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Spatial inequality

January 01, 1970

Spatial inequality refers to the unequal distribution of income and resources across geographical regions.[1] Attributable to local differences in infrastructure,[2] geographical features (presence of mountains, coastlines, particular climates, etc.) and economies of agglomeration,[3] such inequality remains central to public policy discussions regarding economic inequality more broadly.[1]

Whilst jobs located in urban areas tend to have higher nominal wages (unadjusted for differences in price levels or inflation) than rural areas, the cost-of-living and availability of skilled work correlates to regional divergences in real income and output.[3] Additionally, the spatial component of public infrastructure affects access to quality healthcare and education (key elements of human capital and worker productivity, which directly impacts economic well-being).[4]

Variation in both natural resource composition and quality of regional infrastructure are traditionally considered to be motivating factors for migration patterns between urban cities and rural areas.[5] This, in turn, impacts the concentration of specific industries and sectors within a given area, as well as the investment choices made by local governments, thus perpetuating spatially-based disparities.[5] However, there remain significant challenges in carrying out empirical research to quantify these disparities (particularly within a given nation, as opposed to across different nations), due to lack of region-specific datasets,[6][7] the level of geographical disaggregation required to reveal such trends,[8] as well as the inherent differences in incomes and living costs across different communities.[3][9]

Determinants edit

Urbanization and economies of agglomeration edit

The relationship between population density and productivity is a significant factor affecting the difference in economic capital, cultural capital, and social capital found between cities and rural areas.[10] In particular, the clustering of agriculture activities versus manufacturing activities informs much of the urban-rural wage gap, as industrial jobs tend to earn higher wages than their counterparts in the agricultural sector.[5] The rate at which this clustering of jobs occurs provides a partial explanation as to why different communities undergo urbanization at different rates.[5] From this, the theory of the core-periphery model in urban economics suggests that manufacturing tends to form the "core" of an industrial cluster, with agricultural activity tending to take place on the "periphery" of such urban formations.[11] This affects the organizational set-up of linkages throughout supply chains, as agricultural goods and resources (directly outputted from agricultural processes) are then transported inwards towards the urbanized center of the region.[11] Such patterns permit greater economies of scale to be realized, as different economic activities become concentrated in regions that are best suited for such work,[11] and transportation costs can be reduced accordingly.[11]

Agglomeration economies refer to the benefits gained from such industrial clustering and city-formation.[12] With the observed savings in transportation costs from this phenomenon being central to the study of economic geography,[12][11] the positive externalities (indirect benefits gained from third-party activities) afforded by such urbanization (and the mechanisms by which they occur) remain to be of interest for academic studies and public policy considerations.[12]

Population concentration and the clustering of particular industries also allows for the pooling of workers, which results in local business needs and workers' specific skillsets becoming better aligned.[11] Such specialization also allows for knowledge spillovers and greater exchange of ideas, as similar firms can more easily and dynamically interact with one another.[11] This can assist in gaining a comparative advantage with respect to a particular industry or sector, which can be especially beneficial for realizing gains from trade when interacting with other communities and regions which are not as specialized, thus resulting in more geography-based disparities in economic activity.[11]

Natural resources and geographical features edit

Natural resource availability affects industry prevalence, as economic activities which are heavily dependent on specific natural resources tend to cluster around suitable geographical regions and climates.[1]

Localities which have a heavy reliance on agricultural jobs require favorable climate conditions for crop production and harvesting.[13] For instance, empirical evidence from Ghana points towards the impact of such spatial inequities on the quality of natural resources available.[13] Although employment in the northern regions of the nation is heavily reliant on the agricultural sector, there is limited access to irrigation and modern implements needed for efficient farming.[13] Such unsustainable farming practices have led to natural resource depreciation over time, including lower quality of soil and higher rates of erosion, which in turn impacts the region's ability to continue engaging in future crop production.[13] In addition, in the face of erratic weather patterns, global warming, and climate change, these challenges have been exacerbated by distorted rainfall patterns and increasingly frequent crop failures.[13]

The resource curse theory suggests that an over-reliance of employment on abundance of natural resources (including forestry, fossil fuels, mineral deposits, etc.) can lead to instability and volatile prices.[5] However, the exogenously determined geographical features of the area directly determines the region's ability to produce traditional agricultural goods and exports.[5] Therefore, such externally determined geographical and climate features informs the composition of employment in the region.[5]

 
Redlining in the United States is an example of spatial inequality, whereby racially discriminatory lending practices resulted in subprime mortgages becoming highly concentrated amongst particular neighborhoods and communities.[14]

Regional Infrastructure edit

Regions with access to strong transportation networks (including highways, railways, airports etc.) are more likely to benefit from external trade in comparison to remote regions.[5] As transportation costs and logistics inform much of the clustering of economic activity within a region,[12] the geographical concentration of particular industries informs the extent to which particular physical infrastructures must be developed and invested in to support the needs of specific localities.[4]

Social infrastructural components, which impact health and education standards (hospitals, schools, public libraries, etc.) additionally influence quality-of-life conditions and the well-being of workers, and thus their choices with respect to selecting regions/ communities to live in.[4] As such, city planning and the provision of public infrastructure and services remains essential to public policy considerations for rapidly urbanizing communities.[15]

In particular, people living in regions with poor infrastructure and public services are at a greater risk of poor health and wellbeing.[16] This includes limited access to both healthcare, as well as quality and nutritious food.[16] Such impacts compound over time, leaving individuals to become more susceptible to future health problems and illnesses.[16] For instance, the spatial patterns of such environmental factors and hospital accessibility can impact public health outcomes, such as COVID-19 infection, spread, and mortality rates within a nation.[16]

Furthermore, as families of similar incomes tend to cluster, further segregation of socio-economic classes is propagated by schooling environments.[9] This adversely effects the opportunities available to children from low-income backgrounds, and reduces the ability for social mobility needed to escape the poverty trap and generational poverty.[9][14] An example of this phenomenon in the United States includes redlining - a racially discriminatory historical practice, which resulted in subprime mortgages becoming highly concentrated to specific neighborhoods and geographies.[14]

Investment choices, trade, and migration edit

As different communities may not have similar comparative advantage due to variations in natural resource composition and abundance, foreign trade and globalization are thought to play a key role in influencing spatial inequality as well.[5] In particular, economies undergoing rapid trade liberalization have been observed to actually have increases in poverty rates and income inequality, in spite of nation-wide benefits of economic growth being realized, as urban-rural gaps tend to widen.[1] Additionally, migration patterns from rural to urban areas in developing nations are observed to be a labor market adjustment to an increasing shift in importance from agriculture to manufacturing.[7]

Measurement edit

There remains no academic consensus on whether trends in spatial inequalities over time are causes of region-based differences in income, or rather the symptoms of other socio-economic disparities.[17] Furthermore, the complex and intertwined relationships between geographical features, urbanization, availability of infrastructure, and access to public resources further complicates empirical research.[17]

Output and productivity edit

The distribution of income within a nation can first be nominally estimated from local datasets, and then subsequently adjusted to account for regional differences in price levels.[6] Such a procedure allows for comparisons to be made in real-terms and across different localities,[6] which is especially pertinent when national-level inequalities are mostly influenced by regional disparities in income and cost of living.[8] However, the level of disaggregation (granularity of geo-spatial units considered) and the number of localities selected for comparison varies across academic studies.[8] For instance, geographic sub-groups can be considered at the state level, as an urban/rural divide, or even within-component (differences between households belonging to the same group or community).[18] Typical econometric studies will then design and use regression models to analyze the effects of density, industry location, or related variables on regional differences in output or costs.[6][8][4]

While nominal wages tend to be higher in cities and urban regions, the same is not necessarily true of real wages, as rising housing costs and expenses tend to offset these benefits.[3]

Empirical challenges edit

 
Map of countries by Gini coefficient (1990 to 2020).

The availability and reliability of local data remains a barrier to accurate estimation in academic studies.[6][8] The typical limitations of econometric studies may also impact the soundness of empirical results and conclusions. As such, there remains no unified theory within economic geography to provide a broadly accepted causal explanation for spatial inequality.[5]

In particular, an inherent difficulty in comparing urban and rural regions is the vast disparity in quality and variety of goods and services enjoyed by the typical household in either type of community.[3] Furthermore, differences in disposable income and composition of spending pose further challenges to comparative approaches.[9]

Whist the Gini coefficient and Theil index remain as popular income inequality metrics, these summary statistics do not allow for the decomposition of inequality into multiple dimensions, and thus are insufficient for the multi-faceted analysis required to study spatially dependent inequalities.[4]

See also edit

Related concepts edit

  • Economic Inequality – Distribution of income or wealth between different groups
  • Economies of agglomeration – Urban development in locations generating cost savings
  • Gains from trade – net benefits to agents
  • Redlining – Systemic denial of services to some areas
  • Returns to scale – Microeconomic concept
  • Urban economics – Economic study of urban areas
  • Urbanization – Process of population movement to cities
  • Rural Development – Improving quality of life in rural areas

Further reading edit

  • Chakravorty, Sanjoy (2003 a), “Industrial Location in Post-reform India: Patterns of Inter-regional Divergence and Intra-regional Convergence”, Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 120–52.
  • Combes, Mayer and Thisse, Economic Geography: The Integration of Regions and Nations (Princeton University Press 2009)
  • Deichmann, Uwe; Somik V. Lall; Stephen J. Redding and Anthony J. Venables (2008), “Industrial Location in Developing Countries”, The World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp 219–46.
  • Fujita, Masahisa (1996): “Economics of Agglomeration”, Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, Vol. 10, pp. 339–378.
  • Fujita, Masahisa and Paul Krugman (2004): “The new economic geography: Past, present and the future”, Papers in Regional Science, Vol. 83, No. 1, pp. 139–164.
  • Graham, Mark; Dittus, Martin (2022). "Geographies of Digital Exclusion: Data and Inequality (open access)".
  • Krugman, Paul (1991a), “Increasing Returns and Economic Geography”, The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 99, No. 3, pp. 483–499.
  • Lall, Somik V., Jun Koo and Sanjoy Chakravorty (2003): “Diversity Matters: The Economic Geography of Industry Location in India”, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3072, Washington DC.
  • Lall, Somik V. and Sanjoy Chakravorty (2005), “Industrial Location and Spatial Inequality: Theory and Evidence from India”, Review of Development Economics, Vol.9, No. 1, pp. 47–68
  • Wei, Yehua Dennis (ed.) (2015), "Spatial Inequality", Applied Geography, Vol.61, pp. 1-116.

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (2005). Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (eds.). Spatial Inequality and Development. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–12. doi:10.1093/0199278636.003.0001. ISBN 9780191602191.
  2. ^ Pandey, Bhartendu; Brelsford, Christa; Seto, Karen C. (2022). "Infrastructure inequality is a characteristic of urbanization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (15): e2119890119. doi:10.1073/pnas.2119890119. PMC 9169802. PMID 35377809.
  3. ^ a b c d e Romero, Jessie and Schwartzman, Felipe F. Inequality in and across Cities. October 2018, No. 18-10. Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Brief.
  4. ^ a b c d e Lall, S. V.; Chakravorty, S. (2005). "Industrial Location and Spatial Inequality: Theory and Evidence from India" (PDF). Review of Development Economics. 9 (1): 47–68. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9361.2005.00263.x. S2CID 14489250.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kim, Sukkoo. 2008. Spatial Inequality and Economic Development : Theories, Facts, and Policies. Commission on Growth and Development Working Paper;No. 16. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/28050 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.
  6. ^ a b c d e Aten, B.; Heston, A. (2005). "Regional Output Differences in International Perspective". In Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (eds.). Spatial Inequality and Development. Oxford University Press. pp. 15–36. doi:10.1093/0199278636.003.0002. ISBN 9780191602191.
  7. ^ a b “Lall, Somik V.; Selod, Harris; Shalizi, Zmarak. 2006. Rural-Urban Migration in Developing Countries : A Survey of Theoretical Predictions and Empirical Findings. Policy Research Working Paper; No. 3915. World Bank, Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/8669 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.”
  8. ^ a b c d e Elbers, C.; Lanjouw, P.; Mistiaen, J.; Özler, B.; Simler, K. R. (2005). "Are Neighbours Equal? Estimating Local Inequality in Three Developing Countries". In Ravi, K.; Venables, A. J. (eds.). Spatial Inequality and Development. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–60. doi:10.1093/0199278636.003.0003. ISBN 9780191602191.
  9. ^ a b c d Boulant, Brezzi, M., & Veneri, P. (2016). Income Levels And Inequality in Metropolitan Areas A Comparative Approach in OECD Countries / Justine Boulant, Monica Brezzi and Paolo Veneri. In Income Levels And Inequality in Metropolitan Areas A Comparative Approach in OECD Countries. OECD Publishing.
  10. ^ Israel, E.; Frenkel, A. (2018). "Social justice and spatial inequality: Toward a conceptual framework". Progress in Human Geography. 42 (5): 647–665. doi:10.1177/0309132517702969. S2CID 151399253.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Krugman, P. (1991). "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography". Journal of Political Economy. 99 (3): 483–499. doi:10.1086/261763.
  12. ^ a b c d Glaeser, Edward L. (February 2010). "Agglomeration Economics". National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). University of Chicago Press: 1–14. ISBN 978-0-226-29789-7.
  13. ^ a b c d e Tanaka, Tomomi; Nuamah, Camille; Geiger, Michael (December 14, 2018). "Ghana's challenges: Widening regional inequality and natural resource depreciation".
  14. ^ a b c Hernandez, Jesus (June 2009). "Redlining Revisited: Mortgage Lending Patterns in Sacramento 1930–2004". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 33 (2): 291–313. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00873.x.
  15. ^ Ahimah-Agyakwah, S.; Nketiah-Amponsah, E.; Agyire-Tettey, F. (2022). "Urbanization and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from dynamic panel data analysis of selected urbanizing countries". Cogent Economics & Finance. 10 (1): Article 2109282. doi:10.1080/23322039.2022.2109282. S2CID 251631304.
  16. ^ a b c d Sun, Y.; Hu, X.; Xie, J. (2021). "Spatial inequalities of COVID-19 mortality rate in relation to socioeconomic and environmental factors across England". Science of the Total Environment. 758: Article 143595. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143595. PMC 7664354. PMID 33218796.
  17. ^ a b Nijman, J.; Wei, Y. D. (2020). "Urban inequalities in the 21st century economy". Applied Geography. 117: Article 102188. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2020.102188. PMC 7124478. PMID 32287517.
  18. ^ "Spatial inequalities: across states or between rural and urban areas?". OECD Economic Surveys: India 2017. OECD Publishing. 2017. pp. 141–142. doi:10.1787/eco_surveys-ind-2017-8-en. ISBN 978-92-64-26935-4.

January 01, 1970
spatial, inequality, refers, unequal, distribution, income, resources, across, geographical, regions, attributable, local, differences, infrastructure, geographical, features, presence, mountains, coastlines, particular, climates, economies, agglomeration, suc. Spatial inequalityrefers to the unequal distribution of income and resources across geographical regions 1 Attributable to local differences in infrastructure 2 geographical features presence of mountains coastlines particular climates etc and economies of agglomeration 3 such inequality remains central to public policy discussions regarding economic inequality more broadly 1 Whilst jobs located in urban areas tend to have higher nominal wages unadjusted for differences in price levels or inflation than rural areas the cost of living and availability of skilled work correlates to regional divergences in real income and output 3 Additionally the spatial component of public infrastructure affects access to quality healthcare and education key elements of human capital and worker productivity which directly impacts economic well being 4 Variation in both natural resource composition and quality of regional infrastructure are traditionally considered to be motivating factors for migration patterns between urban cities and rural areas 5 This in turn impacts the concentration of specific industries and sectors within a given area as well as the investment choices made by local governments thus perpetuating spatially based disparities 5 However there remain significant challenges in carrying out empirical research to quantify these disparities particularly within a given nation as opposed to across different nations due to lack of region specific datasets 6 7 the level of geographical disaggregation required to reveal such trends 8 as well as the inherent differences in incomes and living costs across different communities 3 9 Contents 1 Determinants 1 1 Urbanization and economies of agglomeration 1 2 Natural resources and geographical features 1 3 Regional Infrastructure 1 4 Investment choices trade and migration 2 Measurement 2 1 Output and productivity 2 2 Empirical challenges 3 See also 3 1 Related concepts 3 2 Further reading 4 ReferencesDeterminants editUrbanization and economies of agglomeration edit The relationship between population density and productivity is a significant factor affecting the difference in economic capital cultural capital and social capital found between cities and rural areas 10 In particular the clustering of agriculture activities versus manufacturing activities informs much of the urban rural wage gap as industrial jobs tend to earn higher wages than their counterparts in the agricultural sector 5 The rate at which this clustering of jobs occurs provides a partial explanation as to why different communities undergo urbanization at different rates 5 From this the theory of the core periphery model in urban economics suggests that manufacturing tends to form the core of an industrial cluster with agricultural activity tending to take place on the periphery of such urban formations 11 This affects the organizational set up of linkages throughout supply chains as agricultural goods and resources directly outputted from agricultural processes are then transported inwards towards the urbanized center of the region 11 Such patterns permit greater economies of scale to be realized as different economic activities become concentrated in regions that are best suited for such work 11 and transportation costs can be reduced accordingly 11 Agglomeration economies refer to the benefits gained from such industrial clustering and city formation 12 With the observed savings in transportation costs from this phenomenon being central to the study of economic geography 12 11 the positive externalities indirect benefits gained from third party activities afforded by such urbanization and the mechanisms by which they occur remain to be of interest for academic studies and public policy considerations 12 Population concentration and the clustering of particular industries also allows for the pooling of workers which results in local business needs and workers specific skillsets becoming better aligned 11 Such specialization also allows for knowledge spillovers and greater exchange of ideas as similar firms can more easily and dynamically interact with one another 11 This can assist in gaining a comparative advantage with respect to a particular industry or sector which can be especially beneficial for realizing gains from trade when interacting with other communities and regions which are not as specialized thus resulting in more geography based disparities in economic activity 11 Natural resources and geographical features edit Natural resource availability affects industry prevalence as economic activities which are heavily dependent on specific natural resources tend to cluster around suitable geographical regions and climates 1 Localities which have a heavy reliance on agricultural jobs require favorable climate conditions for crop production and harvesting 13 For instance empirical evidence from Ghana points towards the impact of such spatial inequities on the quality of natural resources available 13 Although employment in the northern regions of the nation is heavily reliant on the agricultural sector there is limited access to irrigation and modern implements needed for efficient farming 13 Such unsustainable farming practices have led to natural resource depreciation over time including lower quality of soil and higher rates of erosion which in turn impacts the region s ability to continue engaging in future crop production 13 In addition in the face of erratic weather patterns global warming and climate change these challenges have been exacerbated by distorted rainfall patterns and increasingly frequent crop failures 13 The resource curse theory suggests that an over reliance of employment on abundance of natural resources including forestry fossil fuels mineral deposits etc can lead to instability and volatile prices 5 However the exogenously determined geographical features of the area directly determines the region s ability to produce traditional agricultural goods and exports 5 Therefore such externally determined geographical and climate features informs the composition of employment in the region 5 nbsp Redlining in the United States is an example of spatial inequality whereby racially discriminatory lending practices resulted in subprime mortgages becoming highly concentrated amongst particular neighborhoods and communities 14 Regional Infrastructure edit Regions with access to strong transportation networks including highways railways airports etc are more likely to benefit from external trade in comparison to remote regions 5 As transportation costs and logistics inform much of the clustering of economic activity within a region 12 the geographical concentration of particular industries informs the extent to which particular physical infrastructures must be developed and invested in to support the needs of specific localities 4 Social infrastructural components which impact health and education standards hospitals schools public libraries etc additionally influence quality of life conditions and the well being of workers and thus their choices with respect to selecting regions communities to live in 4 As such city planning and the provision of public infrastructure and services remains essential to public policy considerations for rapidly urbanizing communities 15 In particular people living in regions with poor infrastructure and public services are at a greater risk of poor health and wellbeing 16 This includes limited access to both healthcare as well as quality and nutritious food 16 Such impacts compound over time leaving individuals to become more susceptible to future health problems and illnesses 16 For instance the spatial patterns of such environmental factors and hospital accessibility can impact public health outcomes such as COVID 19 infection spread and mortality rates within a nation 16 Furthermore as families of similar incomes tend to cluster further segregation of socio economic classes is propagated by schooling environments 9 This adversely effects the opportunities available to children from low income backgrounds and reduces the ability for social mobility needed to escape the poverty trap and generational poverty 9 14 An example of this phenomenon in the United States includes redlining a racially discriminatory historical practice which resulted in subprime mortgages becoming highly concentrated to specific neighborhoods and geographies 14 Investment choices trade and migration edit As different communities may not have similar comparative advantage due to variations in natural resource composition and abundance foreign trade and globalization are thought to play a key role in influencing spatial inequality as well 5 In particular economies undergoing rapid trade liberalization have been observed to actually have increases in poverty rates and income inequality in spite of nation wide benefits of economic growth being realized as urban rural gaps tend to widen 1 Additionally migration patterns from rural to urban areas in developing nations are observed to be a labor market adjustment to an increasing shift in importance from agriculture to manufacturing 7 Measurement editThere remains no academic consensus on whether trends in spatial inequalities over time are causes of region based differences in income or rather the symptoms of other socio economic disparities 17 Furthermore the complex and intertwined relationships between geographical features urbanization availability of infrastructure and access to public resources further complicates empirical research 17 Output and productivity edit The distribution of income within a nation can first be nominally estimated from local datasets and then subsequently adjusted to account for regional differences in price levels 6 Such a procedure allows for comparisons to be made in real terms and across different localities 6 which is especially pertinent when national level inequalities are mostly influenced by regional disparities in income and cost of living 8 However the level of disaggregation granularity of geo spatial units considered and the number of localities selected for comparison varies across academic studies 8 For instance geographic sub groups can be considered at the state level as an urban rural divide or even within component differences between households belonging to the same group or community 18 Typical econometric studies will then design and use regression models to analyze the effects of density industry location or related variables on regional differences in output or costs 6 8 4 While nominal wages tend to be higher in cities and urban regions the same is not necessarily true of real wages as rising housing costs and expenses tend to offset these benefits 3 Empirical challenges edit nbsp Map of countries by Gini coefficient 1990 to 2020 The availability and reliability of local data remains a barrier to accurate estimation in academic studies 6 8 The typical limitations of econometric studies may also impact the soundness of empirical results and conclusions As such there remains no unified theory within economic geography to provide a broadly accepted causal explanation for spatial inequality 5 In particular an inherent difficulty in comparing urban and rural regions is the vast disparity in quality and variety of goods and services enjoyed by the typical household in either type of community 3 Furthermore differences in disposable income and composition of spending pose further challenges to comparative approaches 9 Whist the Gini coefficient and Theil index remain as popular income inequality metrics these summary statistics do not allow for the decomposition of inequality into multiple dimensions and thus are insufficient for the multi faceted analysis required to study spatially dependent inequalities 4 See also editRelated concepts edit Economic Inequality Distribution of income or wealth between different groupsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Economies of agglomeration Urban development in locations generating cost savings Gains from trade net benefits to agentsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Redlining Systemic denial of services to some areas Returns to scale Microeconomic concept Urban economics Economic study of urban areas Urbanization Process of population movement to cities Rural Development Improving quality of life in rural areasPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Further reading edit Chakravorty Sanjoy 2003 a Industrial Location in Post reform India Patterns of Inter regional Divergence and Intra regional Convergence Journal of Development Studies Vol 40 No 2 pp 120 52 Combes Mayer and Thisse Economic Geography The Integration of Regions and Nations Princeton University Press 2009 Deichmann Uwe Somik V Lall Stephen J Redding and Anthony J Venables 2008 Industrial Location in Developing Countries The World Bank Research Observer Vol 23 No 2 pp 219 46 Fujita Masahisa 1996 Economics of Agglomeration Journal of the Japanese and International Economies Vol 10 pp 339 378 Fujita Masahisa and Paul Krugman 2004 The new economic geography Past present and the future Papers in Regional Science Vol 83 No 1 pp 139 164 Graham Mark Dittus Martin 2022 Geographies of Digital Exclusion Data and Inequality open access Krugman Paul 1991a Increasing Returns and Economic Geography The Journal of Political Economy Vol 99 No 3 pp 483 499 Lall Somik V Jun Koo and Sanjoy Chakravorty 2003 Diversity Matters The Economic Geography of Industry Location in India World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3072 Washington DC Lall Somik V and Sanjoy Chakravorty 2005 Industrial Location and Spatial Inequality Theory and Evidence from India Review of Development Economics Vol 9 No 1 pp 47 68 Wei Yehua Dennis ed 2015 Spatial Inequality Applied Geography Vol 61 pp 1 116 References edit a b c d Ravi K Venables A J 2005 Ravi K Venables A J eds Spatial Inequality and Development Oxford University Press pp 3 12 doi 10 1093 0199278636 003 0001 ISBN 9780191602191 Pandey Bhartendu Brelsford Christa Seto Karen C 2022 Infrastructure inequality is a characteristic of urbanization Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 15 e2119890119 doi 10 1073 pnas 2119890119 PMC 9169802 PMID 35377809 a b c d e Romero Jessie and Schwartzman Felipe F Inequality in and across Cities October 2018 No 18 10 Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Brief a b c d e Lall S V Chakravorty S 2005 Industrial Location and Spatial Inequality Theory and Evidence from India PDF Review of Development Economics 9 1 47 68 doi 10 1111 j 1467 9361 2005 00263 x S2CID 14489250 a b c d e f g h i j Kim Sukkoo 2008 Spatial Inequality and Economic Development Theories Facts and Policies Commission on Growth and Development Working Paper No 16 World Bank Washington DC c World Bank https openknowledge worldbank org handle 10986 28050 License CC BY 3 0 IGO a b c d e Aten B Heston A 2005 Regional Output Differences in International Perspective In Ravi K Venables A J eds Spatial Inequality and Development Oxford University Press pp 15 36 doi 10 1093 0199278636 003 0002 ISBN 9780191602191 a b Lall Somik V Selod Harris Shalizi Zmarak 2006 Rural Urban Migration in Developing Countries A Survey of Theoretical Predictions and Empirical Findings Policy Research Working Paper No 3915 World Bank Washington DC c World Bank https openknowledge worldbank org handle 10986 8669 License CC BY 3 0 IGO a b c d e Elbers C Lanjouw P Mistiaen J Ozler B Simler K R 2005 Are Neighbours Equal Estimating Local Inequality in Three Developing Countries In Ravi K Venables A J eds Spatial Inequality and Development Oxford University Press pp 37 60 doi 10 1093 0199278636 003 0003 ISBN 9780191602191 a b c d Boulant Brezzi M amp Veneri P 2016 Income Levels And Inequality in Metropolitan Areas A Comparative Approach in OECD Countries Justine Boulant Monica Brezzi and Paolo Veneri In Income Levels And Inequality in Metropolitan Areas A Comparative Approach in OECD Countries OECD Publishing Israel E Frenkel A 2018 Social justice and spatial inequality Toward a conceptual framework Progress in Human Geography 42 5 647 665 doi 10 1177 0309132517702969 S2CID 151399253 a b c d e f g h Krugman P 1991 Increasing Returns and Economic Geography Journal of Political Economy 99 3 483 499 doi 10 1086 261763 a b c d Glaeser Edward L February 2010 Agglomeration Economics National Bureau of Economic Research NBER University of Chicago Press 1 14 ISBN 978 0 226 29789 7 a b c d e Tanaka Tomomi Nuamah Camille Geiger Michael December 14 2018 Ghana s challenges Widening regional inequality and natural resource depreciation a b c Hernandez Jesus June 2009 Redlining Revisited Mortgage Lending Patterns in Sacramento 1930 2004 International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 33 2 291 313 doi 10 1111 j 1468 2427 2009 00873 x Ahimah Agyakwah S Nketiah Amponsah E Agyire Tettey F 2022 Urbanization and poverty in Sub Saharan Africa evidence from dynamic panel data analysis of selected urbanizing countries Cogent Economics amp Finance 10 1 Article 2109282 doi 10 1080 23322039 2022 2109282 S2CID 251631304 a b c d Sun Y Hu X Xie J 2021 Spatial inequalities of COVID 19 mortality rate in relation to socioeconomic and environmental factors across England Science of the Total Environment 758 Article 143595 doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2020 143595 PMC 7664354 PMID 33218796 a b Nijman J Wei Y D 2020 Urban inequalities in the 21st century economy Applied Geography 117 Article 102188 doi 10 1016 j apgeog 2020 102188 PMC 7124478 PMID 32287517 Spatial inequalities across states or between rural and urban areas OECD Economic Surveys India 2017 OECD Publishing 2017 pp 141 142 doi 10 1787 eco surveys ind 2017 8 en ISBN 978 92 64 26935 4 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Spatial inequality amp oldid 1194883106, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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