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Phragmatopoma californica

January 01, 1970

Phragmatopoma californica, commonly known as the sandcastle worm, the honeycomb worm[1] or the honeycomb tube worm,[2] is a reef-forming marine polychaete worm belonging to the family Sabellarididae. It is dark brown in color with a crown of lavender tentacles and has a length of up to about 7.5 centimeters (3.0 in).[3] The worm inhabits the Californian coast, from Sonoma County to northern Baja California.[4]

Phragmatopoma californica
Sandcastle worm in captivity, building its tube out of sand and white ceramic beads
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Annelida
Clade: Pleistoannelida
Clade: Sedentaria
Family: Sabellariidae
Genus: Phragmatopoma
Species:
P. californica
Binomial name
Phragmatopoma californica
Kinberg, 1867

Sandcastle worms live in colonies, building tube reefs somewhat similar to sandcastles (hence the name), which are often seen on rocky beaches at medium and low tide. The sandcastles, which have a honeycomb-like outward appearance, can cover an area of up to 2 meters (6.6 ft) on a side.[3] They may share areas with mussel beds and are found in any place that provides some shelter, such as rock faces, overhanging ledges and concave shorelines.[4]

The worms remain in their tubes and are almost never seen. At low tide, when above the water, they close the entrance to their tubes with a shield-like operculum made of dark setae. When submerged, they extend their tentacles out of the tube to catch food particles and sand grains. The grains are sorted, with the best ones used to keep the tube in repair,[3] and the rest ejected. The colonies are formed by the gregarious settlement of larvae, which require contact with an existing colony to metamorphose into adult worms.[4] Gregarious settlement of this species has been linked to specific free fatty acids associated with the tubes of adult worms.[5] On rocky beaches, settlement is dependent on larval behavior in the water column and perception of chemical cues when the larvae contact the tubes.[6]

Sandcastle worms should not be confused with the similar, but more northern Sabellaria cementarium which are found from Alaska to southern California and have an amber-colored operculum.[4] Unlike P. californica, S. cementarium rarely forms colonies, does not settle gregariously, and its larvae do not respond to free fatty acids.[7]

Underwater glue edit

 
Colony underwater
 
Colony exposed by low tide

In 2004, researchers from the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) discovered that the glue used by the Phragmatopoma worm to build its protecting tube was made of specific proteins with opposite charges.[8] Those proteins are called polyphenolic proteins[9] that are used as bioadhesives.[10] They succeeded in obtaining the sequence of these adhesive proteins.[11] Inspired by these results University of Utah researchers reported in 2009 that they succeeded in duplicating the glue that the worms secrete and use to stick sand grains together underwater.[12] The typical amount of glue that the worm produces at once is approximately 100 picoliters, requiring 50 million to fill a teaspoon.[13]

They believe the glue to have applications as a biocompatible medical adhesive, for instance to repair shattered bones.[14] If found to be practicable, the synthetic glue, which is based on complex coacervates,[15] could be used to fix small bone fragments, instead of metal stabilizer devices such as pins and screws, which are challenging to use.[14] Other potential medical applications include sealing skin cuts, repair of cranio-facial bones, and corneal incisions.[13]

Obstacles include ensuring that the bond is to the substrate rather than the surface layer of the water. Another is that in order to cure, glues need to dry out. Most either do not cure underwater or set too quickly.[13]

The proteins that are the basis of its adhesive contain side chains of phosphate and amine groups, which are well-known adhesion promoters which probably helps wet the surface. The glue has two parts, with different proteins and side groups in each. The two are made separately in a gland, like an epoxy, and mix as they are secreted.[16][17] The glue sets in about 30 seconds, probably triggered by the large difference in acidity between the acidic glue and seawater.[18] Curing takes about six hours, as the proteins cross-link, reaching the consistency of shoe leather.[13]

Existing medical superglues are highly immunogenic. Initial experiments with the new synthetic on animals show no immune response. But inside the body, the glue needs to eventually degrade, ideally at roughly the same rate as the bone or tissue regrows. Degradable versions therefore include proteins that are broken down by specialized cells.[13]

Other species that produce underwater glues include certain species of mussels, oysters, barnacles and caddisfly larvae.[13]

Footnotes edit

  1. ^ Hinton, Sam (1987). Seashore life of southern California: an introduction to the animal life of California beaches south of Santa Barbara. California natural history guides. Vol. 26. University of California Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-520-05924-5.
  2. ^ . LiMPETS. Archived from the original on 2011-03-13. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
  3. ^ a b c Hinton, Sam (1988-01-26). Seashore Life of Southern California: An Introduction to the Animal Life of California Beaches South of Santa Barbara. ISBN 9780520059245. Page 31.
  4. ^ a b c d Between Pacific Tides (5th ed.). Stanford University Press. 1992. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-8047-2068-7.
  5. ^ Pawlik, J. R. (1986). "Chemical induction of larval settlement and metamorphosis in the reef-building tube worm Phragmatopoma californica (Sabellariidae: Polychaeta)". Marine Biology. 91: 59–68. doi:10.1007/BF00397571. S2CID 87087873.
  6. ^ Pawlik, JR; Butman, CA; Starczak, VR (1991). "Hydrodynamic Facilitation of Gregarious Settlement of a Reef-Building Tube Worm". Science. 251 (4992): 421–424. Bibcode:1991Sci...251..421P. doi:10.1126/science.251.4992.421. PMID 17775107. S2CID 981815.
  7. ^ Pawlik, JR; Chia, F-S (1991). "Larval settlement of Sabellaria cementarium Moore, and comparisons with other species of sabellariid polychaetes". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 69 (3): 765–770. doi:10.1139/z91-110.
  8. ^ Stewart, RJ; Weaver, J.; Morse, DE; Wait, JH (2004). "The tube cement of Phragmatopoma californica: a solid foam" (PDF). J. Exp. Biol. 207 (26): 4727–4734. doi:10.1242/jeb.01330. PMID 15579565. S2CID 1104838.
  9. ^ Jensen, Rebecca A.; Morse, Daniel E. (1988). "The bioadhesive of Phragmatopoma californica tubes: a silk-like cement containing L-DOPA". Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 158 (3): 317–24. doi:10.1007/BF00695330. S2CID 25457825.
  10. ^ Rzepecki, L. M.; Chin, S. S.; Waite, J. H.; Lavin, M. F. (1991). "Molecular diversity of marine glues: Polyphenolic proteins from five mussel species". Molecular Marine Biology and Biotechnology. 1 (1): 78–88. PMID 1845474.
  11. ^ Zhao, H; Sun, C; Stewart, RJ; Waite, JH (2005). "Cement Proteins of the Tube-building Polychaete Phragmatopoma californica". J. Biol. Chem. 280 (52): 42938–42944. doi:10.1074/jbc.M508457200. PMID 16227622.
  12. ^ Shao, H; Bachus, KN; Stewart, RJ (2009). "A Water-Borne Adhesive Modeled after the Sandcastle Glue of P. californica". Macromol. Biosci. 9 (5): 464–471. doi:10.1002/mabi.200800252. PMC 2848666. PMID 19040222.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Fountain, Henry (April 12, 2010). "Studying Sea Life for a Glue That Mends People". New York Times. Retrieved April 13, 2010.
  14. ^ a b "Secrets Of The Sandcastle Worm Could Yield A Powerful Medical Adhesive". ScienceDaily. Sep 27, 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
  15. ^ Stewart, RJ; Wang, CS; Shao, H (2011). "Complex coacervates as a foundation for synthetic underwater adhesives". Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 167 (1–2): 85–93. doi:10.1016/j.cis.2010.10.009. PMC 3130813. PMID 21081223.
  16. ^ Wang, CS; Stewart, RJ (2013). "Multipart Copolyelectrolyte Adhesive of the Sandcastle Worm, Phragmatopoma californica (Fewkes): Catechol Oxidase Catalyzed Curing through Peptidyl-DOPA". Biomacromolecules. 14 (5): 1607–1617. doi:10.1021/bm400251k. PMID 23530959.
  17. ^ Wang, CS; Stewart, RJ (2012). "Localization of the bioadhesive precursors of the sandcastle worm, Phragmatopoma californica (Fewkes)". J. Exp. Biol. 215 (2): 351–361. doi:10.1242/jeb.065011. PMID 22189779.
  18. ^ Stevens, MJ; Steren, RE; Hlady, V; Stewart, RJ (2007). "Multiscale Structure of the Underwater Adhesive of Phragmatopoma Californica: a Nanostructured Latex with a Steep Microporosity Gradient". Langmuir. 23 (9): 5045–5049. doi:10.1021/la063765e. PMC 3974424. PMID 17394366.

External links edit

 
Colony of worm tubes removed from the beach
  •   Media related to Phragmatopoma californica at Wikimedia Commons
  • "Phragmatopoma californica" at the Encyclopedia of Life  
  • University of Utah photographs of sandcastle worms and related materials research
  • University of Utah video of worm building tube

January 01, 1970
phragmatopoma, californica, commonly, known, sandcastle, worm, honeycomb, worm, honeycomb, tube, worm, reef, forming, marine, polychaete, worm, belonging, family, sabellarididae, dark, brown, color, with, crown, lavender, tentacles, length, about, centimeters,. Phragmatopoma californica commonly known as the sandcastle worm the honeycomb worm 1 or the honeycomb tube worm 2 is a reef forming marine polychaete worm belonging to the family Sabellarididae It is dark brown in color with a crown of lavender tentacles and has a length of up to about 7 5 centimeters 3 0 in 3 The worm inhabits the Californian coast from Sonoma County to northern Baja California 4 Phragmatopoma californica Sandcastle worm in captivity building its tube out of sand and white ceramic beads Scientific classification Domain Eukaryota Kingdom Animalia Phylum Annelida Clade Pleistoannelida Clade Sedentaria Family Sabellariidae Genus Phragmatopoma Species P californica Binomial name Phragmatopoma californicaKinberg 1867 Sandcastle worms live in colonies building tube reefs somewhat similar to sandcastles hence the name which are often seen on rocky beaches at medium and low tide The sandcastles which have a honeycomb like outward appearance can cover an area of up to 2 meters 6 6 ft on a side 3 They may share areas with mussel beds and are found in any place that provides some shelter such as rock faces overhanging ledges and concave shorelines 4 The worms remain in their tubes and are almost never seen At low tide when above the water they close the entrance to their tubes with a shield like operculum made of dark setae When submerged they extend their tentacles out of the tube to catch food particles and sand grains The grains are sorted with the best ones used to keep the tube in repair 3 and the rest ejected The colonies are formed by the gregarious settlement of larvae which require contact with an existing colony to metamorphose into adult worms 4 Gregarious settlement of this species has been linked to specific free fatty acids associated with the tubes of adult worms 5 On rocky beaches settlement is dependent on larval behavior in the water column and perception of chemical cues when the larvae contact the tubes 6 Sandcastle worms should not be confused with the similar but more northern Sabellaria cementarium which are found from Alaska to southern California and have an amber colored operculum 4 Unlike P californica S cementarium rarely forms colonies does not settle gregariously and its larvae do not respond to free fatty acids 7 Underwater glue edit nbsp Colony underwater nbsp Colony exposed by low tide In 2004 researchers from the University of California Santa Barbara UCSB discovered that the glue used by the Phragmatopoma worm to build its protecting tube was made of specific proteins with opposite charges 8 Those proteins are called polyphenolic proteins 9 that are used as bioadhesives 10 They succeeded in obtaining the sequence of these adhesive proteins 11 Inspired by these results University of Utah researchers reported in 2009 that they succeeded in duplicating the glue that the worms secrete and use to stick sand grains together underwater 12 The typical amount of glue that the worm produces at once is approximately 100 picoliters requiring 50 million to fill a teaspoon 13 They believe the glue to have applications as a biocompatible medical adhesive for instance to repair shattered bones 14 If found to be practicable the synthetic glue which is based on complex coacervates 15 could be used to fix small bone fragments instead of metal stabilizer devices such as pins and screws which are challenging to use 14 Other potential medical applications include sealing skin cuts repair of cranio facial bones and corneal incisions 13 Obstacles include ensuring that the bond is to the substrate rather than the surface layer of the water Another is that in order to cure glues need to dry out Most either do not cure underwater or set too quickly 13 The proteins that are the basis of its adhesive contain side chains of phosphate and amine groups which are well known adhesion promoters which probably helps wet the surface The glue has two parts with different proteins and side groups in each The two are made separately in a gland like an epoxy and mix as they are secreted 16 17 The glue sets in about 30 seconds probably triggered by the large difference in acidity between the acidic glue and seawater 18 Curing takes about six hours as the proteins cross link reaching the consistency of shoe leather 13 Existing medical superglues are highly immunogenic Initial experiments with the new synthetic on animals show no immune response But inside the body the glue needs to eventually degrade ideally at roughly the same rate as the bone or tissue regrows Degradable versions therefore include proteins that are broken down by specialized cells 13 Other species that produce underwater glues include certain species of mussels oysters barnacles and caddisfly larvae 13 Footnotes edit Hinton Sam 1987 Seashore life of southern California an introduction to the animal life of California beaches south of Santa Barbara California natural history guides Vol 26 University of California Press p 48 ISBN 978 0 520 05924 5 Honeycomb Tube Worm LiMPETS Archived from the original on 2011 03 13 Retrieved 2009 10 31 a b c Hinton Sam 1988 01 26 Seashore Life of Southern California An Introduction to the Animal Life of California Beaches South of Santa Barbara ISBN 9780520059245 Page 31 a b c d Between Pacific Tides 5th ed Stanford University Press 1992 p 233 ISBN 978 0 8047 2068 7 Pawlik J R 1986 Chemical induction of larval settlement and metamorphosis in the reef building tube worm Phragmatopoma californica Sabellariidae Polychaeta Marine Biology 91 59 68 doi 10 1007 BF00397571 S2CID 87087873 Pawlik JR Butman CA Starczak VR 1991 Hydrodynamic Facilitation of Gregarious Settlement of a Reef Building Tube Worm Science 251 4992 421 424 Bibcode 1991Sci 251 421P doi 10 1126 science 251 4992 421 PMID 17775107 S2CID 981815 Pawlik JR Chia F S 1991 Larval settlement of Sabellaria cementarium Moore and comparisons with other species of sabellariid polychaetes Canadian Journal of Zoology 69 3 765 770 doi 10 1139 z91 110 Stewart RJ Weaver J Morse DE Wait JH 2004 The tube cement of Phragmatopoma californica a solid foam PDF J Exp Biol 207 26 4727 4734 doi 10 1242 jeb 01330 PMID 15579565 S2CID 1104838 Jensen Rebecca A Morse Daniel E 1988 The bioadhesive of Phragmatopoma californica tubes a silk like cement containing L DOPA Journal of Comparative Physiology B 158 3 317 24 doi 10 1007 BF00695330 S2CID 25457825 Rzepecki L M Chin S S Waite J H Lavin M F 1991 Molecular diversity of marine glues Polyphenolic proteins from five mussel species Molecular Marine Biology and Biotechnology 1 1 78 88 PMID 1845474 Zhao H Sun C Stewart RJ Waite JH 2005 Cement Proteins of the Tube building Polychaete Phragmatopoma californica J Biol Chem 280 52 42938 42944 doi 10 1074 jbc M508457200 PMID 16227622 Shao H Bachus KN Stewart RJ 2009 A Water Borne Adhesive Modeled after the Sandcastle Glue of P californica Macromol Biosci 9 5 464 471 doi 10 1002 mabi 200800252 PMC 2848666 PMID 19040222 a b c d e f Fountain Henry April 12 2010 Studying Sea Life for a Glue That Mends People New York Times Retrieved April 13 2010 a b Secrets Of The Sandcastle Worm Could Yield A Powerful Medical Adhesive ScienceDaily Sep 27 2009 Retrieved 2009 10 31 Stewart RJ Wang CS Shao H 2011 Complex coacervates as a foundation for synthetic underwater adhesives Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 167 1 2 85 93 doi 10 1016 j cis 2010 10 009 PMC 3130813 PMID 21081223 Wang CS Stewart RJ 2013 Multipart Copolyelectrolyte Adhesive of the Sandcastle Worm Phragmatopoma californica Fewkes Catechol Oxidase Catalyzed Curing through Peptidyl DOPA Biomacromolecules 14 5 1607 1617 doi 10 1021 bm400251k PMID 23530959 Wang CS Stewart RJ 2012 Localization of the bioadhesive precursors of the sandcastle worm Phragmatopoma californica Fewkes J Exp Biol 215 2 351 361 doi 10 1242 jeb 065011 PMID 22189779 Stevens MJ Steren RE Hlady V Stewart RJ 2007 Multiscale Structure of the Underwater Adhesive of Phragmatopoma Californica a Nanostructured Latex with a Steep Microporosity Gradient Langmuir 23 9 5045 5049 doi 10 1021 la063765e PMC 3974424 PMID 17394366 External links edit nbsp Colony of worm tubes removed from the beach nbsp Media related to Phragmatopoma californica at Wikimedia Commons Phragmatopoma californica at the Encyclopedia of Life nbsp Photographs by Peter J Bryant University of Utah photographs of sandcastle worms and related materials research University of Utah video of worm building tube Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Phragmatopoma californica amp oldid 1083071631, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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