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Patriot Parliament

January 01, 1970

Patriot Parliament is the name commonly used for the Irish Parliament session called by King James II during the Williamite War in Ireland which lasted from 1688 to 1691. The first since 1666, it held only one session, which lasted from 7 May 1689 to 20 July 1689. Irish nationalist historian Sir Charles Gavan Duffy first used the term Patriot Parliament in 1893.

The House of Commons was 70 members short since there were no elections in the northern counties; as a result, its members were overwhelmingly Old English and Catholic.[1] Sir Richard Nagle was elected speaker, while the House of Lords was led by Baron Fitton; the opposition was led by Anthony Dopping, a Church of Ireland cleric who served as the Bishop of Meath.[2]

The term is controversial, for this Parliament was deeply divided.[3] The deliberate destruction of its records after 1695 means that assessments, both negative and positive, often rely on individual accounts.[4]

Background edit

 
James II and VII

Despite his Catholicism, James II became king in 1685 with widespread support in all three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, largely due to fear of civil war if he were bypassed; by 1688, it seemed only his removal could prevent one. He was ousted by William III and his wife Mary II in the November 1688 Glorious Revolution, and went into exile in France, where he was sheltered by Louis XIV.[5]

Louis wanted to absorb English resources from the European conflict known as the Nine Years' War; the cheapest way to do this was a war in Ireland, where support for James was highest. Since England was his primary objective, James was extremely reluctant, but the French insisted and he landed in Ireland on 12 March 1689. Of the Irish people, 800,000 were Catholic, nearly 75% of the population, who supported James due to his own Catholicism; 75,000 were members of the Protestant Church of Ireland, many of whom were sympathisers. The third group of 200,000 nonconformists were concentrated in Ulster, where they comprised nearly 50% of the population; hopes of gaining their support quickly faded.[6]

For many Catholics, the most pressing issues were the removal of penal laws restricting their ability to hold public office, and land reform. The proportion owned by Irish Catholics declined from 90% in 1600 to 22% by 1685, most of it concentrated in the hands of the Catholic Old English elite. There was also a small middle class of Catholic and Protestant merchants, who objected to commercial restrictions imposed on Irish trade, policies continued by James prior to his exile.[7]

Demands for greater autonomy by those allied with the Earl of Tyrconnell clashed with James' vision of a unitary state of England, Scotland and Ireland, where the role of Parliament and the church was simply to obey their monarch.[8][citation not found] Contrary to normal practice, James also claimed the right to appoint Catholic bishops and clergy in his kingdoms, which caused conflict with Pope Innocent XI.[9]

Irish Catholic support for James was based on his religion and willingness to deliver their demands. In 1685, Gaelic poet Dáibhí Ó Bruadair celebrated his accession as ensuring the supremacy of Catholicism and the Irish language. Tyrconnell's expansion of the army by the creation of Catholic regiments was welcomed by Diarmuid Mac Carthaigh, as enabling the native Irish 'Tadhg' to be armed and to assert their dominance over 'John' the English Protestant.[10][citation not found]

Conversely, most Irish Protestants viewed his policies as designed to "utterly ruin the Protestant interest and the English interest in Ireland".[11][citation not found] While James hoped to attract their support, Jacobitism was restricted to "doctrinaire Protestant clergymen, disgruntled Tory landowners and Catholic converts", who viewed his removal as unlawful.[12][citation not found] While many were sympathetic, only a few Church of Ireland ministers refused to swear allegiance to the new regime and became Non-Jurors; the most famous was propagandist Charles Leslie.[13]

Composition edit

Main article: Members of the 1689 Irish Parliament
 
Earl of Tyrconnell, member of the Old English Catholic elite whose main objective was Irish autonomy

In March 1689, James landed in Ireland and issued writs for the first Irish Parliament since 1666. Tyrconnell ensured a predominately Catholic electorate by issuing new borough charters, that added Catholics to city corporations, and removed "disloyal members", many Protestant.[14] The war prevented elections being held in Counties Fermanagh and Donegal, leaving the Commons seventy MPs short; six were Protestant, 224 Catholic.[15]

Sir Richard Nagle, a wealthy lawyer and close ally of Tyrconnell, acted as leader of the Commons.[16] The Lords was led by Baron Fitton, who spent 1664 to 1684 imprisoned for criminal libel; allegedly selected by James because he was a Protestant, he promptly converted to Catholicism.[17] The Lords included five Protestant peers, the most prominent being Viscount Mountjoy, and four bishops from the Church of Ireland, the Bishop of Meath serving as leader of the opposition.[2]

A French diplomat observed James had 'a heart too English to do anything that might vex the English'.[18] He viewed the Irish campaign as a distraction from regaining the English throne, and as concessions to Irish Catholics cost him support from Protestants in England and Scotland, he made them with reluctance.[19]

This meant although Tyrconnell was personally loyal to James, the Catholic minority who benefited from the 1662 Land Settlement mistrusted him. Led by the Earl of Limerick, they wanted to negotiate from strength, and retain the gains made under Tyrconnell.[20] Some purchased lands confiscated in 1652, including Tyrconnell, Limerick and James himself; this placed them in opposition to those who wanted the position reset to 1641, and an end to their exclusion from government positions. While a minority in Parliament, they were a majority in the country.[21]

Traditionally, these differences were presented as an ethnic division between Irish Gaels and Old English; in 1692, Jacobite historian Charles Kelly claimed Tyrconnell fatally weakened the cause by his opposition to the Gaels. There is some truth in this, particularly as Parliament failed to address compensation for estates confiscated prior to 1641, much of it from Gaelic landowners in Ulster.[22] Modern historians argue differences were based primarily on economics, although those who benefitted from the 1662 Settlement were mostly Old English, those who had not, mostly Gaelic.[23]

Key legislation edit

The 1689 Parliament "ended up going much further than James would have liked, while ... falling short of what many Irish Catholics hoped for."[24] Called in order to raise funds for the war, Parliament approved a subsidy of £20,000 per month, for 13 months but had no way to raise the funds.

The Act of Recognition recognised James's right to the Crown of Ireland and compared the usurpation by William III to the murder of James' father Charles I. It emphasised indefeasible hereditary rights and the Divine right of kings; these contradicted the 1689 English Bill of Rights and Scottish Articles of Grievances, which made explicit an assumed Social contract between a king and his subjects.[25]

The Declaratory Act affirmed the Kingdom of Ireland as always having been "distinct" from England, and no Act of the English Parliament was binding unless ratified by the Irish Parliament.[26] However, Poynings' Law, remained on the books; created in 1494, this effectively allowed the English Parliament to legislate for Ireland and James was unwilling to repeal it.[27]

Land Settlement: despite opposition in the Lords from Protestants, and the small number of Catholics who had purchased land since 1660, Parliament refused to approve taxes until James agreed to repeal the 1652 Cromwellian Settlement and Act of Settlement 1662. However, it failed to address compensation for estates confiscated prior to 1641, many held by Gaelic landowners, particularly those lost after Tyrone's Rebellion in 1603.[22]

A Bill of Attainder named 2,470 Protestants as traitors, subject to confiscation of property and their lives.[28] While many viewed this as unwise, it was the only way to raise money for the taxes voted by Parliament; after defeat, it was used to justify a new round of confiscations.

An Act for Liberty of Conscience allowed freedom of worship and civic and political equality for Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters, and repeal of the Oath of Supremacy. However, it retained the Act of Uniformity; while James sought the abolition of penalties against liberty of conscience, he viewed the Church of Ireland as an essential element of his support and wanted to retain it, despite his own Catholicism.[29]

Aftermath edit

After their defeat at the Boyne in July 1690, the Jacobites abandoned Dublin and retreated to Limerick, while James left Ireland. After the October 1691 Treaty of Limerick ended the war, all legislation enacted by the Patriot Parliament was declared void by the Parliament of England.[30] The 1695 Irish Parliament passed an Act declaring all actions of the "late pretended Parliament" void and ordered its records destroyed.[31]

For 19th-century Irish nationalists, its declaration of autonomy was the most important act of the 1689 Parliament. [32] Shortly before his death in 1843, Young Ireland leader Thomas Davis wrote a history of the Parliament, which explicitly linked it to the 1798 Rebellion.[33] The term "Patriot Parliament" was first used in 1893 by Irish nationalist historian Sir Charles Gavan Duffy.[27]

References edit

  1. ^ Harris 2006, p. 437.
  2. ^ a b Moody, Martin & Byrne 2009, p. 489.
  3. ^ Szechi 1994, p. 44.
  4. ^ Davis 1843, p. 128.
  5. ^ Wormsley 2015, p. 189.
  6. ^ Harris 2006, pp. 88–90.
  7. ^ Harris 2006, pp. 106–108.
  8. ^ Stephen 2010, pp. 55–58.
  9. ^ Miller 2001, p. 153.
  10. ^ Ó Ciardha 2000, pp. 77–79.
  11. ^ Lenihan 2008, p. 175.
  12. ^ Ó Ciardha 2000, p. 89.
  13. ^ Doyle 1997, pp. 29–30.
  14. ^ Gillen 2016, p. 52.
  15. ^ Doyle 1997, p. 30.
  16. ^ McGuire 2004, p. Online.
  17. ^ Slater 2007, p. Online.
  18. ^ Harris 2006, p. 445.
  19. ^ Moody, Martin & Byrne 2009, p. 490.
  20. ^ Harris 2006, p. 436.
  21. ^ Szechi 1994, pp. 47–48.
  22. ^ a b Harris 2006, p. 444.
  23. ^ Connolly 2008, pp. 186–187.
  24. ^ Harris 2006, p. 440.
  25. ^ Harris 2006, p. 439.
  26. ^ Simms 1970, p. 80.
  27. ^ a b Bartlett 2010, p. 135.
  28. ^ Firth 1937, pp. 212–213.
  29. ^ Harris 2006, p. 441.
  30. ^ Hill 1961, p. 256.
  31. ^ Davis 1843, p. 54.
  32. ^ Moody, Martin & Byrne 2009, p. 491.
  33. ^ Sullivan 1979, pp. 25–26.

Sources edit

  • Bartlett, Thomas; Jeffery, Keith (1997). A Military History of Ireland. Cambridge UP.
  • Connolly, SJ (2008). Divided Kingdom: Ireland 1630-1800. OUP. ISBN 978-0199543472.
  • Davis, Thomas Osborne (1843). The Irish Parliament of James II. University College Cork.
  • Doyle, Thomas (1997). "Jacobitism, Catholicism and the Irish Protestant Elite, 1700-1710". Eighteenth-Century Ireland / Iris an Dá Chultúr. 12: 28–59. doi:10.3828/eci.1997.4. JSTOR 30071383. S2CID 256147597.
  • Firth, CH (1937). Davies, Godfrey (ed.). A Commentary on Macaulay's History of England (2008 ed.). Hesperides Press. ISBN 978-1443725637.
  • Harris, Tim (2006). Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy, 1685–1720 (2007 ed.). Penguin. ISBN 978-0141016528.
  • Hill, Christopher (1937). The Century of Revolution, 1603-1714 (2002 ed.). Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415267397.
  • Lenihan, Padraig (2008). Consolidating Conquest: Ireland 1603–1727 (2016 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1138140639.
  • McGuire, James (2004). Nagle, Sir Richard (Online ed.). Oxford DNB.
  • Miller, John (1978). James II; A study in kingship (1991 ed.). Methuen. ISBN 978-0413652904.
  • Moody; Martin; Byrne, eds. (2009). A New History of Ireland: Volume III: Early Modern Ireland 1534-1691. OUP. ISBN 9780198202424.
  • Ó Ciardha, Eamonn (2000). Ireland and the Jacobite Cause, 1685–1766: A Fatal Attachment. Four Courts Press. ISBN 978-1851825349.
  • Stephen, Jeffrey (January 2010). "Scottish Nationalism and Stuart Unionism". Journal of British Studies. 49 (1, Scottish Special). doi:10.1086/644534. S2CID 144730991.
  • Simms, JG (1970). Jacobite Ireland, 1685-91. Routledge. ISBN 978-0710064462.
  • Slater, Victor (2004). Fitton, Alexander [styled Sir Alexander Fitton], Jacobite Baron Fitton (Online ed.). Oxford DNB.
  • Sullivan, Eileen (1979). Thomas Davis (Irish Writers Series). Bucknell University Press. ISBN 978-0838712344.
  • Szechi, Daniel (1994). The Jacobites: Britain and Europe 1688-1788. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719037740.
  • Wormsley, David (2015). James II: The Last Catholic King. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0141977065.

External links edit

  • Davis, Thomas Osborne. "The Irish Parliament of James II". CELT. University College Cork. p. 54. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
  • Members of Parliament at Dublin, 1689
  • On-line text of "The Irish Parliament of James II" by TO Davis, 1843

January 01, 1970
patriot, parliament, name, commonly, used, irish, parliament, session, called, king, james, during, williamite, ireland, which, lasted, from, 1688, 1691, first, since, 1666, held, only, session, which, lasted, from, 1689, july, 1689, irish, nationalist, histor. Patriot Parliament is the name commonly used for the Irish Parliament session called by King James II during the Williamite War in Ireland which lasted from 1688 to 1691 The first since 1666 it held only one session which lasted from 7 May 1689 to 20 July 1689 Irish nationalist historian Sir Charles Gavan Duffy first used the term Patriot Parliament in 1893 The House of Commons was 70 members short since there were no elections in the northern counties as a result its members were overwhelmingly Old English and Catholic 1 Sir Richard Nagle was elected speaker while the House of Lords was led by Baron Fitton the opposition was led by Anthony Dopping a Church of Ireland cleric who served as the Bishop of Meath 2 The term is controversial for this Parliament was deeply divided 3 The deliberate destruction of its records after 1695 means that assessments both negative and positive often rely on individual accounts 4 Contents 1 Background 2 Composition 3 Key legislation 4 Aftermath 5 References 6 Sources 7 External linksBackground edit nbsp James II and VII Despite his Catholicism James II became king in 1685 with widespread support in all three kingdoms of England Scotland and Ireland largely due to fear of civil war if he were bypassed by 1688 it seemed only his removal could prevent one He was ousted by William III and his wife Mary II in the November 1688 Glorious Revolution and went into exile in France where he was sheltered by Louis XIV 5 Louis wanted to absorb English resources from the European conflict known as the Nine Years War the cheapest way to do this was a war in Ireland where support for James was highest Since England was his primary objective James was extremely reluctant but the French insisted and he landed in Ireland on 12 March 1689 Of the Irish people 800 000 were Catholic nearly 75 of the population who supported James due to his own Catholicism 75 000 were members of the Protestant Church of Ireland many of whom were sympathisers The third group of 200 000 nonconformists were concentrated in Ulster where they comprised nearly 50 of the population hopes of gaining their support quickly faded 6 For many Catholics the most pressing issues were the removal of penal laws restricting their ability to hold public office and land reform The proportion owned by Irish Catholics declined from 90 in 1600 to 22 by 1685 most of it concentrated in the hands of the Catholic Old English elite There was also a small middle class of Catholic and Protestant merchants who objected to commercial restrictions imposed on Irish trade policies continued by James prior to his exile 7 Demands for greater autonomy by those allied with the Earl of Tyrconnell clashed with James vision of a unitary state of England Scotland and Ireland where the role of Parliament and the church was simply to obey their monarch 8 citation not found Contrary to normal practice James also claimed the right to appoint Catholic bishops and clergy in his kingdoms which caused conflict with Pope Innocent XI 9 Irish Catholic support for James was based on his religion and willingness to deliver their demands In 1685 Gaelic poet Daibhi o Bruadair celebrated his accession as ensuring the supremacy of Catholicism and the Irish language Tyrconnell s expansion of the army by the creation of Catholic regiments was welcomed by Diarmuid Mac Carthaigh as enabling the native Irish Tadhg to be armed and to assert their dominance over John the English Protestant 10 citation not found Conversely most Irish Protestants viewed his policies as designed to utterly ruin the Protestant interest and the English interest in Ireland 11 citation not found While James hoped to attract their support Jacobitism was restricted to doctrinaire Protestant clergymen disgruntled Tory landowners and Catholic converts who viewed his removal as unlawful 12 citation not found While many were sympathetic only a few Church of Ireland ministers refused to swear allegiance to the new regime and became Non Jurors the most famous was propagandist Charles Leslie 13 Composition editMain article Members of the 1689 Irish Parliament nbsp Earl of Tyrconnell member of the Old English Catholic elite whose main objective was Irish autonomy In March 1689 James landed in Ireland and issued writs for the first Irish Parliament since 1666 Tyrconnell ensured a predominately Catholic electorate by issuing new borough charters that added Catholics to city corporations and removed disloyal members many Protestant 14 The war prevented elections being held in Counties Fermanagh and Donegal leaving the Commons seventy MPs short six were Protestant 224 Catholic 15 Sir Richard Nagle a wealthy lawyer and close ally of Tyrconnell acted as leader of the Commons 16 The Lords was led by Baron Fitton who spent 1664 to 1684 imprisoned for criminal libel allegedly selected by James because he was a Protestant he promptly converted to Catholicism 17 The Lords included five Protestant peers the most prominent being Viscount Mountjoy and four bishops from the Church of Ireland the Bishop of Meath serving as leader of the opposition 2 A French diplomat observed James had a heart too English to do anything that might vex the English 18 He viewed the Irish campaign as a distraction from regaining the English throne and as concessions to Irish Catholics cost him support from Protestants in England and Scotland he made them with reluctance 19 This meant although Tyrconnell was personally loyal to James the Catholic minority who benefited from the 1662 Land Settlement mistrusted him Led by the Earl of Limerick they wanted to negotiate from strength and retain the gains made under Tyrconnell 20 Some purchased lands confiscated in 1652 including Tyrconnell Limerick and James himself this placed them in opposition to those who wanted the position reset to 1641 and an end to their exclusion from government positions While a minority in Parliament they were a majority in the country 21 Traditionally these differences were presented as an ethnic division between Irish Gaels and Old English in 1692 Jacobite historian Charles Kelly claimed Tyrconnell fatally weakened the cause by his opposition to the Gaels There is some truth in this particularly as Parliament failed to address compensation for estates confiscated prior to 1641 much of it from Gaelic landowners in Ulster 22 Modern historians argue differences were based primarily on economics although those who benefitted from the 1662 Settlement were mostly Old English those who had not mostly Gaelic 23 Key legislation editThe 1689 Parliament ended up going much further than James would have liked while falling short of what many Irish Catholics hoped for 24 Called in order to raise funds for the war Parliament approved a subsidy of 20 000 per month for 13 months but had no way to raise the funds The Act of Recognition recognised James s right to the Crown of Ireland and compared the usurpation by William III to the murder of James father Charles I It emphasised indefeasible hereditary rights and the Divine right of kings these contradicted the 1689 English Bill of Rights and Scottish Articles of Grievances which made explicit an assumed Social contract between a king and his subjects 25 The Declaratory Act affirmed the Kingdom of Ireland as always having been distinct from England and no Act of the English Parliament was binding unless ratified by the Irish Parliament 26 However Poynings Law remained on the books created in 1494 this effectively allowed the English Parliament to legislate for Ireland and James was unwilling to repeal it 27 Land Settlement despite opposition in the Lords from Protestants and the small number of Catholics who had purchased land since 1660 Parliament refused to approve taxes until James agreed to repeal the 1652 Cromwellian Settlement and Act of Settlement 1662 However it failed to address compensation for estates confiscated prior to 1641 many held by Gaelic landowners particularly those lost after Tyrone s Rebellion in 1603 22 A Bill of Attainder named 2 470 Protestants as traitors subject to confiscation of property and their lives 28 While many viewed this as unwise it was the only way to raise money for the taxes voted by Parliament after defeat it was used to justify a new round of confiscations An Act for Liberty of Conscience allowed freedom of worship and civic and political equality for Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters and repeal of the Oath of Supremacy However it retained the Act of Uniformity while James sought the abolition of penalties against liberty of conscience he viewed the Church of Ireland as an essential element of his support and wanted to retain it despite his own Catholicism 29 Aftermath editAfter their defeat at the Boyne in July 1690 the Jacobites abandoned Dublin and retreated to Limerick while James left Ireland After the October 1691 Treaty of Limerick ended the war all legislation enacted by the Patriot Parliament was declared void by the Parliament of England 30 The 1695 Irish Parliament passed an Act declaring all actions of the late pretended Parliament void and ordered its records destroyed 31 For 19th century Irish nationalists its declaration of autonomy was the most important act of the 1689 Parliament 32 Shortly before his death in 1843 Young Ireland leader Thomas Davis wrote a history of the Parliament which explicitly linked it to the 1798 Rebellion 33 The term Patriot Parliament was first used in 1893 by Irish nationalist historian Sir Charles Gavan Duffy 27 References edit Harris 2006 p 437 a b Moody Martin amp Byrne 2009 p 489 Szechi 1994 p 44 Davis 1843 p 128 Wormsley 2015 p 189 Harris 2006 pp 88 90 Harris 2006 pp 106 108 Stephen 2010 pp 55 58 Miller 2001 p 153 sfn error no target CITEREFMiller2001 help o Ciardha 2000 pp 77 79 Lenihan 2008 p 175 o Ciardha 2000 p 89 Doyle 1997 pp 29 30 Gillen 2016 p 52 sfn error no target CITEREFGillen2016 help Doyle 1997 p 30 McGuire 2004 p Online Slater 2007 p Online sfn error no target CITEREFSlater2007 help Harris 2006 p 445 Moody Martin amp Byrne 2009 p 490 Harris 2006 p 436 Szechi 1994 pp 47 48 a b Harris 2006 p 444 Connolly 2008 pp 186 187 Harris 2006 p 440 Harris 2006 p 439 Simms 1970 p 80 a b Bartlett 2010 p 135 sfn error no target CITEREFBartlett2010 help Firth 1937 pp 212 213 Harris 2006 p 441 Hill 1961 p 256 sfn error no target CITEREFHill1961 help Davis 1843 p 54 Moody Martin amp Byrne 2009 p 491 Sullivan 1979 pp 25 26 Sources editBartlett Thomas Jeffery Keith 1997 A Military History of Ireland Cambridge UP Connolly SJ 2008 Divided Kingdom Ireland 1630 1800 OUP ISBN 978 0199543472 Davis Thomas Osborne 1843 The Irish Parliament of James II University College Cork Doyle Thomas 1997 Jacobitism Catholicism and the Irish Protestant Elite 1700 1710 Eighteenth Century Ireland Iris an Da Chultur 12 28 59 doi 10 3828 eci 1997 4 JSTOR 30071383 S2CID 256147597 Firth CH 1937 Davies Godfrey ed A Commentary on Macaulay s History of England 2008 ed Hesperides Press ISBN 978 1443725637 Harris Tim 2006 Revolution The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy 1685 1720 2007 ed Penguin ISBN 978 0141016528 Hill Christopher 1937 The Century of Revolution 1603 1714 2002 ed Psychology Press ISBN 9780415267397 Lenihan Padraig 2008 Consolidating Conquest Ireland 1603 1727 2016 ed Routledge ISBN 978 1138140639 McGuire James 2004 Nagle Sir Richard Online ed Oxford DNB Miller John 1978 James II A study in kingship 1991 ed Methuen ISBN 978 0413652904 Moody Martin Byrne eds 2009 A New History of Ireland Volume III Early Modern Ireland 1534 1691 OUP ISBN 9780198202424 o Ciardha Eamonn 2000 Ireland and the Jacobite Cause 1685 1766 A Fatal Attachment Four Courts Press ISBN 978 1851825349 Stephen Jeffrey January 2010 Scottish Nationalism and Stuart Unionism Journal of British Studies 49 1 Scottish Special doi 10 1086 644534 S2CID 144730991 Simms JG 1970 Jacobite Ireland 1685 91 Routledge ISBN 978 0710064462 Slater Victor 2004 Fitton Alexander styled Sir Alexander Fitton Jacobite Baron Fitton Online ed Oxford DNB Sullivan Eileen 1979 Thomas Davis Irish Writers Series Bucknell University Press ISBN 978 0838712344 Szechi Daniel 1994 The Jacobites Britain and Europe 1688 1788 Manchester University Press ISBN 9780719037740 Wormsley David 2015 James II The Last Catholic King Allen Lane ISBN 978 0141977065 External links editDavis Thomas Osborne The Irish Parliament of James II CELT University College Cork p 54 Retrieved 18 May 2017 Members of Parliament at Dublin 1689 On line text of The Irish Parliament of James II by TO Davis 1843 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Patriot Parliament amp oldid 1173510708, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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