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1956 anti-Tamil pogrom

August 23, 2023

The 1956 anti-Tamil pogrom,[6][7][8][9][10] also known as the Gal Oya riots, was the first organised pogrom against Sri Lankan Tamils in the Dominion of Ceylon.[3] It began with anti-Tamil rioting in Colombo, followed by anti-Sinhalese rioting in Batticaloa. The worst of the violence took place in the Gal Oya valley, where local majority Sinhalese colonists and employees of the Gal Oya Development Board commandeered government vehicles, dynamite and weapons and massacred minority Tamils. It is estimated that over 150 people died during the violence. The police and army were eventually able to bring the situation under control.

1956 anti-Tamil pogrom
Location of Sri Lanka
LocationDominion of Ceylon
DateJune 5–16, 1956 (+6 GMT)
TargetMajority Tamil civilians in Colombo and Gal Oya, also Sinhalese civilians in Batticaloa
Attack type
Decapitation, burning, stabbing, arson, assault, looting
WeaponsKnives, sticks, fire
Deaths20-200[1][2][3][4]
Injured100+
PerpetratorsVast majority Sinhalese mobs,[5] also Tamil mobs[4]

Background information

 
Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranayaka.
 
Fast unto death by Prof. J. E. Jayasuriya in 1956, to force Bandaranaike government to implement the Sinhala as the only State language excluding Tamil language of masses in the country's north and east provinces.
See also: Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war and Sinhala Only Act

By 1956, 50% of clerical jobs were held by Tamils, although they were a minority of the country's population.[11] This was partly due to the availability of Western style education built by American missionaries in the Tamil dominant Jaffna peninsula during the colonial era. The overrepresentation of Tamils was used by populist Sinhalese politicians[who?] to come to political power by promising to elevate the Sinhalese people. The pro-Sinhalese nationalist Freedom Party came to power in 1956 promising to make Sinhala, the language of the majority Sinhalese people, the sole official language.[12]

Gal Oya settlement scheme

See also: Sri Lankan state sponsored colonisation schemes

Gal Oya settlement scheme was begun in 1949 to settle landless peasants in formerly jungle land. Gal Oya river in the Eastern province was dammed and a tank was created with 40,000,000 acres (160,000 km2) of irrigated land. In 1956 the settlement had over 50 new villages where over 5,000 ethnic Tamil, Muslim, Indigenous Veddha and Sinhalese were settled. The Sinhalese were approximately 50% of the settlers. Sinhalese and others were spatially separated from each other as Sinhalese were settled at the more productive headwaters of the Gal Oya tank and the Tamils and Muslims at the down rivers closer to their former native villages. Settlement of large number of Sinhalese peasants in what Tamil nationalists considered their traditional Tamil homeland, was a source of tension within the settlement area.[13]

Riots

Federalist satyagraha attacked

The riots start on 5 June 1956, while the Official language bill was debated in the Parliament in Colombo. About 200 Tamils led by 12 MPs of the Tamil Federal party conducted a silent satyagraha, a nonviolent sit-in protest, outside the parliament building.[3] They were attacked and stoned by Sinhalese mobs. A Federalist politician was stripped and chased across the Galle Face Green. The police did not intervene, as they had been ordered not to interfere. The mobs had been led by two Sinhalese parliamentarians, one of which was K. M. P. Rajaratne.[14][15] Some of the Tamil protestors were thrown into the Beira lake.[16]

Riots spread in Colombo

The mob also stoned peaceful Tamil protesters as they marched to board a train heading back to Batticaloa at the Fort railway station.[17] The same mob, after listening to a speech by populist Sinhalese politicians urging them to boycott Tamil businesses, then went on a spree of arson and looting in the city.[14][18] Every Tamil seen on the streets of Colombo was then attacked by the mob, including Tamil office workers going from home from work.[19][20] Over 150 Tamil owned shops were looted and many people were hospitalized for their injuries.[21] Tamil senator S. Nadesan gave his account about the event:

“Hooligans, in the very precincts of Parliament House, under the very nose of the Prime Minister of this country, set upon those innocent men seated there, bit their ears and beat them up mercilessly. Not one shot was fired while all this lawlessness to persons were let loose... Why? Orders had been given: 'Do not shoot, just look on.'

Thereafter… every Tamil man was set upon and robbed. He was beaten up. His fountain pen and wristlet were snatched away. He was thrashed mercilessly, humiliated and sent home. The police were looking on while all this was happening before their very eyes.

Shops were looted... but the police did nothing... specific instructions had been given to the police that they should not shoot, should not arrest, should not deal with the lawlessness and disorder that was let loose... rowdies and hooligans were given a free hand to assault, humiliate and rob any innocent Tamil walking the roads on that day.'[19]

Eventually order was restored in Colombo after police opened fire on the rioting mobs, wounding eight in the process.[3]

Batticaloa

Following the riots in Colombo, Tamil rioters in Batticaloa attacked Sinhalese. Sinhalese houses were burnt and Sinhalese people were assaulted. In one case, a Sinhalese hotel was burned. An employee of this hotel emerged from the burning hotel and fired at a crowd that had gathered to watch the conflagration, killing two. Police had also fired on crowd of 10,000 demonstrating Tamils, killing another two. Tamils from Karaitivu had thrown stones at Gal Oya Board trucks.[22] Near Kalmunai, a group of 11 Tamils hid in trees and shot at a convoy of Sinhalese civilians and government officials, killing two.[23]

Gal Oya

According to journalist T. Sabaratnam, a day after anti-Tamil violence in Colombo, on 6 June, a Sinhalese mob attacked and chased out all the Tamils from Paddipalai, a traditional Tamil village in the Gal Oya area.[24] However, anthropologist Stanley Tambiah, who was at Gal Oya during the riots, reported that violence began on 11 June.[4]

On 9 June, the trucks that had been stoned arrived in Gal Oya. News of the attacks on Sinhalese in Batticaloa started reaching the valley, and with it, false rumours. The chief amongst the rumours was that a Sinhalese girl had been raped and made to walk naked down the street in Batticaloa by a Tamil mob. Although this was later proved to be false, the rumor inflamed the passions of the mob and led to further massacres and property destruction. On 11 June, agitated Sinhalese mobs began roaming the streets of Gal Oya valley looking for Tamils. Properties owned by Tamils, including those of Indian Tamils, were looted and burned down. It was rumored that the local police made no attempt to control the mob.[4]

Tamil refugees from Amparai had fled to the Amparai police station and the Circuit Bungalow under police protection. On the evening of 12 June, a Sinhalese mob surrounded the latter location, threatening to break in. At first, police used tear gas to try and disperse the mob. The mob tried to stop a jeep with a Bren gun; at this point, the police opened fire, killing three of rioters. Then the mob severed the utilities and stole dynamite from a dynamite dump in Inginiyagala to try to blow up the bungalow. They were unable to acquire detonators, and by 11 PM, the military arrived and disperse the crowd.[25]

On the morning of 13 June, a truck arrived with Sinhalese refugees from Bakiela who had been attacked by Tamil colonists. By noon of that day, there were further rumors that an army of 6,000 Tamils armed with guns were in the process of approaching the Sinhalese settlements in the Gal Oya valley. This led local groups of Sinhalese men to commandeer government vehicles to travel to outlying Tamil villages while Sinhalese officials and settlers fled.[26] It was only after the arrival of army reinforcements and stern action taken by them that the killings and destruction were suppressed.[27] Deputy Inspector-General of Police Sydney de Zoysa personally went to Gal Oya valley and threatened local politicians with arrest if they incited the mob to violence, even if they were Cabinet Ministers.

Journalist Tarzie Vittachi states that over 150 civilians were killed in the entire Gal Oya valley during the entirety of the riots.[28] NESOHR however claims that that number of Tamils were massacred in a sugar cane farm and factory in Inginiyagala by Sinhalese settlers, who later threw the bodies of the victims into the fire.[29][note 1]

Casualties

Source Sinhalese Tamil Others Total
Official[31] 14 10 2 26
Vittachi - - - 150+
Wriggins[32] - - - 20-200
Manor[33] - 100+ - 100+

See also

Notes

  1. ^ However, there was no sugar factory at Inginiyagala in 1956. The contract for the first sugar factory in Ceylon was signed in 1957.[30]

Sources

  1. ^ "An evolving army and its role through time". Sunday Times. 2005-10-16. Retrieved 2008-10-29. Following the 1956 elections and the introduction of Sinhala as the country's official language, the first major outbreak of ethnic violence occurred leading to the deaths of around 150 people.
  2. ^ Vittachi, T. Emergency '58: The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots, p. 8
  3. ^ a b c d Chattopadhyaya, H. Ethnic Unrest in Modern Sri Lanka: An Account of Tamil-Sinhalese Race Relations, p. 52
  4. ^ a b c d Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia , p. 89
  5. ^ Horowitz, D. The Deadly Ethnic Riot, p. 181
  6. ^ Narratives of Gendered Dissent in South Asian Cinemas. New York: Routledge Publications. 2012. p. 126. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Narratives_of_Gendered_Dissent_in_South/g0vyvO2NGFMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=anti+tamil+pogrom+1958&pg=PA126&printsec=frontcover
  7. ^ Damien Kingsbury, 2012, Sri Lanka and the Responsibility to Protect: Politics, Ethnicity and Genocide, Routledge p.54 https://books.google.com/books?id=OhupAgAAQBAJ
  8. ^ Susan S Wadley, 2014, South Asia in the World: An Introduction, Routledge, p.62 https://books.google.com/books?id=xDzfBQAAQBAJ&dq=anti+tamil+pogrom+1958&pg=PA62
  9. ^ Gay Morris, Jens Richard Giersdorf, 2016, Choreographies of 21st Century Wars, Oxford University Press, p.121 https://books.google.com/books?id=w3k8CwAAQBAJ&dq=anti+tamil+pogrom+1958&pg=PA121
  10. ^ Pothik Ghosh, Insurgent Metaphors, Essays on Culture and Class, Routledge, p.192 https://books.google.com/books?id=9HR5EAAAQBAJ
  11. ^ Neil DeVotta, Ethnolinguistic Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka, p73
  12. ^ Vittachi, T. Emergency '58: The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots , pp. 6–8
  13. ^ Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia, p. 83
  14. ^ a b DeVotta, N. Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay, and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka, p. 86
  15. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 1, Chapter 1: Why didn't he hit back? (2003) https://sangam.org/pirapaharan-vol-1-chap-1-hit-back/
  16. ^ Ponnambalam, Satchi (1983). Sri Lanka: National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle. Tamil Information Centre. ISBN 978-0-86232-199-4.
  17. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 1, Chapter 1: Why didn't he hit back? (2003) https://sangam.org/pirapaharan-vol-1-chap-1-hit-back/
  18. ^ Ponnambalam, Satchi (1983). Sri Lanka: National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle. Tamil Information Centre. ISBN 978-0-86232-199-4.
  19. ^ a b "Remembering 1956 – Sri Lanka's first Anti-Tamil pogrom | Tamil Guardian". www.tamilguardian.com. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
  20. ^ Ponnambalam, Satchi (1983). Sri Lanka: National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle. Tamil Information Centre. ISBN 978-0-86232-199-4.
  21. ^ Vittachi, T. Emergency '58: The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots, pp. 7–8
  22. ^ Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia, p. 88
  23. ^ Swamy, M. R. Naranayan. Tigers of Lanka: From Boys to Guerrillas, p. 23
  24. ^ T. Sabaratnam, Pirapaharan, Volume 1, Chapter 1: Why didn't he hit back? (2003) https://sangam.org/pirapaharan-vol-1-chap-1-hit-back/
  25. ^ Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia , pp. 90-91
  26. ^ Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia , p. 91
  27. ^ Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia , p. 92
  28. ^ Vittachi, T. Emergency '58: The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots , pp. 6–8
  29. ^ Massacres of Tamils, 1956-2008. Manitham Publishers. 2009. ISBN 978-81-909737-0-0.
  30. ^ "Ceylon Plans For Its First Sugar Factory". Foreign Commerce Weekly. Bureau of International Commerce. 16 September 1957. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  31. ^ Parliamentary Debates vol. 27, col. 2177
  32. ^ Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia , pp. 85–86
  33. ^ Tambiah, Stanley. Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia , pp. 85–86

References


Further reading

  • Buddhist Nationalism and religious violence in Sri Lanka – Prof. Nicholas Gier

August 23, 2023
1956, anti, tamil, pogrom, also, known, riots, first, organised, pogrom, against, lankan, tamils, dominion, ceylon, began, with, anti, tamil, rioting, colombo, followed, anti, sinhalese, rioting, batticaloa, worst, violence, took, place, valley, where, local, . The 1956 anti Tamil pogrom 6 7 8 9 10 also known as the Gal Oya riots was the first organised pogrom against Sri Lankan Tamils in the Dominion of Ceylon 3 It began with anti Tamil rioting in Colombo followed by anti Sinhalese rioting in Batticaloa The worst of the violence took place in the Gal Oya valley where local majority Sinhalese colonists and employees of the Gal Oya Development Board commandeered government vehicles dynamite and weapons and massacred minority Tamils It is estimated that over 150 people died during the violence The police and army were eventually able to bring the situation under control 1956 anti Tamil pogromLocation of Sri LankaLocationDominion of CeylonDateJune 5 16 1956 6 GMT TargetMajority Tamil civilians in Colombo and Gal Oya also Sinhalese civilians in BatticaloaAttack typeDecapitation burning stabbing arson assault lootingWeaponsKnives sticks fireDeaths20 200 1 2 3 4 Injured100 PerpetratorsVast majority Sinhalese mobs 5 also Tamil mobs 4 Contents 1 Background information 2 Gal Oya settlement scheme 3 Riots 3 1 Federalist satyagraha attacked 3 2 Riots spread in Colombo 3 3 Batticaloa 3 4 Gal Oya 4 Casualties 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Sources 8 References 9 Further readingBackground information Edit Prime Minister S W R D Bandaranayaka Fast unto death by Prof J E Jayasuriya in 1956 to force Bandaranaike government to implement the Sinhala as the only State language excluding Tamil language of masses in the country s north and east provinces See also Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war and Sinhala Only Act By 1956 50 of clerical jobs were held by Tamils although they were a minority of the country s population 11 This was partly due to the availability of Western style education built by American missionaries in the Tamil dominant Jaffna peninsula during the colonial era The overrepresentation of Tamils was used by populist Sinhalese politicians who to come to political power by promising to elevate the Sinhalese people The pro Sinhalese nationalist Freedom Party came to power in 1956 promising to make Sinhala the language of the majority Sinhalese people the sole official language 12 Gal Oya settlement scheme EditSee also Sri Lankan state sponsored colonisation schemes Gal Oya settlement scheme was begun in 1949 to settle landless peasants in formerly jungle land Gal Oya river in the Eastern province was dammed and a tank was created with 40 000 000 acres 160 000 km2 of irrigated land In 1956 the settlement had over 50 new villages where over 5 000 ethnic Tamil Muslim Indigenous Veddha and Sinhalese were settled The Sinhalese were approximately 50 of the settlers Sinhalese and others were spatially separated from each other as Sinhalese were settled at the more productive headwaters of the Gal Oya tank and the Tamils and Muslims at the down rivers closer to their former native villages Settlement of large number of Sinhalese peasants in what Tamil nationalists considered their traditional Tamil homeland was a source of tension within the settlement area 13 Riots EditFederalist satyagraha attacked Edit The riots start on 5 June 1956 while the Official language bill was debated in the Parliament in Colombo About 200 Tamils led by 12 MPs of the Tamil Federal party conducted a silent satyagraha a nonviolent sit in protest outside the parliament building 3 They were attacked and stoned by Sinhalese mobs A Federalist politician was stripped and chased across the Galle Face Green The police did not intervene as they had been ordered not to interfere The mobs had been led by two Sinhalese parliamentarians one of which was K M P Rajaratne 14 15 Some of the Tamil protestors were thrown into the Beira lake 16 Riots spread in Colombo Edit The mob also stoned peaceful Tamil protesters as they marched to board a train heading back to Batticaloa at the Fort railway station 17 The same mob after listening to a speech by populist Sinhalese politicians urging them to boycott Tamil businesses then went on a spree of arson and looting in the city 14 18 Every Tamil seen on the streets of Colombo was then attacked by the mob including Tamil office workers going from home from work 19 20 Over 150 Tamil owned shops were looted and many people were hospitalized for their injuries 21 Tamil senator S Nadesan gave his account about the event Hooligans in the very precincts of Parliament House under the very nose of the Prime Minister of this country set upon those innocent men seated there bit their ears and beat them up mercilessly Not one shot was fired while all this lawlessness to persons were let loose Why Orders had been given Do not shoot just look on Thereafter every Tamil man was set upon and robbed He was beaten up His fountain pen and wristlet were snatched away He was thrashed mercilessly humiliated and sent home The police were looking on while all this was happening before their very eyes Shops were looted but the police did nothing specific instructions had been given to the police that they should not shoot should not arrest should not deal with the lawlessness and disorder that was let loose rowdies and hooligans were given a free hand to assault humiliate and rob any innocent Tamil walking the roads on that day 19 Eventually order was restored in Colombo after police opened fire on the rioting mobs wounding eight in the process 3 Batticaloa Edit Following the riots in Colombo Tamil rioters in Batticaloa attacked Sinhalese Sinhalese houses were burnt and Sinhalese people were assaulted In one case a Sinhalese hotel was burned An employee of this hotel emerged from the burning hotel and fired at a crowd that had gathered to watch the conflagration killing two Police had also fired on crowd of 10 000 demonstrating Tamils killing another two Tamils from Karaitivu had thrown stones at Gal Oya Board trucks 22 Near Kalmunai a group of 11 Tamils hid in trees and shot at a convoy of Sinhalese civilians and government officials killing two 23 Gal Oya Edit According to journalist T Sabaratnam a day after anti Tamil violence in Colombo on 6 June a Sinhalese mob attacked and chased out all the Tamils from Paddipalai a traditional Tamil village in the Gal Oya area 24 However anthropologist Stanley Tambiah who was at Gal Oya during the riots reported that violence began on 11 June 4 On 9 June the trucks that had been stoned arrived in Gal Oya News of the attacks on Sinhalese in Batticaloa started reaching the valley and with it false rumours The chief amongst the rumours was that a Sinhalese girl had been raped and made to walk naked down the street in Batticaloa by a Tamil mob Although this was later proved to be false the rumor inflamed the passions of the mob and led to further massacres and property destruction On 11 June agitated Sinhalese mobs began roaming the streets of Gal Oya valley looking for Tamils Properties owned by Tamils including those of Indian Tamils were looted and burned down It was rumored that the local police made no attempt to control the mob 4 Tamil refugees from Amparai had fled to the Amparai police station and the Circuit Bungalow under police protection On the evening of 12 June a Sinhalese mob surrounded the latter location threatening to break in At first police used tear gas to try and disperse the mob The mob tried to stop a jeep with a Bren gun at this point the police opened fire killing three of rioters Then the mob severed the utilities and stole dynamite from a dynamite dump in Inginiyagala to try to blow up the bungalow They were unable to acquire detonators and by 11 PM the military arrived and disperse the crowd 25 On the morning of 13 June a truck arrived with Sinhalese refugees from Bakiela who had been attacked by Tamil colonists By noon of that day there were further rumors that an army of 6 000 Tamils armed with guns were in the process of approaching the Sinhalese settlements in the Gal Oya valley This led local groups of Sinhalese men to commandeer government vehicles to travel to outlying Tamil villages while Sinhalese officials and settlers fled 26 It was only after the arrival of army reinforcements and stern action taken by them that the killings and destruction were suppressed 27 Deputy Inspector General of Police Sydney de Zoysa personally went to Gal Oya valley and threatened local politicians with arrest if they incited the mob to violence even if they were Cabinet Ministers Journalist Tarzie Vittachi states that over 150 civilians were killed in the entire Gal Oya valley during the entirety of the riots 28 NESOHR however claims that that number of Tamils were massacred in a sugar cane farm and factory in Inginiyagala by Sinhalese settlers who later threw the bodies of the victims into the fire 29 note 1 Casualties EditSource Sinhalese Tamil Others TotalOfficial 31 14 10 2 26Vittachi 150 Wriggins 32 20 200Manor 33 100 100 See also EditList of riots in Sri Lanka Sri Lankan Civil WarNotes Edit However there was no sugar factory at Inginiyagala in 1956 The contract for the first sugar factory in Ceylon was signed in 1957 30 Sources Edit An evolving army and its role through time Sunday Times 2005 10 16 Retrieved 2008 10 29 Following the 1956 elections and the introduction of Sinhala as the country s official language the first major outbreak of ethnic violence occurred leading to the deaths of around 150 people Vittachi T Emergency 58 The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots p 8 a b c d Chattopadhyaya H Ethnic Unrest in Modern Sri Lanka An Account of Tamil Sinhalese Race Relations p 52 a b c d Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia p 89 Horowitz D The Deadly Ethnic Riot p 181 Narratives of Gendered Dissent in South Asian Cinemas New York Routledge Publications 2012 p 126 https www google com books edition Narratives of Gendered Dissent in South g0vyvO2NGFMC hl en amp gbpv 1 amp dq anti tamil pogrom 1958 amp pg PA126 amp printsec frontcover Damien Kingsbury 2012 Sri Lanka and the Responsibility to Protect Politics Ethnicity and Genocide Routledge p 54 https books google com books id OhupAgAAQBAJ Susan S Wadley 2014 South Asia in the World An Introduction Routledge p 62 https books google com books id xDzfBQAAQBAJ amp dq anti tamil pogrom 1958 amp pg PA62 Gay Morris Jens Richard Giersdorf 2016 Choreographies of 21st Century Wars Oxford University Press p 121 https books google com books id w3k8CwAAQBAJ amp dq anti tamil pogrom 1958 amp pg PA121 Pothik Ghosh Insurgent Metaphors Essays on Culture and Class Routledge p 192 https books google com books id 9HR5EAAAQBAJ Neil DeVotta Ethnolinguistic Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka p73 Vittachi T Emergency 58 The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots pp 6 8 Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia p 83 a b DeVotta N Blowback Linguistic Nationalism Institutional Decay and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka p 86 T Sabaratnam Pirapaharan Volume 1 Chapter 1 Why didn t he hit back 2003 https sangam org pirapaharan vol 1 chap 1 hit back Ponnambalam Satchi 1983 Sri Lanka National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle Tamil Information Centre ISBN 978 0 86232 199 4 T Sabaratnam Pirapaharan Volume 1 Chapter 1 Why didn t he hit back 2003 https sangam org pirapaharan vol 1 chap 1 hit back Ponnambalam Satchi 1983 Sri Lanka National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle Tamil Information Centre ISBN 978 0 86232 199 4 a b Remembering 1956 Sri Lanka s first Anti Tamil pogrom Tamil Guardian www tamilguardian com Retrieved 2023 04 08 Ponnambalam Satchi 1983 Sri Lanka National Conflict and the Tamil Liberation Struggle Tamil Information Centre ISBN 978 0 86232 199 4 Vittachi T Emergency 58 The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots pp 7 8 Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia p 88 Swamy M R Naranayan Tigers of Lanka From Boys to Guerrillas p 23 T Sabaratnam Pirapaharan Volume 1 Chapter 1 Why didn t he hit back 2003 https sangam org pirapaharan vol 1 chap 1 hit back Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia pp 90 91 Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia p 91 Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia p 92 Vittachi T Emergency 58 The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots pp 6 8 Massacres of Tamils 1956 2008 Manitham Publishers 2009 ISBN 978 81 909737 0 0 Ceylon Plans For Its First Sugar Factory Foreign Commerce Weekly Bureau of International Commerce 16 September 1957 Retrieved 30 April 2023 Parliamentary Debates vol 27 col 2177 Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia pp 85 86 Tambiah Stanley Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia pp 85 86References EditVittachi Tarzie 1958 Emergency 58 The Story of the Ceylon Race Riots Andre Deutsch OCLC 2054641 Tambiah Stanley 1997 Leveling Crowds Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia University of California Press ISBN 0 520 20642 8 OCLC 44961174 Horowitz Donald 2001 The Deadly Ethnic Riot University of California Press ISBN 0 520 22447 7 OCLC 43115056 Chattopadhyaya Haraprasad 1994 Ethnic Unrest in Modern Sri Lanka An Account of Tamil Sinhalese Race Relations South Asia Books ISBN 81 85880 52 2 OCLC 36138657 DeVotta Neil 2004 Blowback Linguistic Nationalism Institutional Decay and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka Stanford University Press ISBN 0 8047 4924 8 OCLC 53900982 Swamy M R Naranayan 2002 Tigers of Lanka From Boys to Guerrillas Konark Publishers ISBN 9789558095140 OCLC 1041308276 Further reading EditBuddhist Nationalism and religious violence in Sri Lanka Prof Nicholas Gier Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title 1956 anti Tamil pogrom amp oldid 1168184327, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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