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Northeast China folk religion

April 04, 2023

Northeast China folk religion[note 1] is the variety of Chinese folk religion of northeast China, characterised by distinctive cults original to Hebei and Shandong, transplanted and adapted by the Han Chinese settlers of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang (the three provinces comprising Manchuria) since the Qing dynasty.[2] It is characterised by terminology, deities and practices that are different from those of central and southern Chinese folk religion. Many of these patterns derive from the interaction of Han religion with Manchu shamanism.[3]

Temple of Guandi in Chaoyang, Liaoning. The martial character of Guandi make him appealing not only for Han Chinese by also for Manchus.[1]

Prominence is given to the worship of zoomorphic deities, of a "totemic" significance.[4][3] In the region the terms shen 神 ("god") and xian 仙 ("immortal being") are synonymous. Figures of ritual specialists or shamans[note 2] perform various ritual functions for groups of believers and local communities, including chūmǎxiān (出馬仙 "riding for the immortals"),[5] dances, healing, exorcism, divination, and communication with ancestors.[6]

History

 
A roadside shrine in Manchuria. (1888)

The formation of northeast China's folk religion and shamanism can be traced back to the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), when a large number of Han Chinese settled in the northeast of China mixing with Manchus.[7] Either in the Qing period, and in the later Republic of China (1912-1949) and subsequent People's Republic, the worship of zoomorphic deities and the practice of chumaxian had bad relationship with the governments,[8] which considered it "feudal superstition" (封建迷信 fēngjiàn míxìn)[9] and banned through different decrees.[10]

The popular worship of animal gods began to resurface in the 1980s, and soon also the chumaxian practice was revived.[11] In the 2010s there have been attempts to protect chumaxian under the policy of "intangible cultural heritage".[12]

Japanese scholarship and Shinto similarities

 
Shinto shrine in Zhangjiakou, Hebei, China, in the 1950s, when it was already abandoned. The shrine was founded by the Japanese during World War II, and incorporated Mongol Genghis Khan worship.

The study of northeast China's folk religion owes much to the scholarly enterprise that the Japanese conducted on the subject during the period of Manchukuo (1932–1945) that they established after they occupied Manchuria.[13] Unlike Japanese-occupied Korea and occupied Taiwan, Manchuria was conceived as an autonomous nation, not to be assimilated into Japan, but rather to be modeled after the latter's social and religious structure keeping an independent identity.[14]

Ōmachi Tokuzo (1909-1970), a pupil of Yanagita Kunio (the founder of academic ethnography in Japan), conducted field research on local religion in Manchuria through the war years.[15] He later acted as the head of the Society for the Study of Manchurian Customs, producing an impressive body of research on local religion in Manchuria and north China.[16] Ōmachi identified the rural village, each with a Tudishen shrine, as the fundamental unit of northeast China's local religion and of the religious character of the Han Chinese race.[17] He also studies local Chinese goddess worship and the great similarity and integration of the Han and the Manchus.[18] Ōmachi does not appear to have supported the institution of Shinto shrines in Manchurian villages, which in Korea and Taiwan were intended for the spiritual transformation of the locals into Japanese citizens by their integration into Shinto communities.[19]

Another scholar, Tokunaga Takeshi, sought to demonstrate the spiritual unity of Japan, Manchuria and China by highlighting the similarities between ancient religious structures of the three nations:[20]

Japanese ancient shrines are of the kannabi (popularly known as Mt. Fuji-style) shape. There are many of these in Manchuria, as well ... [The artifacts] develop from the same agrarian culture and philosophy as Japanese Shinto (kannagara no michi) ... Modern [Chinese] matron temples have these elements, as well. Therefore, since the temples were built later, it is thought that matron worship was grafted onto this earlier pattern of belief.[21]

Other scholars studied the similarities between local and Japanese shamanisms.[20] The Manchukuo generally promoted a racially centered spiritual revival, that is an ethnic religion for each of the races inhabiting Manchuria.[22] For example, under the suggestions of Ogasawara Shozo that the Mongols "need(ed) a new religion, specifically a new god" they promoted the worship of Genghis Khan that continues today in northern China. The Shinto shrine of Kalgan (now Zhangjiakou, Hebei) incorporated Genghis Khan worship and was opened to local Mongols.[23]

Characteristics

 
"Myriad Prosperities' Cauldron" (万福鼎 Wànfú Dǐng), with the name of the "Prosperity God" or "Fortune God" (福星 Fúxīng) inscribed ten thousand times, in Jinzhou, Dalian, Liaoning.

Deities

Main article: Wudaxian

Besides common Chinese deities such as Guāndì (关帝 "Lord Guan", the Marshal God of Loyalty & Justice),[24] people of north China and Manchuria also have distinctive zoomorphic deities,[25] and the worship of clusters of goddesses is popular. The gods are ordained in hierarchies, a pattern inherited from the Chinese Confucian lineage system.[25] Fox deities have a very important position,[26] with evident parallels in the Japanese cult of Inari Ōkami.[27] Usually at the head of the pantheon are placed the "Great Lord of the Three Foxes" (胡三太爷 Húsān Tàiyé) and the "Great Lady of the Three Foxes" (胡三太奶 Húsān Tàinǎi).[28]

The Five Great Immortals (五大仙 Wǔdàxiān) are deities who reproduce cosmological structures of common Chinese theology. The cult generally includes: 1) Húxiān (狐仙;胡仙 "Fox Immortal") or Húshén (狐神 "Fox God"), the most important deity in northeast China;[29] 2) Huángxiān (黃仙 literally "Yellow Immortal") the Weasel God, who holds the position of the Yellow Deity of Chinese theology; 3) Shéxiān (蛇仙 literally "Snake Immortal"), also called Liǔxiān (柳仙 "Immortal Liu") or Mǎngxiān (蟒仙 "Python (or Boa) Immortal"), who can represent the Dragon God, Fuxi and Nüwa; 4) Báixiān (白仙 "White Immortal") is the Hedgehog God; and 5) Hēixiān (黑仙 "Black Immortal") who can be the Wūyāxiān (乌鸦仙 "Crow Immortal") or the Huīxiān (灰仙 "Rat Immortal").

While the Fox God and the Weasel God always remain the two prominent members of the cult of the zoomorphic deities, the other positions vary in some regions including the Tiger, the Wolf, the Hare and the Turtle Gods.[30] Other areas host the worship of the Leopard, the Mole, the Toad and the Rabbit Gods.[3] In certain counties of Hebei they are reduced to four (四大仙 Sìdàxiān) including the Fox, the Weasel, the Hedgehog and the Snake Gods.[30]

Common Chinese deities are associated to the cult of the zoomorphic gods. For instance, Huáng Dàxiān (黄大仙 "Great Yellow Immortal") is popular in north and northeast China, he is totally different from Wong Tai Sin and has no relation to Taoism as in southeastern China,[31] the deity is rather identified as the Weasel God.

Local terminology distinguishes the animal gods as the middle way between the shàngfáng shénxiān (上房神仙 "everlasting gods") gods of the greater cosmos important in Taoism, that are only worshipped and do not take possession of shamans; and the yīnxiān (陰仙 "underworld gods"), deceased beings who became gods through self-cultivation (ancestors and progenitors).[32] In northeastern Taoism, besides the Fox Gods, the pantheon is headed by a goddess, the "Black Mother" (黑媽媽 Hēi māmā).

Shamanism

Northeastern shamans consider themselves to be "disciples" (dìzǐ 弟子) of the gods rather than mere channels of communication between the gods and the human world.[6] Another name used to refer to these ritual masters is xiāngtóu (香頭 "incense heads").[33] Their practice is generally called chumaxian (出马仙), which means "the gods who take action" or more literally "riding for the immortals", a definition which implies that the gods and their disciples act as an organic whole, and in their action, form and content they express themselves together.[9]

There are two types of possession that the northeastern shamans experience in terms of consciousness: quánméng (全蒙 "complete unconsciousness", in which the disciple is not aware of what happens and what the god says) and bànméng (半蒙 "semi-unconsciousness", in which the disciple is aware of what happens during the possession).[34]

They also practise a communication with ancestors through an ecstatic experience called guòyīn (过阴 "passing to the underworld").[35] This is part of the practices of both chumaxian and related communal rites of broader Chinese local religion.[35]

Northeastern Chinese shamanism shares similarities with Southern Chinese mediumship (jitong), Japanese Shinto practices, and various other shamanisms in the region (Tungus and Manchu shamanism, Mongolian shamanism, Korean shamanism, broader Siberian shamanism).[36] Historically it is the result of the encounter of Han Chinese and Manchu cultures, especially the Han cult of the fox[37][38] and Manchu "wild ritual" (wuwate, Chinese: yějì 野祭).[39]

Northeastern Chinese shamans are predominantly women, like the shamans of Northeast Asian shamanism, while Southern Chinese mediums are almost exclusively men.[36] Moreover, while northeastern shamans are usually independent from formal religious institutions, southern medium specialists often collaborate with Taoist priests.[36] Another distinction is that while Southern Chinese mediums can acquire their role through training, and they are possessed mainly by Taoist and strictly Chinese Deities, northeastern shamans are "chosen" or "ordained" by gods themselves (through mo, "sickness")[40] as in other shamanic traditions, and their gods are animal totems.[41] When a future disciple is chosen, she experiences mo ("sickness").[40]

Places of worship and shaman halls

In northeast China terminology for religious places and groups may follow the common Chinese model, with miao (庙) defining any "sacred precinct" dedicated to a god. However, a different terminology exists and temples may be called xiāntáng (仙堂 "hall of the immortals")[6] or tángzi (堂子), the latter name inherited from the temples of the bolongzi (Chinese: jiājì 家祭, "ancestral ritual") of Manchu shamanism.[42] Shamans also hold "immediate halls" of worship (lìtáng 立堂) in their houses.[43]

Folk religious sects

 
Coloured symbol of Shanrendao theory.

Since Chinese Buddhism and professional Taoism were never well developed in northeast China, the religious life of the region has been heavily influenced by networks of folk salvationist sects and Confucian churches, characterised by a congregational structure and a scriptural core.[44] During the Japanese occupation they weren't studied, but their role as a moral catalyser for the Han race was emphasised.[45]

The Yiguandao (一貫道 "Consistent Way") had a strong presence in the area,[45] but were especially the Guiyidao (皈依道 "Way of the Return to the One") and the Shanrendao (善人道 "Way of the Virtuous Man", which social body was known as the Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue) to have millions of followers in Manchuria alone.[46] Shanrendao remains widespread even after the Maoist period and the Cultural Revolution, and headquarters of the Church of the Way and its Virtue have been re-established in Beijing in the 2010s. In more recent decades northeast China has also seen the rise of the Falun Gong, which was founded in the 1990s in Jilin.

During the period of Manchukuo also many Japanese new religions, or independent Shinto sects, proselytised in Manchuria establishing hundreds of congregations. Most of the missions belonged to the Omoto teaching, the Tenri teaching and the Konko teaching of Shinto.[47] The Omoto teaching is the Japanese near equivalent of Guiyidao, as the two religions have common roots and history.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The general description in Chinese language is 東北民間宗教 Dōngběi mínjiān zōngjiào or 東北民間信仰 Dōngběi mínjiān xìnyǎng.
  2. ^ Shamans are variously called:
    • Simply dìzǐ 弟子, "disciples (of the gods)";[4]
    • Dàxiān er 大仙兒, "children of the great gods";
    • Tiào dàshén 跳大神, "dancers of the great gods".[3]

References

Citations

  1. ^ Elliott (2001), p. 239.
  2. ^ Deng (2014), p. 19.
  3. ^ a b c d Liu (2007).
  4. ^ a b Deng (2014), p. 1.
  5. ^ Deng (2014), p. 17.
  6. ^ a b c Deng (2014), p. 2.
  7. ^ Deng (2014), p. 45.
  8. ^ Deng (2014), pp. 45–46.
  9. ^ a b Deng (2014), p. 3.
  10. ^ Deng (2014), pp. 46–49.
  11. ^ Deng (2014), pp. 50–51.
  12. ^ Deng (2014), p. 52.
  13. ^ DuBois (2006), p. 53.
  14. ^ DuBois (2006), pp. 56–57.
  15. ^ DuBois (2006), p. 59.
  16. ^ DuBois (2006), p. 61.
  17. ^ DuBois (2006), pp. 62–63.
  18. ^ DuBois (2006), pp. 63–64.
  19. ^ DuBois (2006), p. 64.
  20. ^ a b DuBois (2006), p. 65.
  21. ^ Okumura, Yoshinobu (1940), Manshu nyannyan ko [Study of Niangniang Temples in Manchuria], Shinkyo (Changchun), pp. 242–245.
  22. ^ DuBois (2006), p. 68.
  23. ^ DuBois (2006), p. 69.
  24. ^ Kang (2006), p. 49.
  25. ^ a b Deng (2014), p. 22.
  26. ^ Deng (2014), p. 21.
  27. ^ Kang (2006), pp. 199–200.
  28. ^ Deng (2014), p. 75.
  29. ^ Kang (2006), pp. 45–50.
  30. ^ a b Kang (2006), p. 48.
  31. ^ Wang (2013).
  32. ^ Deng (2014), p. 29.
  33. ^ Li (2011).
  34. ^ Deng (2014), p. 32.
  35. ^ a b Deng (2014), p. 8.
  36. ^ a b c Deng (2014), p. 13.
  37. ^ Kang (2006).
  38. ^ Huntington (2013).
  39. ^ Deng (2014), pp. 13–18.
  40. ^ a b Deng (2014), p. 23.
  41. ^ Deng (2014), p. 14.
  42. ^ Deng (2014), p. 20.
  43. ^ Deng (2014), p. 27.
  44. ^ DuBois (2006), p. 70.
  45. ^ a b DuBois (2006), p. 72.
  46. ^ Ownby (2008). § 23: "... the Daodehui eight million in Manchukuo alone (a quarter of the total population) in 1936-1937."
  47. ^ Stalker, Nancy K. (2008). Prophet Motive: Deguchi Onisaburō, Oomoto, and the Rise of New Religions in Imperial Japan. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0824832261. p. 164.

Sources

  • Deng, Claire Qiuju (2014). (Master in East Asian Studies). Montreal: McGill University, Department of East Asian Studies. Archived from the original on 16 January 2018.
  • DuBois, Thomas David (2005). The Sacred Village: Social Change and Religious Life in Rural North China (PDF). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824828372.
  • DuBois, Thomas David (2006). "Local Religion and the Imperial Imaginary: The Development of Japanese Ethnography in Occupied Manchuria". American Historical Review. Oxford University Press. 111 (1): 52–74. doi:10.1086/ahr.111.1.52.
  • Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Religious Studies in Contemporary China Collection. Vol. 1. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804746842.
  • Huntington, Rania (2003). Alien Kind: Foxes and Late Imperial Chinese Narrative. Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 0674010949.
  • Kang, Xiaofei (2006). The Cult of the Fox: Power, Gender, and Popular Religion in Late Imperial and Modern China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231508220.
  • Li, Weizu (2011), 四大門 [The Four Grate Gates], Peking University Press.
  • Liu, Zhengai (2007). 东北地区地仙信仰的人类学研究 [Anthropological Study of Dixian Belief in Northeast China]. Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities (Philosophy and Social Science Edition). 29: 15–20.
  • Ownby, David (October–December 2008). "Sect and Secularism in Reading the Modern Chinese Religious Experience". Bulletin Bibliographique, Archives de sciences sociales des religions. EHESS éditions (144). doi:10.4000/assr.17633.
  • Wang, Xue (2013). 东北农村地区黄仙信仰的人类学研究 [Anthropological Study of Huangxian Belief in Northeast China] (Thesis). Jilin University.


April 04, 2023
northeast, china, folk, religion, note, variety, chinese, folk, religion, northeast, china, characterised, distinctive, cults, original, hebei, shandong, transplanted, adapted, chinese, settlers, liaoning, jilin, heilongjiang, three, provinces, comprising, man. Northeast China folk religion note 1 is the variety of Chinese folk religion of northeast China characterised by distinctive cults original to Hebei and Shandong transplanted and adapted by the Han Chinese settlers of Liaoning Jilin and Heilongjiang the three provinces comprising Manchuria since the Qing dynasty 2 It is characterised by terminology deities and practices that are different from those of central and southern Chinese folk religion Many of these patterns derive from the interaction of Han religion with Manchu shamanism 3 Temple of Guandi in Chaoyang Liaoning The martial character of Guandi make him appealing not only for Han Chinese by also for Manchus 1 Prominence is given to the worship of zoomorphic deities of a totemic significance 4 3 In the region the terms shen 神 god and xian 仙 immortal being are synonymous Figures of ritual specialists or shamans note 2 perform various ritual functions for groups of believers and local communities including chumǎxian 出馬仙 riding for the immortals 5 dances healing exorcism divination and communication with ancestors 6 Contents 1 History 1 1 Japanese scholarship and Shinto similarities 2 Characteristics 2 1 Deities 2 2 Shamanism 2 3 Places of worship and shaman halls 2 4 Folk religious sects 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 5 1 Citations 5 2 SourcesHistory Edit A roadside shrine in Manchuria 1888 The formation of northeast China s folk religion and shamanism can be traced back to the Qing dynasty 1644 1911 when a large number of Han Chinese settled in the northeast of China mixing with Manchus 7 Either in the Qing period and in the later Republic of China 1912 1949 and subsequent People s Republic the worship of zoomorphic deities and the practice of chumaxian had bad relationship with the governments 8 which considered it feudal superstition 封建迷信 fengjian mixin 9 and banned through different decrees 10 The popular worship of animal gods began to resurface in the 1980s and soon also the chumaxian practice was revived 11 In the 2010s there have been attempts to protect chumaxian under the policy of intangible cultural heritage 12 Japanese scholarship and Shinto similarities Edit Shinto shrine in Zhangjiakou Hebei China in the 1950s when it was already abandoned The shrine was founded by the Japanese during World War II and incorporated Mongol Genghis Khan worship The study of northeast China s folk religion owes much to the scholarly enterprise that the Japanese conducted on the subject during the period of Manchukuo 1932 1945 that they established after they occupied Manchuria 13 Unlike Japanese occupied Korea and occupied Taiwan Manchuria was conceived as an autonomous nation not to be assimilated into Japan but rather to be modeled after the latter s social and religious structure keeping an independent identity 14 Ōmachi Tokuzo 1909 1970 a pupil of Yanagita Kunio the founder of academic ethnography in Japan conducted field research on local religion in Manchuria through the war years 15 He later acted as the head of the Society for the Study of Manchurian Customs producing an impressive body of research on local religion in Manchuria and north China 16 Ōmachi identified the rural village each with a Tudishen shrine as the fundamental unit of northeast China s local religion and of the religious character of the Han Chinese race 17 He also studies local Chinese goddess worship and the great similarity and integration of the Han and the Manchus 18 Ōmachi does not appear to have supported the institution of Shinto shrines in Manchurian villages which in Korea and Taiwan were intended for the spiritual transformation of the locals into Japanese citizens by their integration into Shinto communities 19 Another scholar Tokunaga Takeshi sought to demonstrate the spiritual unity of Japan Manchuria and China by highlighting the similarities between ancient religious structures of the three nations 20 Japanese ancient shrines are of the kannabi popularly known as Mt Fuji style shape There are many of these in Manchuria as well The artifacts develop from the same agrarian culture and philosophy as Japanese Shinto kannagara no michi Modern Chinese matron temples have these elements as well Therefore since the temples were built later it is thought that matron worship was grafted onto this earlier pattern of belief 21 Other scholars studied the similarities between local and Japanese shamanisms 20 The Manchukuo generally promoted a racially centered spiritual revival that is an ethnic religion for each of the races inhabiting Manchuria 22 For example under the suggestions of Ogasawara Shozo that the Mongols need ed a new religion specifically a new god they promoted the worship of Genghis Khan that continues today in northern China The Shinto shrine of Kalgan now Zhangjiakou Hebei incorporated Genghis Khan worship and was opened to local Mongols 23 Characteristics Edit Myriad Prosperities Cauldron 万福鼎 Wanfu Dǐng with the name of the Prosperity God or Fortune God 福星 Fuxing inscribed ten thousand times in Jinzhou Dalian Liaoning Deities Edit Main article Wudaxian Besides common Chinese deities such as Guandi 关帝 Lord Guan the Marshal God of Loyalty amp Justice 24 people of north China and Manchuria also have distinctive zoomorphic deities 25 and the worship of clusters of goddesses is popular The gods are ordained in hierarchies a pattern inherited from the Chinese Confucian lineage system 25 Fox deities have a very important position 26 with evident parallels in the Japanese cult of Inari Ōkami 27 Usually at the head of the pantheon are placed the Great Lord of the Three Foxes 胡三太爷 Husan Taiye and the Great Lady of the Three Foxes 胡三太奶 Husan Tainǎi 28 The Five Great Immortals 五大仙 Wǔdaxian are deities who reproduce cosmological structures of common Chinese theology The cult generally includes 1 Huxian 狐仙 胡仙 Fox Immortal or Hushen 狐神 Fox God the most important deity in northeast China 29 2 Huangxian 黃仙 literally Yellow Immortal the Weasel God who holds the position of the Yellow Deity of Chinese theology 3 Shexian 蛇仙 literally Snake Immortal also called Liǔxian 柳仙 Immortal Liu or Mǎngxian 蟒仙 Python or Boa Immortal who can represent the Dragon God Fuxi and Nuwa 4 Baixian 白仙 White Immortal is the Hedgehog God and 5 Heixian 黑仙 Black Immortal who can be the Wuyaxian 乌鸦仙 Crow Immortal or the Huixian 灰仙 Rat Immortal While the Fox God and the Weasel God always remain the two prominent members of the cult of the zoomorphic deities the other positions vary in some regions including the Tiger the Wolf the Hare and the Turtle Gods 30 Other areas host the worship of the Leopard the Mole the Toad and the Rabbit Gods 3 In certain counties of Hebei they are reduced to four 四大仙 Sidaxian including the Fox the Weasel the Hedgehog and the Snake Gods 30 Common Chinese deities are associated to the cult of the zoomorphic gods For instance Huang Daxian 黄大仙 Great Yellow Immortal is popular in north and northeast China he is totally different from Wong Tai Sin and has no relation to Taoism as in southeastern China 31 the deity is rather identified as the Weasel God Local terminology distinguishes the animal gods as the middle way between the shangfang shenxian 上房神仙 everlasting gods gods of the greater cosmos important in Taoism that are only worshipped and do not take possession of shamans and the yinxian 陰仙 underworld gods deceased beings who became gods through self cultivation ancestors and progenitors 32 In northeastern Taoism besides the Fox Gods the pantheon is headed by a goddess the Black Mother 黑媽媽 Hei mama Shamanism Edit Northeastern shamans consider themselves to be disciples dizǐ 弟子 of the gods rather than mere channels of communication between the gods and the human world 6 Another name used to refer to these ritual masters is xiangtou 香頭 incense heads 33 Their practice is generally called chumaxian 出马仙 which means the gods who take action or more literally riding for the immortals a definition which implies that the gods and their disciples act as an organic whole and in their action form and content they express themselves together 9 There are two types of possession that the northeastern shamans experience in terms of consciousness quanmeng 全蒙 complete unconsciousness in which the disciple is not aware of what happens and what the god says and banmeng 半蒙 semi unconsciousness in which the disciple is aware of what happens during the possession 34 They also practise a communication with ancestors through an ecstatic experience called guoyin 过阴 passing to the underworld 35 This is part of the practices of both chumaxian and related communal rites of broader Chinese local religion 35 Northeastern Chinese shamanism shares similarities with Southern Chinese mediumship jitong Japanese Shinto practices and various other shamanisms in the region Tungus and Manchu shamanism Mongolian shamanism Korean shamanism broader Siberian shamanism 36 Historically it is the result of the encounter of Han Chinese and Manchu cultures especially the Han cult of the fox 37 38 and Manchu wild ritual wuwate Chinese yeji 野祭 39 Northeastern Chinese shamans are predominantly women like the shamans of Northeast Asian shamanism while Southern Chinese mediums are almost exclusively men 36 Moreover while northeastern shamans are usually independent from formal religious institutions southern medium specialists often collaborate with Taoist priests 36 Another distinction is that while Southern Chinese mediums can acquire their role through training and they are possessed mainly by Taoist and strictly Chinese Deities northeastern shamans are chosen or ordained by gods themselves through mo sickness 40 as in other shamanic traditions and their gods are animal totems 41 When a future disciple is chosen she experiences mo sickness 40 Places of worship and shaman halls Edit In northeast China terminology for religious places and groups may follow the common Chinese model with miao 庙 defining any sacred precinct dedicated to a god However a different terminology exists and temples may be called xiantang 仙堂 hall of the immortals 6 or tangzi 堂子 the latter name inherited from the temples of the bolongzi Chinese jiaji 家祭 ancestral ritual of Manchu shamanism 42 Shamans also hold immediate halls of worship litang 立堂 in their houses 43 Folk religious sects Edit Coloured symbol of Shanrendao theory Since Chinese Buddhism and professional Taoism were never well developed in northeast China the religious life of the region has been heavily influenced by networks of folk salvationist sects and Confucian churches characterised by a congregational structure and a scriptural core 44 During the Japanese occupation they weren t studied but their role as a moral catalyser for the Han race was emphasised 45 The Yiguandao 一貫道 Consistent Way had a strong presence in the area 45 but were especially the Guiyidao 皈依道 Way of the Return to the One and the Shanrendao 善人道 Way of the Virtuous Man which social body was known as the Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue to have millions of followers in Manchuria alone 46 Shanrendao remains widespread even after the Maoist period and the Cultural Revolution and headquarters of the Church of the Way and its Virtue have been re established in Beijing in the 2010s In more recent decades northeast China has also seen the rise of the Falun Gong which was founded in the 1990s in Jilin During the period of Manchukuo also many Japanese new religions or independent Shinto sects proselytised in Manchuria establishing hundreds of congregations Most of the missions belonged to the Omoto teaching the Tenri teaching and the Konko teaching of Shinto 47 The Omoto teaching is the Japanese near equivalent of Guiyidao as the two religions have common roots and history See also EditChinese ancestral worship Chinese Buddhism Chinese folk religion Chinese salvationist religions Manchu shamanism Chinese spiritual world concepts Shen Chinese religion Shinto TaoismNotes Edit The general description in Chinese language is 東北民間宗教 Dōngbei minjian zōngjiao or 東北民間信仰 Dōngbei minjian xinyǎng Shamans are variously called Simply dizǐ 弟子 disciples of the gods 4 Daxian er 大仙兒 children of the great gods Tiao dashen 跳大神 dancers of the great gods 3 References EditCitations Edit Elliott 2001 p 239 Deng 2014 p 19 a b c d Liu 2007 a b Deng 2014 p 1 Deng 2014 p 17 a b c Deng 2014 p 2 Deng 2014 p 45 Deng 2014 pp 45 46 a b Deng 2014 p 3 Deng 2014 pp 46 49 Deng 2014 pp 50 51 Deng 2014 p 52 DuBois 2006 p 53 DuBois 2006 pp 56 57 DuBois 2006 p 59 DuBois 2006 p 61 DuBois 2006 pp 62 63 DuBois 2006 pp 63 64 DuBois 2006 p 64 a b DuBois 2006 p 65 Okumura Yoshinobu 1940 Manshu nyannyan ko Study of Niangniang Temples in Manchuria Shinkyo Changchun pp 242 245 DuBois 2006 p 68 DuBois 2006 p 69 Kang 2006 p 49 a b Deng 2014 p 22 Deng 2014 p 21 Kang 2006 pp 199 200 Deng 2014 p 75 Kang 2006 pp 45 50 a b Kang 2006 p 48 Wang 2013 Deng 2014 p 29 Li 2011 Deng 2014 p 32 a b Deng 2014 p 8 a b c Deng 2014 p 13 Kang 2006 Huntington 2013 sfnp error no target CITEREFHuntington2013 help Deng 2014 pp 13 18 a b Deng 2014 p 23 Deng 2014 p 14 Deng 2014 p 20 Deng 2014 p 27 DuBois 2006 p 70 a b DuBois 2006 p 72 Ownby 2008 23 the Daodehui eight million in Manchukuo alone a quarter of the total population in 1936 1937 Stalker Nancy K 2008 Prophet Motive Deguchi Onisaburō Oomoto and the Rise of New Religions in Imperial Japan University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0824832261 p 164 Sources Edit Deng Claire Qiuju 2014 Action Taking Gods Animal Spirit Shamanism in Liaoning China Master in East Asian Studies Montreal McGill University Department of East Asian Studies Archived from the original on 16 January 2018 DuBois Thomas David 2005 The Sacred Village Social Change and Religious Life in Rural North China PDF University of Hawaii Press ISBN 0824828372 DuBois Thomas David 2006 Local Religion and the Imperial Imaginary The Development of Japanese Ethnography in Occupied Manchuria American Historical Review Oxford University Press 111 1 52 74 doi 10 1086 ahr 111 1 52 Elliott Mark C 2001 The Manchu Way The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China Religious Studies in Contemporary China Collection Vol 1 Stanford University Press ISBN 0804746842 Huntington Rania 2003 Alien Kind Foxes and Late Imperial Chinese Narrative Harvard University Asia Center ISBN 0674010949 Kang Xiaofei 2006 The Cult of the Fox Power Gender and Popular Religion in Late Imperial and Modern China Columbia University Press ISBN 0231508220 Li Weizu 2011 四大門 The Four Grate Gates Peking University Press Liu Zhengai 2007 东北地区地仙信仰的人类学研究 Anthropological Study of Dixian Belief in Northeast China Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities Philosophy and Social Science Edition 29 15 20 Ownby David October December 2008 Sect and Secularism in Reading the Modern Chinese Religious Experience Bulletin Bibliographique Archives de sciences sociales des religions EHESS editions 144 doi 10 4000 assr 17633 Wang Xue 2013 东北农村地区黄仙信仰的人类学研究 Anthropological Study of Huangxian Belief in Northeast China Thesis Jilin University Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Northeast China folk religion amp oldid 1147175954, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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