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Penicillium expansum

Penicillium expansum is a psychrophilic blue mold that is common throughout the world in soil.[1] It causes Blue Mold of apples, one of the most prevalent and economically damaging post-harvest diseases of apples.

Penicillium expansum
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Eurotiales
Family: Aspergillaceae
Genus: Penicillium
Species:
P. expansum
Binomial name
Penicillium expansum
Link, (1809)
Synonyms
  • Penicillium crustaceum Link, (1809)
  • Penicillium glaucum Stoll, (1809)

Though primarily known as a disease of apples, this plant pathogen can infect a wide range of hosts, including pears, strawberries, tomatoes, corn, and rice. Penicillium expansum produces the carcinogenic metabolite patulin, a neurotoxin that is harmful when consumed.[2] Patulin is produced by the fungus as a virulence factor as it infects the host. Patulin levels in foods are regulated by the governments of many developed countries. Patulin is a particular health concern for young children, who are often heavy consumers of apple products. The fungus can also produce the mycotoxin citrinin.

Hosts and disease development edit

Penicillium expansum has a wide host range, causing similar symptoms on fruits which include apples, pears, cherries, and citrus .[3] Initial infection most often occurs at sites of fruit injury, such as bruises or puncture wounds.[4] Although infections may start in the field, infected spots often become evident post-harvest, and expand while fruit is in storage.[4] Infected areas are clearly delineated and light brown, and soft decaying tissue can be easily "scooped" out of the surrounding healthy tissue.,[4][1] Spore masses later appear on the surfaces of infected fruit, initially appearing as white mycelium, then turning blue to blue-green in color as the asexual spores mature.[1] Fruit affected by P. expansum typically has an earthy, musty odor.[4] Lesions measure 1–1.25 inches in diameter eight to ten weeks after infection if kept under cold storage conditions.[1] Age factors into P. expansum infection, in that overripe or mature fruits are most susceptible to infection, while those picked underripe are less likely to become infected.

In apples, the colors of the lesions may vary with variety, from lighter-brown on green and yellow apple varieties to dark-brown on the deeper-red and other darker-color varieties.[1] Varieties particularly susceptible to P. expansum infection include McIntosh, Golden Supreme, and Golden Delicious.[5][6]

Both sweet and sour cherries are affected by P. expansum. Cherry varieties found to be particularly susceptible to P. expansum infection were mainly early varieties, including Navalinda and Burlat.[7]

Diagnosis edit

Penicillium expansum can be identified by its morphological characteristics and secondary metabolites in fruit or in axenic culture.[8] The presence of the secondary metabolite patulin can suggest P. expansum infection, but this method is not species-specific as a number of different Penicillium species and their allies produce patulin. Patulin presence can be assayed using high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection.[9] Molecular methods based on species-specific genes can speed identification.[10][11][12]

Environment edit

Penicillium expansum grows best in wet, cool (<25C) conditions.[13] P. expansum was found to grow most efficiently in a temperature range of 15–27 degrees Celsius, with slower growth at lower and higher temperatures.[13] P. expansum grows best in wet conditions; growth rate was fastest at a relative humidity of 90%.[13] P. expansum infection acidifies host tissues via the secretion of organic acids, and that acidification enhances fungal development, indicating a link between environmental acidity and P. expansum virulence.[14]

Disease cycle edit

P. expansum infects a fruit via wounds through which the conidia are able to enter.[15] Usually, puncturing, bruising, and limb rubs occur during harvesting, packaging, and processing of the fruit, all of which provide sites through which spores can enter the fruit. Conidia can be found in soil, decaying debris, and tree bark, and can survive cold temperatures. Conidia may be isolated from the air of the orchard and packaging house, on the walls of the packaging houses, and from the water and fungicide solution into which harvested fruits are dunked before packaging or storage. Exposure to conidia at any step of growth, harvesting, processing, shipping, and storage can lead to inoculation and disease. Conidia that have gained access via a wound can germinate to form a germ tube. This germ tube will continue to grow as hyphae which colonize the fruit, killing fruit cells in an expanding infection.

If the fungus has colonized the fruit with mycelium, the formation of conidiophores occurs on the surface or subsurface of the hyphae. The conidiophores are mostly smooth-walled terverticillate penicilli. A terverticillate pencilii has multiple branch points below the phialides, the cells that the conidia are attached to. However, at times, the penicilli may be rough or biverticillate (only two levels of branching).[16] The phialides are packed close together with nearly a cylindrical shape.[17] The conidia are dry, smooth, elliptical, and "dull-green" in color and are often disseminated by wind currents.

Sexual reproduction has not been observed in nature for P. expansum.[18]

Management edit

Due to the susceptibility to infection of mature and overripe fruit, post-harvest treatment of fruit with fungicides is the most common method of combating P. expansum. Proper sanitation and careful handling of the fruit are two non-chemical methods that can help control the disease. Good sanitation reduces contact with orchard soil either on the fruit or in transportation containers. And since the fungus needs a wound to infect, careful handling can reduce infection even when the fungus is present. Chemical treatment with a chlorine bath can be effective in killing spores. Biofungicides using active ingredients such as bacteria and yeast have been successful in preventing infection but are ineffective against existing infections.[4]

Importance edit

Penicillium expansum produces the mycotoxin patulin, a neurotoxin that can enter the food supply via apples and apple products such as juice and cider.[19] Considering the size of the apple product industry and the large number of people that may come into contact with infected fruits, control of P. expansum is vitally important.[20]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e Janisiewicz, Wojciech. "Blue Mold". USDA Appilachian Fruit Research Station. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  2. ^ Morales H, Marín S, Rovira A, Ramos AJ, Sanchis V (January 2007). "Patulin accumulation in apples by Penicillium expansum during postharvest stages". Lett Appl Microbiol. 44 (1): 30–5. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.02035.x. PMID 17209811. S2CID 5764456.
  3. ^ Ashizawa, Eunice C. (October 2000). "Fungistatic composition and a fungistatic method utilizing the composition". Gencor International inc. Retrieved 19 October 2012.
  4. ^ a b c d e "Blue Mold". Washington State university. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  5. ^ Konstantinou, S.; Karaoglanidis, G.S.; Bardas, G.A.; Minas, I.S.; Doukas, E.; Markoglou, A.N. (2011). "Post harvest fruit rots of apple in Greece:Pathogen incidence and relationships between fruit quality parameters, cultivar susceptibility and patulin production". Plant Disease. 95 (6): 666–672. doi:10.1094/pdis-11-10-0856. PMID 30731903.
  6. ^ "Improving the safety of apple juice and cider". Cornell University CALS department. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  7. ^ Hui, Y.H. (2006). Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Processing. Blackwell. p. 697. ISBN 9780470276488.
  8. ^ Pianzzola, M.J; M.Muscatelli, S.Vero (January 2004). "Characterization of Penicillium isolates associated with blue mold on apple in Uruguay" (PDF). Plant Disease. 88 (1): 23–28. doi:10.1094/pdis.2004.88.1.23. PMID 30812451. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  9. ^ . Horticultural Development Company. Archived from the original on 17 October 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2012.
  10. ^ Marek, Patrick; Thirunauukkarasu, Annamalai; Kumar, Venkitanarayanan (31 December 2003). "Detection of Penicillium expansum by polymerase chain reaction". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 89 (2–3): 139–144. doi:10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00115-6. PMID 14623379.
  11. ^ Dombrink-Kurtzman, Mary Ann; Amy E. McGovern (June 2007). "Species-specific identification of penicillium linked to patulin contamination" (PDF). Journal of Food Protection. 70 (11): 2646–50. doi:10.4315/0362-028X-70.11.2646. PMID 18044450.
  12. ^ Oliveri, C.; A.Campisano; A.Catara; G. Cirvilleri (2007). "Characterization and fAFLP genotyping of Penicillium strains from postharvest samples and packinghouses". Plant Pathology. 89 (1): 29–40. doi:10.4454/jpp.v89i1.721 (inactive 1 August 2023). JSTOR 41998354.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2023 (link)
  13. ^ a b c Larous, L.; Handel, N.; Abood, J.K.; Ghoul, M. (2007). "The growth and production of patulin mycotoxin by penicillium expansum on apple fruits and its control by the use of propionic acid and sodium benzoate". Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Setiff. Setiff, Algeria.
  14. ^ Prusky, Dov; McEvoy, L. James; Saftner, Robert; Conway, S. William; Jones, Richard (2004). "Relationship Between Host Acidification and Virulence in Penicillium spp. on Apple and Citrus Fruit". Phytopathology. 94 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1094/PHYTO.2004.94.1.44. PMID 18943818.
  15. ^ Torres, R; Teixidó, N.; Viñas, I.; Mari, M.; Casalini, L.; Giraud, M.; Usall, J (November 2006). "Efficacy of Candida sake CPA-1 Formulation for Controlling Penicillium expansum Decay on Pome Fruit from Different Mediterranean Regions". Journal of Food Protection. 69 (11): 2703–11. doi:10.4315/0362-028X-69.11.2703. PMID 17133815. S2CID 45025141.
  16. ^ Frisvad, Jens; Samson, Robert (2004). "Polyphasic taxonomy of Penicillium subgenus Penicillium" (PDF). Studies in Mycology. 49: C174.
  17. ^ Pitt, John (1985). Fungi and Food Spoilage. Academic Press. pp. 1–413. ISBN 978-0125577304.
  18. ^ Sapers, Gerald M. (2006). Microbiology Of Fruits And Vegetables. CRC Press. pp. 634. ISBN 978-0849322617.
  19. ^ Deacon, J.W. (1997). Modern Mycology. Blackwell Science Inc. pp. 118, 122, 132, 206, 228, 231. ISBN 978-0-632-03077-4.
  20. ^ David A. Rosenberger; Catherine A. Engle; Frederick W. Meyer; Christopher B. Watkins (2006). "Penicillium expansum Invades Apples Through Stems during Controlled Atmosphere Storage". Plant Health Progress. American Phytopathological Society. 7 (1). doi:10.1094/PHP-2006-1213-01-RS.

External links edit

    penicillium, expansum, psychrophilic, blue, mold, that, common, throughout, world, soil, causes, blue, mold, apples, most, prevalent, economically, damaging, post, harvest, diseases, apples, scientific, classificationdomain, eukaryotakingdom, fungidivision, as. Penicillium expansum is a psychrophilic blue mold that is common throughout the world in soil 1 It causes Blue Mold of apples one of the most prevalent and economically damaging post harvest diseases of apples Penicillium expansumScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom FungiDivision AscomycotaClass EurotiomycetesOrder EurotialesFamily AspergillaceaeGenus PenicilliumSpecies P expansumBinomial namePenicillium expansumLink 1809 SynonymsPenicillium crustaceum Link 1809 Penicillium glaucum Stoll 1809 Though primarily known as a disease of apples this plant pathogen can infect a wide range of hosts including pears strawberries tomatoes corn and rice Penicillium expansum produces the carcinogenic metabolite patulin a neurotoxin that is harmful when consumed 2 Patulin is produced by the fungus as a virulence factor as it infects the host Patulin levels in foods are regulated by the governments of many developed countries Patulin is a particular health concern for young children who are often heavy consumers of apple products The fungus can also produce the mycotoxin citrinin Contents 1 Hosts and disease development 2 Diagnosis 3 Environment 4 Disease cycle 5 Management 6 Importance 7 References 8 External linksHosts and disease development editPenicillium expansum has a wide host range causing similar symptoms on fruits which include apples pears cherries and citrus 3 Initial infection most often occurs at sites of fruit injury such as bruises or puncture wounds 4 Although infections may start in the field infected spots often become evident post harvest and expand while fruit is in storage 4 Infected areas are clearly delineated and light brown and soft decaying tissue can be easily scooped out of the surrounding healthy tissue 4 1 Spore masses later appear on the surfaces of infected fruit initially appearing as white mycelium then turning blue to blue green in color as the asexual spores mature 1 Fruit affected by P expansum typically has an earthy musty odor 4 Lesions measure 1 1 25 inches in diameter eight to ten weeks after infection if kept under cold storage conditions 1 Age factors into P expansum infection in that overripe or mature fruits are most susceptible to infection while those picked underripe are less likely to become infected In apples the colors of the lesions may vary with variety from lighter brown on green and yellow apple varieties to dark brown on the deeper red and other darker color varieties 1 Varieties particularly susceptible to P expansum infection include McIntosh Golden Supreme and Golden Delicious 5 6 Both sweet and sour cherries are affected by P expansum Cherry varieties found to be particularly susceptible to P expansum infection were mainly early varieties including Navalinda and Burlat 7 Diagnosis editPenicillium expansum can be identified by its morphological characteristics and secondary metabolites in fruit or in axenic culture 8 The presence of the secondary metabolite patulin can suggest P expansum infection but this method is not species specific as a number of different Penicillium species and their allies produce patulin Patulin presence can be assayed using high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection 9 Molecular methods based on species specific genes can speed identification 10 11 12 Environment editPenicillium expansum grows best in wet cool lt 25C conditions 13 P expansum was found to grow most efficiently in a temperature range of 15 27 degrees Celsius with slower growth at lower and higher temperatures 13 P expansum grows best in wet conditions growth rate was fastest at a relative humidity of 90 13 P expansum infection acidifies host tissues via the secretion of organic acids and that acidification enhances fungal development indicating a link between environmental acidity and P expansum virulence 14 Disease cycle editP expansum infects a fruit via wounds through which the conidia are able to enter 15 Usually puncturing bruising and limb rubs occur during harvesting packaging and processing of the fruit all of which provide sites through which spores can enter the fruit Conidia can be found in soil decaying debris and tree bark and can survive cold temperatures Conidia may be isolated from the air of the orchard and packaging house on the walls of the packaging houses and from the water and fungicide solution into which harvested fruits are dunked before packaging or storage Exposure to conidia at any step of growth harvesting processing shipping and storage can lead to inoculation and disease Conidia that have gained access via a wound can germinate to form a germ tube This germ tube will continue to grow as hyphae which colonize the fruit killing fruit cells in an expanding infection If the fungus has colonized the fruit with mycelium the formation of conidiophores occurs on the surface or subsurface of the hyphae The conidiophores are mostly smooth walled terverticillate penicilli A terverticillate pencilii has multiple branch points below the phialides the cells that the conidia are attached to However at times the penicilli may be rough or biverticillate only two levels of branching 16 The phialides are packed close together with nearly a cylindrical shape 17 The conidia are dry smooth elliptical and dull green in color and are often disseminated by wind currents Sexual reproduction has not been observed in nature for P expansum 18 Management editDue to the susceptibility to infection of mature and overripe fruit post harvest treatment of fruit with fungicides is the most common method of combating P expansum Proper sanitation and careful handling of the fruit are two non chemical methods that can help control the disease Good sanitation reduces contact with orchard soil either on the fruit or in transportation containers And since the fungus needs a wound to infect careful handling can reduce infection even when the fungus is present Chemical treatment with a chlorine bath can be effective in killing spores Biofungicides using active ingredients such as bacteria and yeast have been successful in preventing infection but are ineffective against existing infections 4 Importance editPenicillium expansum produces the mycotoxin patulin a neurotoxin that can enter the food supply via apples and apple products such as juice and cider 19 Considering the size of the apple product industry and the large number of people that may come into contact with infected fruits control of P expansum is vitally important 20 References edit a b c d e Janisiewicz Wojciech Blue Mold USDA Appilachian Fruit Research Station Retrieved 22 October 2012 Morales H Marin S Rovira A Ramos AJ Sanchis V January 2007 Patulin accumulation in apples by Penicillium expansum during postharvest stages Lett Appl Microbiol 44 1 30 5 doi 10 1111 j 1472 765X 2006 02035 x PMID 17209811 S2CID 5764456 Ashizawa Eunice C October 2000 Fungistatic composition and a fungistatic method utilizing the composition Gencor International inc Retrieved 19 October 2012 a b c d e Blue Mold Washington State university Retrieved 22 October 2012 Konstantinou S Karaoglanidis G S Bardas G A Minas I S Doukas E Markoglou A N 2011 Post harvest fruit rots of apple in Greece Pathogen incidence and relationships between fruit quality parameters cultivar susceptibility and patulin production Plant Disease 95 6 666 672 doi 10 1094 pdis 11 10 0856 PMID 30731903 Improving the safety of apple juice and cider Cornell University CALS department Retrieved 22 October 2012 Hui Y H 2006 Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Processing Blackwell p 697 ISBN 9780470276488 Pianzzola M J M Muscatelli S Vero January 2004 Characterization of Penicillium isolates associated with blue mold on apple in Uruguay PDF Plant Disease 88 1 23 28 doi 10 1094 pdis 2004 88 1 23 PMID 30812451 Retrieved 22 October 2012 Patulin in Apple Juice Horticultural Development Company Archived from the original on 17 October 2012 Retrieved 3 December 2012 Marek Patrick Thirunauukkarasu Annamalai Kumar Venkitanarayanan 31 December 2003 Detection of Penicillium expansum by polymerase chain reaction International Journal of Food Microbiology 89 2 3 139 144 doi 10 1016 S0168 1605 03 00115 6 PMID 14623379 Dombrink Kurtzman Mary Ann Amy E McGovern June 2007 Species specific identification of penicillium linked to patulin contamination PDF Journal of Food Protection 70 11 2646 50 doi 10 4315 0362 028X 70 11 2646 PMID 18044450 Oliveri C A Campisano A Catara G Cirvilleri 2007 Characterization and fAFLP genotyping of Penicillium strains from postharvest samples and packinghouses Plant Pathology 89 1 29 40 doi 10 4454 jpp v89i1 721 inactive 1 August 2023 JSTOR 41998354 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of August 2023 link a b c Larous L Handel N Abood J K Ghoul M 2007 The growth and production of patulin mycotoxin by penicillium expansum on apple fruits and its control by the use of propionic acid and sodium benzoate Department of Biology College of Science University of Setiff Setiff Algeria Prusky Dov McEvoy L James Saftner Robert Conway S William Jones Richard 2004 Relationship Between Host Acidification and Virulence in Penicillium spp on Apple and Citrus Fruit Phytopathology 94 1 44 51 doi 10 1094 PHYTO 2004 94 1 44 PMID 18943818 Torres R Teixido N Vinas I Mari M Casalini L Giraud M Usall J November 2006 Efficacy of Candida sake CPA 1 Formulation for Controlling Penicillium expansum Decay on Pome Fruit from Different Mediterranean Regions Journal of Food Protection 69 11 2703 11 doi 10 4315 0362 028X 69 11 2703 PMID 17133815 S2CID 45025141 Frisvad Jens Samson Robert 2004 Polyphasic taxonomy of Penicillium subgenus Penicillium PDF Studies in Mycology 49 C174 Pitt John 1985 Fungi and Food Spoilage Academic Press pp 1 413 ISBN 978 0125577304 Sapers Gerald M 2006 Microbiology Of Fruits And Vegetables CRC Press pp 634 ISBN 978 0849322617 Deacon J W 1997 Modern Mycology Blackwell Science Inc pp 118 122 132 206 228 231 ISBN 978 0 632 03077 4 David A Rosenberger Catherine A Engle Frederick W Meyer Christopher B Watkins 2006 Penicillium expansum Invades Apples Through Stems during Controlled Atmosphere Storage Plant Health Progress American Phytopathological Society 7 1 doi 10 1094 PHP 2006 1213 01 RS External links editUSDA ARS Fungal Database nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Penicillium expansum Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Penicillium expansum amp oldid 1189774809, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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