Proceedings of a Workshop John H Pryor p187 1 C E Bosworth The New Islamic Dynasties Columbia University Press 1996 31 Motala Moulana Suhail 28 February 2019 The Banu Tamim tribe Hadith Answers Retrieved 1 February 2021 Aghlabids and their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century Aghlabids and North Africa Mariam Rosser Owen and editor Glaire D Anderson Corisande Fenwick 2019 ISBN 9789004356047 C E Bosworth The New Islamic Dynasties 31 Julien Histoire de L Afrique du Nord Paris Payor 1931 revised by de Tourneau 1952 translated as History of North Africa London Routledge amp Kegan Paul 1970 New York Praeger 1970 at 42 a b Goldschmidt Arthur 2002 A concise history of the Middle East Boulder Colorado Westview Press pp 79 ISBN 0 8133 3885 9 Laroui The History of the Maghrib 1970 1977 at 116 Anderson Glaire D Fenwick Corisande Rosser Owen Mariam eds 2018 Introduction The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century North Africa Brill pp 2 3 18 ISBN 978 90 04 35566 8 a b c d Lev Yaacov 1991 State and Society in Fatimid Egypt Volume 1 dari Arab history and civilization Studies and texts 0925 2908 ed Brill pp 4 5 ISBN 9004093443 a b Kennedy Hugh 2018 The Origins of the Aghlabids In Anderson Glaire D Fenwick Corisande Rosser Owen Mariam eds The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century North Africa Brill p 47 ISBN 978 90 04 35566 8 a b c d e f Abun Nasr Jamil 1987 A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521337674 Despois J 1965 D j arid In Lewis B Pellat Ch amp Schacht J eds The Encyclopaedia of Islam Second Edition Volume II C G Leiden E J Brill p 463 OCLC 495469475 Prevost Virginie 3 December 2012 Les enjeux de la bataille de Manu 283 896 Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Mediterranee in French 132 75 90 doi 10 4000 remmm 7825 ISSN 0997 1327 Metcalfe Alex 2021 Italy Islam in premodern In Fleet Kate Kramer Gudrun Matringe Denis Nawas John Rowson Everett eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Three The Encyclopaedia of Islam Brill ISSN 1873 9830 Metcalfe Alex 2021 Early Muslim Raids on Byzantine Sardinia In Metcalfe Alex Fernandez Aceves Hervin Muresu Marco eds The Making of Medieval Sardinia Brill pp 126 159 ISBN 978 90 04 46754 5 Nef Annliese 2018 Reinterpreting the Aghlabids Sicilian Policy 827 910 In Anderson Glaire D Fenwick Corisande Rosser Owen Mariam eds The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century North Africa Brill pp 76 87 ISBN 978 90 04 35566 8 El Hareir Mbaye Idris Ravane 2011 The Spread of Islam Throughout the World UNESCO p 441 ISBN 978 9231041532 Bury 1912 p 304 Treadgold 1988 pp 273 274 Vasiliev 1935 pp 127 128 Treadgold 1988 p 274 Vasiliev 1935 pp 128 129 a b Metcalfe Alex 2021 Italy Islam in premodern In Fleet Kate Kramer Gudrun Matringe Denis Nawas John Rowson Everett eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Three The Encyclopaedia of Islam Brill ISSN 1873 9830 a b c d Davis Secord Sarah 2017 Where Three Worlds Met Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean Cornell University Press pp 77 535 ISBN 978 1 5017 1258 6 Bondioli Lorenzo M 2018 Islamic Bari between the Aghlabids and the Two Empires In Anderson Glaire D Fenwick Corisande Rosser Owen Mariam eds The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century North Africa Brill pp 470 490 ISBN 978 90 04 35566 8 a b Kreutz Barbara M 1991 Before the Normans Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978 0 8122 0543 5 Kleinhenz Christopher 2017 Messina Routledge Revivals Medieval Italy 2004 An Encyclopedia Volume II Routledge ISBN 978 1 351 66442 4 a b Mazot Sibylle 2011 The History of the Aghlabids In Hattstein Markus Delius Peter eds Islam Art and Architecture h f ullmann p 131 ISBN 9783848003808 a b c d e f g h i j k l Halm Heinz 1996 The Empire of the Mahdi The Rise of the Fatimids Translated by Bonner Michael E J Brill ISBN 9004100563 Nef Annliese 2021 Byzantium and Islam in Southern Italy 7th 11th Century A Companion to Byzantine Italy Brill pp 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2021 Byzantium and Islam in Southern Italy 7th 11th Century A Companion to Byzantine Italy Brill pp 200 225 ISBN 978 90 04 30770 4 Bosworth Clifford Edmund 2004 The Aghlabids The New Islamic Dynasties A Chronological and Genealogical Manual Edinburgh University Press p 31 ISBN 9780748696482 a b Metcalfe Alex 2021 Early Muslim Raids on Byzantine Sardinia In Metcalfe Alex Fernandez Aceves Hervin Muresu Marco eds The Making of Medieval Sardinia Brill pp 126 159 ISBN 978 90 04 46754 5 Setton Kenneth Meyer 1969 A History of the Crusades Univ of Wisconsin Press p 43 ISBN 978 0 299 04834 1 Agius Dionisius A Agius 1996 Siculo Arabic Routledge p 27 ISBN 978 0 7103 0497 1 Goodwin Stefan 2002 Malta Mediterranean Bridge Greenwood Publishing Group p 16 ISBN 978 0 89789 820 1 Lea David Rowe Annamarie 2001 A Political Chronology of Africa Taylor amp Francis p 437 ISBN 978 1 85743 116 2 Zedda Corrado 2017 A Revision of Sardinian History between the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries In Hobart Michelle ed A Companion to Sardinian History 500 1500 Brill p 119 ISBN 978 90 04 34124 1 Pinna Fabio 30 June 2010 Le testimonianze archeologiche relative ai rapporti tra gli Arabi e la Sardegna nel medioevo RiMe Rivista dell Istituto di Storia dell Europa Mediterranea in Italian 11 12 ISSN 2035 794X la maggior parte degli autori considera tale rapporto limitato ad alcune incursioni navali verso le coste sarde provenienti dai teritori islamici dell Africa settentrionale e della penisola iberica orientale di fatto prive di conseguenze durature Raspi Raimondo Carta 1985 Storia della Sardegna in Italian Mursia OCLC 462998915 Casula Francesco Cesare 1994 Storia di Sardegna in Italian Vol II Sassari Carlo Delfino editore ISBN 9788871380636 OCLC 32106130 Corda Daniele 2017 Angiolillo Simonetta Martorelli Rossana Giuman Marco Corda Antonio Maria Artizzu Danila eds La produzione ceramica manifatture locali ed importazioni PDF La Sardegna romana e altomedievale storia e materiali Corpora delle antichita della Sardegna Sassari Carlo Delfino Editore in Italian 279 284 Mastino Attilio 2017 Angiolillo Simonetta Martorelli Rossana Giuman Marco Corda Antonio Maria Artizzu Danila eds La Sardegna provincia romana l amministrazione PDF La Sardegna romana e altomedievale storia e materiali Corpora delle antichita della Sardegna Sassari Carlo Delfino Editore in Italian 182 Lisai Gianmichele Maccioni Antonio 18 November 2021 Tra Arabi e Giudici Breve storia della Sardegna in Italian Newton Compton Editori ISBN 978 88 227 5453 0 Casula Francesco Cesare 2001 incursioni musulmane DI STO SA Dizionario storico sardo in Italian Sassari Carlo Delfino editore p 773 ISBN 88 7138 241 2 OCLC 51336468 In Sardegna non si ebbero invasioni musulmane dirette ad impossessarsi dell isola se non quella unica di Mugiahid al Amiri wali principe di Denia e delle Baleari del 1015 16 avente pero lo scopo di farne una testa di ponte per assalire ed occupare la Toscana e il continente italiano a b Kennedy Hugh 2018 The Origins of the Aghlabids In Anderson Glaire D Fenwick Corisande Rosser Owen Mariam eds The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century North Africa Brill p 47 ISBN 978 90 04 35566 8 Aghlabids Dictionary of Islamic Architecture Archnet Archived from the original on 29 June 2011 Retrieved 23 January 2011 Marcais Georges 1995 Raḳḳada In Bosworth C E van Donzel E Heinrichs W P Lecomte G eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Second Edition Vol 8 Brill ISBN 9789004161214 Halm Heinz 2014 Fatimids In Fleet Kate Kramer Gudrun Matringe Denis Nawas John Rowson Everett eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Three The Encyclopaedia of Islam Brill ISSN 1873 9830 a b c d e f Bloom Jonathan M 2020 Architecture of the Islamic West North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula 700 1800 Yale University Press pp 21 41 ISBN 9780300218701 a b Binous Jamila Baklouti Naceur Ben Tanfous Aziza Bouteraa Kadri Rammah Mourad Zouari Ali 2002 Ifriqiya Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia 2nd ed Museum With No Frontiers MWNF ISBN 9783902782199 Marcais Georges 1954 L architecture musulmane d Occident Paris Arts et metiers graphiques pp 9 61 M Bloom Jonathan S Blair Sheila eds 2009 Minaret The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195309911 Petersen Andrew 1996 Dictionary of Islamic architecture Routledge pp 187 190 ISBN 9781134613663 M Bloom Jonathan S Blair Sheila eds 2009 Mihrab The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture Oxford University Press ISBN 9780195309911 Salinas Elena Montilla Irene 2018 Material Culture Interactions between al Andalus and the Aghlabids In Anderson Glaire D Fenwick Corisande Rosser Owen Mariam eds The Aghlabids and Their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century North Africa Brill p 442 ISBN 978 90 04 35566 8 Binous Jamila Baklouti Naceur Ben Tanfous Aziza Bouteraa Kadri Rammah Mourad Zouari Ali 2002 Ifriqiya Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia 2nd ed Museum With No Frontiers MWNF ISBN 9783902782199 Bloom Jonathan M 2020 Architecture of the Islamic West North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula 700 1800 Yale University Press ISBN 9780300218701 References EditMarcais Georges Aghlabids Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed Vol I pp 699 700 Talbi Mohamed Emirat Aghlabide Paris Adrien Maisonneuve 1967 Vonderheyden Maurice La Berberie orientale sous la dynastie des Benou l Aṛlab 800 909 Paris Geuthner 1927 Aghlabids and their Neighbors Art and Material Culture in Ninth Century Aghlabids and North Africa Mariam Rosser Owen edit by Glaire D Anderson and Corisande Fenwick Versteegh Kees 1997 The Arabic Language Columbia University Press Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Aghlabids amp oldid 1150165483, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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