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Special Organization (Ottoman Empire)

May 03, 2024

The Special Organization (Ottoman Turkish: تشکیلات مخصوصه, romanized: Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa, abbreviated TM) was an intelligence, paramilitary, and secret police organization in the Ottoman Empire known for its key role in the commission of the Armenian genocide.[1] Originally organized under the Ministry of War, the organization was shifted to answer directly to the ruling party Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in February 1915.[2] Led by Bahaeddin Şakir and Nazım Bey and formed in early 1914 of tribesmen (especially Circassians and Kurds) as well as more than 10,000 convicted criminals—offered a chance to redeem themselves if they served the state—as a force independent of the regular army.[3]

Special Organization
تشکیلات مخصوصه
Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa
Emblem of the Special Organization
Agency overview
Formed~1913
Dissolved1920
Jurisdictional structure
Operations jurisdictionOttoman Empire
Operational structure
Parent agency

Origins edit

The exact date of establishment is unclear or disputed. According to some researchers, the organization might have been established by Enver Pasha, who placed Süleyman Askeri in charge of the organization on 17 November 1913.[4][5] Its establishment date is rather vague since it was really a continuation of various smaller groups established by Enver Pasha and friends in the aftermath of 1908 Young Turk Revolution.[6]

The organization maintained a clandestine budget and command structure controlled by the War Ministry. Its existence was kept secret from parliament and the public, and its existence, and crimes, were only revealed with foreign occupation and the 1919 military tribunals.[7]

1912–1913 edit

The Special Organization was founded to be a vanguard for a Muslim uprising in Bulgarian occupied Western Thrace during the Balkan Wars.[7] The effort resulted in the short-lived Provisional Government of Western Thrace.

1915–1918 edit

Armenian genocide edit

Enver Pasha assumed the primary role in the direction of the Special Organization and its center of administration moved to Erzurum.[8] The first leader of the Special Organization was Süleyman Askeri Bey. After his death, he was replaced by Ali Bach Hamba on 14 April 1915, who held the post until the Armistice of Mudros.[5] The last director, Hüsamettin Ertürk, worked as an agent in Istanbul of the Ankara government following the Armistice.[9] He wrote a memoir called İki Devrin Perde Arkası (Behind the Scenes of Two Eras).[10]

Many members of this organization who played particular roles in the Armenian genocide also participated in the Turkish national movement.[11] The Special Organisation, which was made of especially fanatical Unionist cadres, was expanded from August 1914 onwards.[12] Talaat Pasha, as the Interior Minister, gave orders that all of the prisoners convicted of the worst crimes, such as murder, rape and robbery, could have their freedom if they agreed to join the Special Organisation to kill Armenians and loot their property.[13] Besides the hardened career criminals who joined in large numbers to have their freedom, the rank and file of Special Organisation killing units included Kurdish tribesmen attracted by the prospect of plunder and refugees from Rumelia, who were thirsting for the prospect of revenge against Christians after having been forced to flee from the Balkans in 1912.[14]

As explained in the key indictment at the trial (in absentia) of the Three Pashas, the Armenian genocide massacres were spearheaded by the Special Organisation under one of its leaders, the Turkish physician Dr. Behaeddin Shakir. The Special Organisation was much feared by all and were by all accounts the ones responsible for the worst violence against the Armenians.[15] The American historian Gerard Libaridian wrote about the lethal combination in the Special Organisation of fanatical Unionist cadres commanding convicts newly released from prison:

The release of the vilest, unbridled animal passions served well the government's purpose of ensuring extermination in the most humiliating, dehumanizing fashion. The torture of thousands of women and children became a source of satisfaction for hundreds who sought and found official sanction from government officials as well as Muslim clergymen, since the murder of Armenians was characterized, like the war against the Entente, as a jihad or holy war. Human imagination labored to devise new ways of mutilating, burning and killing

— Gerard Libaridian

To prevent ordinary Muslims, whatever they be Turks, Kurds or Arabs, from saving the lives of the Armenians, a decree declaring the penalty for sheltering Armenians was death by hanging and the destruction of one's home was passed; despite this decree, a number of ordinary Turks, Kurds and Arabs did shelter Armenians from the fury of the Special Organisation.[16] Other ordinary Turks, Kurds and Arabs did assist the army, the gendarmes and the Special Organisation in the deportations and killings, motivated by the desire to loot Armenian property, to have Armenian women and girls as sex slaves or because of incitements by Muslim clergymen saying that the genocide was an act of jihad.[16] As the gendarmes rounded up the Armenians for deportation, it was common for slave markets to be established where for the right price a Muslim man could buy Armenian women and/or girls to use as his sex slaves.[17] Besides genocide against the Armenians, the CUP regime waged the Assyrian genocide against the Assyrian minority and the Pontic Greek genocide against the Pontic Greeks in Pontus. In Thrace and western Anatolia the Special Organization assisted by government and army officials, deported all Greek men of military age to labor brigades beginning in summer 1914 and lasting through 1916.[18]

Other activities edit

During World War I Eşref Sencer Kuşçubaşı was allegedly the director of operations in Arabia, the Sinai, and North Africa.[19] He was captured in Yemen in early 1917 by the British military and was a POW in Malta until 1920 and subsequently released in exchange for British POWs.[5] However, Ahmet Efe has written that the Ottoman military archives have detailed information on the organization's personnel, and that Kuşçubaşı is not mentioned.[5]

In Libya, Nuri Killigil organized operations involving propaganda, subversion, terrorism and sabotage; he coordinated these operations with the Senussi.[20][21]

Members edit

This list includes allegedly notable members, according to an interview with its purported former leader Eşref Kuşçubaşı by U.S. INR officer Philip H. Stoddard:[4][22] Although the bulk of its 30,000 members were drawn from trained specialists such as doctors, engineers, and journalists, the organization also employed criminals denoted başıbozuk, who had been released from prison in 1913 by amnesty.[4][23]

Disbanding edit

The organization was dismantled following a parliamentary debate and replaced by the Worldwide Islamic Revolution Organization (Turkish: Umûm Âlem-i İslâm İhtilâl Teşkilâtı) after World War I. This organization held its first meeting in Berlin. However, it was forced underground by the British, who refused to let these German allies operate.[23]

In 1921, Atatürk founded another secret organization called the National Defense Society (Turkish: Müdafaa-i Milliye Cemiyeti), headed by the former chief of the Special Organization, Hüsamettin Ertürk.[23]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Bloxham, Donald (2003). "The Armenian Genocide of 1915–1916: Cumulative Radicalization and the Development of a Destruction Policy". Past & Present. 181 (181): 141–191. doi:10.1093/past/181.1.141. ISSN 0031-2746. JSTOR 3600788.
  2. ^ Akçam, Taner (2019). "When Was the Decision to Annihilate the Armenians Taken?". Journal of Genocide Research. 21 (4): 457–480. doi:10.1080/14623528.2019.1630893. S2CID 199042672.
  3. ^ Lay summary in: Ronald Grigor Suny (26 May 2015). "Armenian Genocide". 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War. It was the progenitor of the National Security Service of the Republic of Turkey, which was itself the predecessor of the modern National Intelligence Organization.
  4. ^ a b c Eren, M. Ali (1995-11-11). . Aksiyon (in Turkish). 49. Feza Gazetecilik A.Ş. Archived from the original on August 23, 2007. Retrieved 2008-09-05.
  5. ^ a b c d Kılıç, Ecevit (2007-12-17). "Türk istihbaratının kurucusu bir vatan haini miydi?". Sabah (in Turkish). Retrieved 2008-12-27.
  6. ^ "Teskilat-i Mahsusa" Philip H. Stoddard (translated by Tansel Demirel), 1993, Arma Yayinlari, Istanbul, pp. 49–54.
  7. ^ a b Gingeras, Ryan (2014). Heroin, Organized Crime, and the Making of Modern Turkey. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-19-871602-0.
  8. ^ Enver Paşa, Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa'nın yönetilip yönlendirilmesinde birinci derecede rol üstlenmişti., Recep Maraşlı, Ermeni Ulusal Demokratik Hareketi ve 1915 Soykırımı, Pêrî Yayınları, 2008, ISBN 978-975-9010-68-3, p. 252. (in Turkish)
  9. ^ Berkes, Niyazi (1959-12-31). "2 Devrin Perde Arkası". Oriens (in Turkish). 12 (1/2). BRILL: 202. doi:10.2307/1580200. JSTOR 1580200.
  10. ^ Özbek, Öner (2008-09-13). . Taraf (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2008-09-13. Retrieved 2008-09-13.
  11. ^ Taner Akçam, Türk Ulusal Kimliği ve Ermeni Sorunu, İletişim Yayınları, 1992, ISBN 9789754702897 p. 155.
  12. ^ Akçam 2007, pp. 133–34.
  13. ^ Akçam 2007, p. 135.
  14. ^ Akçam 2007, pp. 134–35.
  15. ^ Akçam 2007, pp. 145–46.
  16. ^ a b Libaridian, Gerard J (2000). "The Ultimate Repression: The Genocide of the Armenians, 1915-1917". In Walliman, Isidor; Dobkowski, Michael N (eds.). Genocide and the Modern Age. Syracuse, New York. p. 205. ISBN 0-8156-2828-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. ^ Karsh & Karsh 1999, p. 157.
  18. ^ Isabel V. Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany, Cornell University Press, 2006, IBN 9780801472930, p. 273.
  19. ^ "Teskilat-i Mahsusa" Philip H. Stoddard (translated by Tansel Demirel), 1993, Arma Yayinlari, Istanbul.
  20. ^ Hamit Pehlivanlı, "Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa Kuzey Afrika'da (1914-1918)", Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, Sayı 47, Cilt: XVI, Temmuz 2000. (in Turkish)
  21. ^ Strachan, Hew (2003) [2001]. The First World War: To Arms. Vol. I. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 745–54. ISBN 978-0-19-926191-8.
  22. ^ Parker, Richard Bordeaux (2001). The October War: A Retrospective. University Press of Florida. p. 126. ISBN 0-8130-1853-6. Retrieved 2008-12-21. I'm Phil Stoddard, who, at the time, was the deputy director of INR's Near East-South Asia Office.
  23. ^ a b c Bovenkerk, Frank; Yeşilgöz, Yücel (2004). "The Turkish Mafia and the State" (PDF). In Cyrille Fijnaut, Letizia Paoli (ed.). Organized Crime in Europe: Concepts, Patterns and Control Policies in the European Union and Beyond. Springer. pp. 594–5. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-2765-9. ISBN 1-4020-2615-3.

Bibliography edit

  • Akçam, Taner (2007). A Shameful Act. London: Macmillan.
  • Efe, Ahmet (2007). Efsaneden Gerçeğe Kuşçubaşı Eşref. Bengi Yayınevi. ISBN 9789750111433.
  • Fortna, Benjamin C. (2016). The Circassian: A Life of Esref Bey, Late Ottoman Insurgent and Special Agent. Hurst. ISBN 978-0-19-086268-8.
  • Karsh, Efraim; Karsh, Inari (1999). Empires of Sand (hardback). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67425152-6.
  • Safi, Polat (2006). . Institute of Economics and Social Sciences of Bilkent University. Archived from the original on 2016-04-03. Retrieved 2012-06-17. (unpublished MA thesis)
  • Safi, Polat (January 2012). "History in the Trench: The Ottoman Special Organization – Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa Literature". Middle Eastern Studies. 48 (1): 89–106. doi:10.1080/00263206.2011.553898. hdl:11693/21630. S2CID 144689615.
  • Stoddard, Philip Hendrick (1963). The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Study of the Teskilat-i Mahsusa. Princeton University. (unpublished PhD dissertation; available in Turkish)
  • Kaiser, Hilmar (2019). "Requiem for a Thug: Aintabli Abdulkadir and the Special Organization". In Kieser, Hans-Lukas; Anderson, Margaret Lavinia; Bayraktar, Seyhan; Schmutz, Thomas (eds.). The End of the Ottomans: The Genocide of 1915 and the Politics of Turkish Nationalism. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 67–92. ISBN 978-1-78673-604-8.

Further reading edit

May 03, 2024
special, organization, ottoman, empire, special, organization, ottoman, turkish, تشکیلات, مخصوصه, romanized, teşkilât, mahsusa, abbreviated, intelligence, paramilitary, secret, police, organization, ottoman, empire, known, role, commission, armenian, genocide,. The Special Organization Ottoman Turkish تشکیلات مخصوصه romanized Teskilat i Mahsusa abbreviated TM was an intelligence paramilitary and secret police organization in the Ottoman Empire known for its key role in the commission of the Armenian genocide 1 Originally organized under the Ministry of War the organization was shifted to answer directly to the ruling party Committee of Union and Progress CUP in February 1915 2 Led by Bahaeddin Sakir and Nazim Bey and formed in early 1914 of tribesmen especially Circassians and Kurds as well as more than 10 000 convicted criminals offered a chance to redeem themselves if they served the state as a force independent of the regular army 3 Special Organizationتشکیلات مخصوصه Teskilat i MahsusaEmblem of the Special OrganizationAgency overviewFormed 1913Dissolved1920Jurisdictional structureOperations jurisdictionOttoman EmpireOperational structureParent agencyMinistry of War until 1915 CUP 1915 1920 Contents 1 Origins 2 1912 1913 3 1915 1918 3 1 Armenian genocide 3 2 Other activities 4 Members 5 Disbanding 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 Further readingOrigins editThe exact date of establishment is unclear or disputed According to some researchers the organization might have been established by Enver Pasha who placed Suleyman Askeri in charge of the organization on 17 November 1913 4 5 Its establishment date is rather vague since it was really a continuation of various smaller groups established by Enver Pasha and friends in the aftermath of 1908 Young Turk Revolution 6 The organization maintained a clandestine budget and command structure controlled by the War Ministry Its existence was kept secret from parliament and the public and its existence and crimes were only revealed with foreign occupation and the 1919 military tribunals 7 1912 1913 editThe Special Organization was founded to be a vanguard for a Muslim uprising in Bulgarian occupied Western Thrace during the Balkan Wars 7 The effort resulted in the short lived Provisional Government of Western Thrace 1915 1918 editArmenian genocide edit Enver Pasha assumed the primary role in the direction of the Special Organization and its center of administration moved to Erzurum 8 The first leader of the Special Organization was Suleyman Askeri Bey After his death he was replaced by Ali Bach Hamba on 14 April 1915 who held the post until the Armistice of Mudros 5 The last director Husamettin Erturk worked as an agent in Istanbul of the Ankara government following the Armistice 9 He wrote a memoir called Iki Devrin Perde Arkasi Behind the Scenes of Two Eras 10 Many members of this organization who played particular roles in the Armenian genocide also participated in the Turkish national movement 11 The Special Organisation which was made of especially fanatical Unionist cadres was expanded from August 1914 onwards 12 Talaat Pasha as the Interior Minister gave orders that all of the prisoners convicted of the worst crimes such as murder rape and robbery could have their freedom if they agreed to join the Special Organisation to kill Armenians and loot their property 13 Besides the hardened career criminals who joined in large numbers to have their freedom the rank and file of Special Organisation killing units included Kurdish tribesmen attracted by the prospect of plunder and refugees from Rumelia who were thirsting for the prospect of revenge against Christians after having been forced to flee from the Balkans in 1912 14 As explained in the key indictment at the trial in absentia of the Three Pashas the Armenian genocide massacres were spearheaded by the Special Organisation under one of its leaders the Turkish physician Dr Behaeddin Shakir The Special Organisation was much feared by all and were by all accounts the ones responsible for the worst violence against the Armenians 15 The American historian Gerard Libaridian wrote about the lethal combination in the Special Organisation of fanatical Unionist cadres commanding convicts newly released from prison The release of the vilest unbridled animal passions served well the government s purpose of ensuring extermination in the most humiliating dehumanizing fashion The torture of thousands of women and children became a source of satisfaction for hundreds who sought and found official sanction from government officials as well as Muslim clergymen since the murder of Armenians was characterized like the war against the Entente as a jihad or holy war Human imagination labored to devise new ways of mutilating burning and killing Gerard Libaridian To prevent ordinary Muslims whatever they be Turks Kurds or Arabs from saving the lives of the Armenians a decree declaring the penalty for sheltering Armenians was death by hanging and the destruction of one s home was passed despite this decree a number of ordinary Turks Kurds and Arabs did shelter Armenians from the fury of the Special Organisation 16 Other ordinary Turks Kurds and Arabs did assist the army the gendarmes and the Special Organisation in the deportations and killings motivated by the desire to loot Armenian property to have Armenian women and girls as sex slaves or because of incitements by Muslim clergymen saying that the genocide was an act of jihad 16 As the gendarmes rounded up the Armenians for deportation it was common for slave markets to be established where for the right price a Muslim man could buy Armenian women and or girls to use as his sex slaves 17 Besides genocide against the Armenians the CUP regime waged the Assyrian genocide against the Assyrian minority and the Pontic Greek genocide against the Pontic Greeks in Pontus In Thrace and western Anatolia the Special Organization assisted by government and army officials deported all Greek men of military age to labor brigades beginning in summer 1914 and lasting through 1916 18 Other activities edit During World War I Esref Sencer Kuscubasi was allegedly the director of operations in Arabia the Sinai and North Africa 19 He was captured in Yemen in early 1917 by the British military and was a POW in Malta until 1920 and subsequently released in exchange for British POWs 5 However Ahmet Efe has written that the Ottoman military archives have detailed information on the organization s personnel and that Kuscubasi is not mentioned 5 In Libya Nuri Killigil organized operations involving propaganda subversion terrorism and sabotage he coordinated these operations with the Senussi 20 21 Members editThis list includes allegedly notable members according to an interview with its purported former leader Esref Kuscubasi by U S INR officer Philip H Stoddard 4 22 Although the bulk of its 30 000 members were drawn from trained specialists such as doctors engineers and journalists the organization also employed criminals denoted basibozuk who had been released from prison in 1913 by amnesty 4 23 Disbanding editThe organization was dismantled following a parliamentary debate and replaced by the Worldwide Islamic Revolution Organization Turkish Umum Alem i Islam Ihtilal Teskilati after World War I This organization held its first meeting in Berlin However it was forced underground by the British who refused to let these German allies operate 23 In 1921 Ataturk founded another secret organization called the National Defense Society Turkish Mudafaa i Milliye Cemiyeti headed by the former chief of the Special Organization Husamettin Erturk 23 See also editList of members of the Special Organization of the Ottoman Empire Sentinel Association Umur u Hafiye Black MusaReferences edit Bloxham Donald 2003 The Armenian Genocide of 1915 1916 Cumulative Radicalization and the Development of a Destruction Policy Past amp Present 181 181 141 191 doi 10 1093 past 181 1 141 ISSN 0031 2746 JSTOR 3600788 Akcam Taner 2019 When Was the Decision to Annihilate the Armenians Taken Journal of Genocide Research 21 4 457 480 doi 10 1080 14623528 2019 1630893 S2CID 199042672 Lay summary in Ronald Grigor Suny 26 May 2015 Armenian Genocide 1914 1918 online International Encyclopedia of the First World War It was the progenitor of the National Security Service of the Republic of Turkey which was itself the predecessor of the modern National Intelligence Organization a b c Eren M Ali 1995 11 11 Cumhuriyeti Teskilat i Mahsusa kurdu Aksiyon in Turkish 49 Feza Gazetecilik A S Archived from the original on August 23 2007 Retrieved 2008 09 05 a b c d Kilic Ecevit 2007 12 17 Turk istihbaratinin kurucusu bir vatan haini miydi Sabah in Turkish Retrieved 2008 12 27 Teskilat i Mahsusa Philip H Stoddard translated by Tansel Demirel 1993 Arma Yayinlari Istanbul pp 49 54 a b Gingeras Ryan 2014 Heroin Organized Crime and the Making of Modern Turkey New York Oxford University Press p 38 ISBN 978 0 19 871602 0 Enver Pasa Teskilat i Mahsusa nin yonetilip yonlendirilmesinde birinci derecede rol ustlenmisti Recep Marasli Ermeni Ulusal Demokratik Hareketi ve 1915 Soykirimi Peri Yayinlari 2008 ISBN 978 975 9010 68 3 p 252 in Turkish Berkes Niyazi 1959 12 31 2 Devrin Perde Arkasi Oriens in Turkish 12 1 2 BRILL 202 doi 10 2307 1580200 JSTOR 1580200 Ozbek Oner 2008 09 13 Yakup Cemil Devlet icinde devlet olan adam Taraf in Turkish Archived from the original on 2008 09 13 Retrieved 2008 09 13 Taner Akcam Turk Ulusal Kimligi ve Ermeni Sorunu Iletisim Yayinlari 1992 ISBN 9789754702897 p 155 Akcam 2007 pp 133 34 Akcam 2007 p 135 Akcam 2007 pp 134 35 Akcam 2007 pp 145 46 a b Libaridian Gerard J 2000 The Ultimate Repression The Genocide of the Armenians 1915 1917 In Walliman Isidor Dobkowski Michael N eds Genocide and the Modern Age Syracuse New York p 205 ISBN 0 8156 2828 5 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Karsh amp Karsh 1999 p 157 Isabel V Hull Absolute Destruction Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany Cornell University Press 2006 IBN 9780801472930 p 273 Teskilat i Mahsusa Philip H Stoddard translated by Tansel Demirel 1993 Arma Yayinlari Istanbul Hamit Pehlivanli Teskilat i Mahsusa Kuzey Afrika da 1914 1918 Ataturk Arastirma Merkezi Dergisi Sayi 47 Cilt XVI Temmuz 2000 in Turkish Strachan Hew 2003 2001 The First World War To Arms Vol I Oxford Oxford University Press pp 745 54 ISBN 978 0 19 926191 8 Parker Richard Bordeaux 2001 The October War A Retrospective University Press of Florida p 126 ISBN 0 8130 1853 6 Retrieved 2008 12 21 I m Phil Stoddard who at the time was the deputy director of INR s Near East South Asia Office a b c Bovenkerk Frank Yesilgoz Yucel 2004 The Turkish Mafia and the State PDF In Cyrille Fijnaut Letizia Paoli ed Organized Crime in Europe Concepts Patterns and Control Policies in the European Union and Beyond Springer pp 594 5 doi 10 1007 978 1 4020 2765 9 ISBN 1 4020 2615 3 Bibliography editAkcam Taner 2007 A Shameful Act London Macmillan Efe Ahmet 2007 Efsaneden Gercege Kuscubasi Esref Bengi Yayinevi ISBN 9789750111433 Fortna Benjamin C 2016 The Circassian A Life of Esref Bey Late Ottoman Insurgent and Special Agent Hurst ISBN 978 0 19 086268 8 Karsh Efraim Karsh Inari 1999 Empires of Sand hardback Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 67425152 6 Safi Polat 2006 The Ottoman Special Organization Teskilat i Mahsusa A Historical Assessment with Particular Reference to Its Operations against British Occupied Egypt 1914 1916 Institute of Economics and Social Sciences of Bilkent University Archived from the original on 2016 04 03 Retrieved 2012 06 17 unpublished MA thesis Safi Polat January 2012 History in the Trench The Ottoman Special Organization Teskilat i Mahsusa Literature Middle Eastern Studies 48 1 89 106 doi 10 1080 00263206 2011 553898 hdl 11693 21630 S2CID 144689615 Stoddard Philip Hendrick 1963 The Ottoman Government and the Arabs 1911 to 1918 A Study of the Teskilat i Mahsusa Princeton University unpublished PhD dissertation available in Turkish Kaiser Hilmar 2019 Requiem for a Thug Aintabli Abdulkadir and the Special Organization In Kieser Hans Lukas Anderson Margaret Lavinia Bayraktar Seyhan Schmutz Thomas eds The End of the Ottomans The Genocide of 1915 and the Politics of Turkish Nationalism Bloomsbury Publishing pp 67 92 ISBN 978 1 78673 604 8 Further reading editDocuments about the Special Organization in the Krikor Guerguerian archive Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Special Organization Ottoman Empire amp oldid 1220478433, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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