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Alcyonacea

January 01, 1970

Alcyonacea are an order of sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world, especially in the deep sea, polar waters, tropics and subtropics. Whilst not in a strict taxonomic sense, Alcyonacea are commonly known as soft corals. The term “soft coral” generally applies to organisms in the two orders Pennatulacea and Alcyonacea with their polyps embedded within a fleshy mass of coenenchymal tissue.[2] Consequently, the term “gorgonian coral” is commonly handed to multiple species in the order Alcyonacea that produce a mineralized skeletal axis (or axial-like layer) composed of calcite and the proteinaceous material gorgonin only and corresponds to only one of several families within the formally accepted taxon Gorgoniidae (Scleractinia). These can be found in order Malacalcyonacea (taxonomic synonyms of include (unnacepted): Alcyoniina, Holaxonia, Protoalcyonaria, Scleraxonia, and Stolonifera.[3] They are sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world, especially in the deep sea, polar waters, tropics and subtropics. Common names for subsets of this order are sea fans and sea whips; others are similar to the sea pens of related order Pennatulacea. Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect, flattened, branching, and reminiscent of a fan. Others may be whiplike, bushy, or even encrusting.[4] A colony can be several feet high and across, but only a few inches thick. They may be brightly coloured, often purple, red, or yellow. Photosynthetic gorgonians can be successfully kept in captive aquaria.

Soft coral
Cladiella sp.
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Cnidaria
Class: Octocorallia
Order: Alcyonacea
Lamouroux, 1812 [1]
Suborders

See text

Synonyms
  • Gorgonacea

About 500 different species of gorgonians are found in the oceans of the world, but they are particularly abundant in the shallow waters of the Western Atlantic, including Florida, Bermuda, and the West Indies.[5]

Anatomy edit

 
Venus fan (Gorgonia flabellum), Caribbean Sea at Goat Bay (Bahía de la Chiva) on Vieques Island, Puerto Rico
 
Gorgonian with reproductive stage, Caribbean Sea at Cabrits National Park, Dominica
 
A close-up of an alcyonacean showing individual polyps

The structure of a gorgonian colony varies. In the suborder Holaxonia, skeletons are formed from a flexible, horny substance called gorgonin. The suborder Scleraxonia species are supported by a skeleton of tightly grouped calcareous spicules. Also, some species encrust like coral.[6]

Measurements of the gorgonin and calcite within several long-lived species of gorgonians can be useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography, as their skeletal growth rate and composition are highly correlated with seasonal and climatic variation.[7][8][9]

Features edit

Soft corals contain minute, spiny skeletal elements called sclerites, useful in species identification. Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky, grainy texture that deters predators. In the past, soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals, but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather-coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite,[10] thus making them reef builders.

Unlike stony corals, most soft corals thrive in nutrient-rich waters with less intense light. Almost all use symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthella as a major energy source. However, most readily eat any free-floating food, such as zooplankton, out of the water column. They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish, snails, algae, and a diversity of other marine species.

Despite being dominated by "soft corals", the order Alcyonacea now contains all species known as "gorgonian corals", that produce a hard skeleton made from gorgonin, a protein unique to the group that makes their skeletons quite different from "true" corals (Scleractinia). These "gorgonion corals" can be found in suborders Holaxonia, Scleraxonia, and Stolonifera.

Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby, as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals. Nevertheless, home-grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs. Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals, and so those grown by aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild.

Ecology edit

 
Purple sea whip gorgonian
 
Fossil gorgonian holdfast on a Miocene limestone surface, Czech Republic

Each gorgonian polyp has eight tentacles, which catch plankton and particulate matter for consumption. This process, called filter feeding, is facilitated when the "fan" is oriented across the prevailing current to maximise water flow to the gorgonian, hence food supply.

Some gorgonians contain algae, or zooxanthellae. This symbiotic relationship assists in giving the gorgonian nutrition by photosynthesis. Gorgonians possessing zooxanthellae are usually characterized by brownish polyps.

Gorgonians are found primarily in shallow waters, though some have been found at depths of several thousand feet.[4][6] The size, shape, and appearance of gorgonians can be correlated with their location. The more fan-shaped and flexible gorgonians tend to populate shallower areas with strong currents, while the taller, thinner, and stiffer gorgonians can be found in deeper, calmer waters.[4]

Other fauna, such as hydrozoa, bryozoa, and brittle stars, are known to dwell within the branches of gorgonian colonies.[11] The pygmy seahorse not only makes certain species of gorgonians its home, but also closely resembles its host, thus is well camouflaged.[12] Two species of pygmy seahorse, Hippocampus bargibanti and Hippocampus denise, are obligate residents on gorgonians. H. bargibanti is limited to two species in the single genus Muricella.

Gorgonians produce unusual organic compounds in their tissues, particularly diterpenes, and some of these are important candidates for new drugs.[13] These compounds may be part of the chemical defenses produced by gorgonians to render their tissue distasteful to potential predators.[14] Bottlenose dolphins in the Red Sea have been observed swimming against these tissues, in what is thought to be an attempt to take advantage of the antimicrobial qualities of diterpenes.[15] Despite these chemical defenses, the tissues of gorgonians are prey for flamingo tongue snails of the genus Cyphoma, nudibranchs, the fireworm Hermodice spp., and their polyps are food for butterflyfishes.[16] Amongst the nudibranchs which feed on soft corals and sea fans are the Tritoniidae and the genus Phyllodesmium which specialises in eating Xenia species.[17]

Suborders and families edit

The World Register of Marine Species lists these suborders and families:[18]

References edit

  1. ^ van Ofwegen, L. (2011). "Alcyonacea Lamouroux, 1812". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
  2. ^ Bayer, F. M. (1961). The shallow-water Octocorallia of the West Indian region. Studies on the Fauna of Curaçao and other Caribbean Islands, 12(1), 1-373.; Córdova-Isaza, A., Jiménez-Mármol, S., Guerra, Y., & Salas-Sarduy, E. (2023). Enzyme Inhibitors from Gorgonians and Soft Corals. Marine Drugs, 21(2), 104. https://doi.org/10.3390/md21020104; Raimundo, I., Silva, S., Costa, R., & Keller-Costa, T. (2018). Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Octocoral-Associated Microbes—New Chances for Blue Growth. Marine Drugs, 16(12), 485. https://doi.org/10.3390/md16120485
  3. ^ Daly, M., M.R. Brugler, P. Cartwright, A.G. Collins, M.N. Dawson, D.G. Fautin, S.C. France, C.S. McFadden, D.M. Opresko, E. Rodriquez, S.L. Romano, J.L. Stake. (2007). The phylum Cnidaria: A review of phylogenetic patterns and diversity 300 years after Linnaeus. Zootaxa. (1668): 127–182., available online at http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01668p182.pdf; McFadden, C.S.; van Ofwegen, L.P.; Quattrini, A.M. (2022) Revisionary systematics of Octocorallia (Cnidaria: Anthozoa) guided by phylogenomics. Bulletin of the Society of Systematic Biologists. 1(3), 8735, pp. 1-79. Available online at https://ssbbulletin.org/index.php/bssb/article/view/8735 page(s): 21; Schoch CL, et al. NCBI Taxonomy: a comprehensive update on curation, resources and tools. Database (Oxford). 2020: baaa062. PubMed: 32761142 PMC: PMC7408187.
  4. ^ a b c Borneman, Eric H. (2001). Aquarium Corals: Selection, Husbandry, and Natural History. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. p. 464. ISBN 1-890087-47-5.
  5. ^ . University of Delaware Graduate College of Marine Studies. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006. Retrieved 23 September 2007.
  6. ^ a b Goldstein, Robert J. (1997). Marine Reef Aquarium Handbook. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. p. 198. ISBN 0-8120-9598-7.
  7. ^ Heikoop, J.M.; M.J. Risk; C.K. Shearer; V. Atudorei (March 2002). "Potential climate signals from the deep-sea gorgonian coral Primnoa resedaeformis". Hydrobiologia. 471 (1–3): 117–124. doi:10.1023/A:1016505421115. S2CID 7432164.
  8. ^ Sherwood, Owen A.; Jeffrey M. Heikoop; Daniel J. Sinclair; David B. Scott; Michael J. Risk; Chip Shearer; Kumiko Azetsu-Scott (2005). Cold-Water Corals and Ecosystems. Erlangen Earth Conference Series. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1061–1079. doi:10.1007/3-540-27673-4. ISBN 978-3-540-24136-2.
  9. ^ Bond, Zoë A.; Anne L. Cohen; Struan R. Smith; William J. Jenkins (31 August 2005). "Growth and composition of high-Mg calcite in the skeleton of a Bermudian gorgonian (Plexaurella dichotoma): Potential for paleothermometry". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 6 (8): Q08010. Bibcode:2005GGG.....6.8010B. doi:10.1029/2005GC000911. hdl:1912/396. S2CID 128703481.
  10. ^ Kenji Konishi, "Alcyonarian spiculite: the limestone of soft corals", 1981; M.-S. Jeng, H.-D. Huang, C.-F. Dai, Y.-C. Hsiao and Y. Benayahu. (15 May 2011), "Sclerite calcification and reef-building in the fleshy octocoral genus Sinularia (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea)", Earth and Environmental Science, Coral Reefs doi:10.1007/s00338-011-0765-z.
  11. ^ Haywood, Martyn; Sue Wells (1989). The Manual of Marine Invertebrates. Morris Plains, NJ: Tetra Press:Salamander Books Ltd. p. 208. ISBN 3-89356-033-5.
  12. ^ Agbayani, Eli (5 June 2007). "Hippocampus bargibanti, Pygmy seahorse". FishBase. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
  13. ^ Berrue, F; Kerr, RG (2009). "Diterpenes from gorgonian corals". Natural Product Reports. 26 (5): 681–710. doi:10.1039/b821918b. PMID 19387501.
  14. ^ O'Neal, W; Pawlik, JR (2002). "A reappraisal of the chemical and physical defenses of Caribbean gorgonian corals against predatory fishes". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 240: 117–126. Bibcode:2002MEPS..240..117O. doi:10.3354/meps240117.
  15. ^ Attenborough, David (12 November 2017). ""Coral Reefs"". Blue Planet II. Episode 3. BBC One.
  16. ^ Pawlik, JR; et al. (1987). "Patterns of chemical defense among Caribbean gorgonian corals - A preliminary survey". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 108: 55–66. doi:10.1016/0022-0981(87)90130-4.
  17. ^ García-Matucheski, S. and Muniain, C. (2011). Predation by the nudibranch Tritonia odhneri (Opisthobranchia:Tritoniidae) on octocorals from the South Atlantic Ocean. Marine Biodiversity, 41(2), 287–297.
  18. ^ "WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Alcyonacea". marinespecies.org. Retrieved 22 March 2018.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alcyonacea.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Gorgonacea.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Alcyonacea.

January 01, 1970
alcyonacea, order, sessile, colonial, cnidarians, that, found, throughout, oceans, world, especially, deep, polar, waters, tropics, subtropics, whilst, strict, taxonomic, sense, commonly, known, soft, corals, term, soft, coral, generally, applies, organisms, o. Alcyonacea are an order of sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world especially in the deep sea polar waters tropics and subtropics Whilst not in a strict taxonomic sense Alcyonacea are commonly known as soft corals The term soft coral generally applies to organisms in the two orders Pennatulacea and Alcyonacea with their polyps embedded within a fleshy mass of coenenchymal tissue 2 Consequently the term gorgonian coral is commonly handed to multiple species in the order Alcyonacea that produce a mineralized skeletal axis or axial like layer composed of calcite and the proteinaceous material gorgonin only and corresponds to only one of several families within the formally accepted taxon Gorgoniidae Scleractinia These can be found in order Malacalcyonacea taxonomic synonyms of include unnacepted Alcyoniina Holaxonia Protoalcyonaria Scleraxonia and Stolonifera 3 They are sessile colonial cnidarians that are found throughout the oceans of the world especially in the deep sea polar waters tropics and subtropics Common names for subsets of this order are sea fans and sea whips others are similar to the sea pens of related order Pennatulacea Individual tiny polyps form colonies that are normally erect flattened branching and reminiscent of a fan Others may be whiplike bushy or even encrusting 4 A colony can be several feet high and across but only a few inches thick They may be brightly coloured often purple red or yellow Photosynthetic gorgonians can be successfully kept in captive aquaria Soft coral Cladiella sp Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Cnidaria Class Octocorallia Order AlcyonaceaLamouroux 1812 1 Suborders See text Synonyms Gorgonacea About 500 different species of gorgonians are found in the oceans of the world but they are particularly abundant in the shallow waters of the Western Atlantic including Florida Bermuda and the West Indies 5 Contents 1 Anatomy 2 Features 3 Ecology 4 Suborders and families 5 References 6 External linksAnatomy edit nbsp Venus fan Gorgonia flabellum Caribbean Sea at Goat Bay Bahia de la Chiva on Vieques Island Puerto Rico nbsp Gorgonian with reproductive stage Caribbean Sea at Cabrits National Park Dominica nbsp A close up of an alcyonacean showing individual polyps The structure of a gorgonian colony varies In the suborder Holaxonia skeletons are formed from a flexible horny substance called gorgonin The suborder Scleraxonia species are supported by a skeleton of tightly grouped calcareous spicules Also some species encrust like coral 6 Measurements of the gorgonin and calcite within several long lived species of gorgonians can be useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography as their skeletal growth rate and composition are highly correlated with seasonal and climatic variation 7 8 9 Features editSoft corals contain minute spiny skeletal elements called sclerites useful in species identification Sclerites give these corals some degree of support and give their flesh a spiky grainy texture that deters predators In the past soft corals were thought to be unable to lay new foundations for future corals but recent findings suggest that colonies of the leather coral genus Sinularia are able to cement sclerites and consolidate them at their base into alcyonarian spiculite 10 thus making them reef builders Unlike stony corals most soft corals thrive in nutrient rich waters with less intense light Almost all use symbiotic photosynthetic zooxanthella as a major energy source However most readily eat any free floating food such as zooplankton out of the water column They are integral members of the reef ecosystem and provide habitat for fish snails algae and a diversity of other marine species Despite being dominated by soft corals the order Alcyonacea now contains all species known as gorgonian corals that produce a hard skeleton made from gorgonin a protein unique to the group that makes their skeletons quite different from true corals Scleractinia These gorgonion corals can be found in suborders Holaxonia Scleraxonia and Stolonifera Many soft corals are easily collected in the wild for the reef aquarium hobby as small cuttings are less prone to infection or damage during shipping than stony corals Nevertheless home grown specimens tend to be more adaptable to aquarium life and help conserve wild reefs Soft corals grow quickly in captivity and are easily divided into new individuals and so those grown by aquaculture are often hardier and less expensive than imported corals from the wild Ecology edit nbsp Purple sea whip gorgonian nbsp Fossil gorgonian holdfast on a Miocene limestone surface Czech Republic Each gorgonian polyp has eight tentacles which catch plankton and particulate matter for consumption This process called filter feeding is facilitated when the fan is oriented across the prevailing current to maximise water flow to the gorgonian hence food supply Some gorgonians contain algae or zooxanthellae This symbiotic relationship assists in giving the gorgonian nutrition by photosynthesis Gorgonians possessing zooxanthellae are usually characterized by brownish polyps Gorgonians are found primarily in shallow waters though some have been found at depths of several thousand feet 4 6 The size shape and appearance of gorgonians can be correlated with their location The more fan shaped and flexible gorgonians tend to populate shallower areas with strong currents while the taller thinner and stiffer gorgonians can be found in deeper calmer waters 4 Other fauna such as hydrozoa bryozoa and brittle stars are known to dwell within the branches of gorgonian colonies 11 The pygmy seahorse not only makes certain species of gorgonians its home but also closely resembles its host thus is well camouflaged 12 Two species of pygmy seahorse Hippocampus bargibanti and Hippocampus denise are obligate residents on gorgonians H bargibanti is limited to two species in the single genus Muricella Gorgonians produce unusual organic compounds in their tissues particularly diterpenes and some of these are important candidates for new drugs 13 These compounds may be part of the chemical defenses produced by gorgonians to render their tissue distasteful to potential predators 14 Bottlenose dolphins in the Red Sea have been observed swimming against these tissues in what is thought to be an attempt to take advantage of the antimicrobial qualities of diterpenes 15 Despite these chemical defenses the tissues of gorgonians are prey for flamingo tongue snails of the genus Cyphoma nudibranchs the fireworm Hermodice spp and their polyps are food for butterflyfishes 16 Amongst the nudibranchs which feed on soft corals and sea fans are the Tritoniidae and the genus Phyllodesmium which specialises in eating Xenia species 17 Suborders and families editThe World Register of Marine Species lists these suborders and families 18 suborder Alcyoniina family Acrophytidae McFadden amp Ofwegen 2017 family AlcyoniidaeLamouroux 1812 family AquaumbridaeBreedy van Ofwegen amp Vargas 2012 family Corymbophytidae McFadden amp Ofwegen 2017 family Leptophytidae McFadden amp Ofwegen 2017 family NephtheidaeGray 1862 family NidaliidaeGray 1869 family ParalcyoniidaeGray 1869 family XeniidaeEhrenberg 1828 suborder Calcaxonia family ChrysogorgiidaeVerrill 1883 family EllisellidaeGray 1859 family IfalukellidaeBayer 1955 family IsididaeLamouroux 1812 family PrimnoidaeMilne Edwards 1857 suborder Holaxonia family AcanthogorgiidaeGray 1859 family Dendrobrachiidae Brook 1889 family GorgoniidaeLamouroux 1812 family KeroeididaeKinoshita 1910 family PlexauridaeGray 1859 suborder Protoalcyonaria family TaiaroidaeBayer amp Muzik 1976 suborder Scleraxonia family AnthothelidaeBroch 1916 family BriareidaeGray 1859 family CoralliidaeLamouroux 1812 family MelithaeidaeGray 1870 family ParagorgiidaeKukenthal 1916 family ParisididaeAurivillius 1931 family Spongiodermidae Wright amp Studer 1889 family SubergorgiidaeGray 1859 family Victorgorgiidae Moore Alderslade amp Miller 2017 suborder Stolonifera family AcrossotidaeBourne 1914 family ArulidaeMcFadden amp van Ofwegen 2012 family ClavulariidaeHickson 1894 family CoelogorgiidaeBourne 1900 family CornulariidaeDana 1846 family PseudogorgiidaeUtinomi amp Harada 1973 family TubiporidaeEhrenberg 1828 family Acanthoaxiidaevan Ofwegen amp McFadden 2010 family HaimeidaeWright 1865 family Paramuriceidae Bayer 1956 family ParasphaerascleridaeMcFadden amp van Ofwegen 2013 family Viguieriotidae nbsp Alcyonium acaule an alcyoniid nbsp Dendronephthya hemprichi a nephtheid nbsp Siphonogorgia godeffroyi a nidaliid nbsp Maasella edwardsi a paralcyoniid nbsp Heteroxenia fuscescens a xeniid nbsp Iridigorgia sp a chrysogorgiid nbsp Ellisella sp an ellisellid nbsp Isidella tentaculum an isidid nbsp Plumarella pellucida a primnoid nbsp Muricella sp an acanthogorgiid nbsp Gorgonia ventalina a gorgoniid nbsp Paramuricea clavata a paramuriceid nbsp Muricea elongata a plexaurid nbsp Anthothela grandiflora an anthothelid nbsp Briareum sp a briareid nbsp Corallium rubrum a coralliid nbsp Acabaria splendens a melithaeid nbsp Paragorgia arborea a paragorgiid nbsp Annella mollis a subergorgiid nbsp Clavularia viridis a clavulariid nbsp Cornularia cornucopiae a cornulariid nbsp Tubipora musica Tubiporidae nbsp Iciligorgia schrammiReferences edit van Ofwegen L 2011 Alcyonacea Lamouroux 1812 WoRMS World Register of Marine Species Retrieved 15 December 2011 Bayer F M 1961 The shallow water Octocorallia of the West Indian region Studies on the Fauna of Curacao and other Caribbean Islands 12 1 1 373 Cordova Isaza A Jimenez Marmol S Guerra Y amp Salas Sarduy E 2023 Enzyme Inhibitors from Gorgonians and Soft Corals Marine Drugs 21 2 104 https doi org 10 3390 md21020104 Raimundo I Silva S Costa R amp Keller Costa T 2018 Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Octocoral Associated Microbes New Chances for Blue Growth Marine Drugs 16 12 485 https doi org 10 3390 md16120485 Daly M M R Brugler P Cartwright A G Collins M N Dawson D G Fautin S C France C S McFadden D M Opresko E Rodriquez S L Romano J L Stake 2007 The phylum Cnidaria A review of phylogenetic patterns and diversity 300 years after Linnaeus Zootaxa 1668 127 182 available online at http www mapress com zootaxa 2007f zt01668p182 pdf McFadden C S van Ofwegen L P Quattrini A M 2022 Revisionary systematics of Octocorallia Cnidaria Anthozoa guided by phylogenomics Bulletin of the Society of Systematic Biologists 1 3 8735 pp 1 79 Available online at https ssbbulletin org index php bssb article view 8735 page s 21 Schoch CL et al NCBI Taxonomy a comprehensive update on curation resources and tools Database Oxford 2020 baaa062 PubMed 32761142 PMC PMC7408187 a b c Borneman Eric H 2001 Aquarium Corals Selection Husbandry and Natural History Neptune City NJ T F H Publications p 464 ISBN 1 890087 47 5 Sea Fan University of Delaware Graduate College of Marine Studies Archived from the original on 17 April 2006 Retrieved 23 September 2007 a b Goldstein Robert J 1997 Marine Reef Aquarium Handbook Barron s Educational Series Inc p 198 ISBN 0 8120 9598 7 Heikoop J M M J Risk C K Shearer V Atudorei March 2002 Potential climate signals from the deep sea gorgonian coral Primnoa resedaeformis Hydrobiologia 471 1 3 117 124 doi 10 1023 A 1016505421115 S2CID 7432164 Sherwood Owen A Jeffrey M Heikoop Daniel J Sinclair David B Scott Michael J Risk Chip Shearer Kumiko Azetsu Scott 2005 Cold Water Corals and Ecosystems Erlangen Earth Conference Series Springer Berlin Heidelberg pp 1061 1079 doi 10 1007 3 540 27673 4 ISBN 978 3 540 24136 2 Bond Zoe A Anne L Cohen Struan R Smith William J Jenkins 31 August 2005 Growth and composition of high Mg calcite in the skeleton of a Bermudian gorgonian Plexaurella dichotoma Potential for paleothermometry Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 6 8 Q08010 Bibcode 2005GGG 6 8010B doi 10 1029 2005GC000911 hdl 1912 396 S2CID 128703481 Kenji Konishi Alcyonarian spiculite the limestone of soft corals 1981 M S Jeng H D Huang C F Dai Y C Hsiao and Y Benayahu 15 May 2011 Sclerite calcification and reef building in the fleshy octocoral genus Sinularia Octocorallia Alcyonacea Earth and Environmental Science Coral Reefs doi 10 1007 s00338 011 0765 z Haywood Martyn Sue Wells 1989 The Manual of Marine Invertebrates Morris Plains NJ Tetra Press Salamander Books Ltd p 208 ISBN 3 89356 033 5 Agbayani Eli 5 June 2007 Hippocampus bargibanti Pygmy seahorse FishBase Retrieved 22 September 2007 Berrue F Kerr RG 2009 Diterpenes from gorgonian corals Natural Product Reports 26 5 681 710 doi 10 1039 b821918b PMID 19387501 O Neal W Pawlik JR 2002 A reappraisal of the chemical and physical defenses of Caribbean gorgonian corals against predatory fishes Marine Ecology Progress Series 240 117 126 Bibcode 2002MEPS 240 117O doi 10 3354 meps240117 Attenborough David 12 November 2017 Coral Reefs Blue Planet II Episode 3 BBC One Pawlik JR et al 1987 Patterns of chemical defense among Caribbean gorgonian corals A preliminary survey Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 108 55 66 doi 10 1016 0022 0981 87 90130 4 Garcia Matucheski S and Muniain C 2011 Predation by the nudibranch Tritonia odhneri Opisthobranchia Tritoniidae on octocorals from the South Atlantic Ocean Marine Biodiversity 41 2 287 297 WoRMS World Register of Marine Species Alcyonacea marinespecies org Retrieved 22 March 2018 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alcyonacea nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Gorgonacea nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Alcyonacea The Marine Fauna Gallery of Norway AnimalDiversity Gorgonian Corals Archived 6 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Alcyonacea amp oldid 1209921894, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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