The Java spitting cobra is a medium to large sized snake and has long cervical ribs, capable of expanding to form a hood when threatened. The body of this species is compressed dorsoventrally and posteriorly cylindrical. The average length of an adult is 1.3 metres (4.3 ft), but they can grow to a maximum of around 1.85 metres (6.1 ft). The head is elliptical, slightly different from the neck with a short rounded snout and large nostrils. Its eyes are of moderate size, with round pupils. The dorsal scales are smooth and very oblique. Dorsal scale count is usually 25–19.[6] Some colouration and pattern differences occur between Javan specimens and those from the other islands where this species occurs. Javan adults are usually uniform yellowish, brown or blackish in colour, while juveniles often have throat bands and lateral throat spots. Specimens do not always have hood marks, but when there is a mark, it is most often chevron-shaped.[7]
Distribution
This species of cobra is native to the Indonesian islands of Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, Lomblen, and Alor. They may possibly occur in the other islands in the group. One was found on Rinca Island on 26 December 2015. Verification is still required as to whether or not this species of cobra also occurs in the islands of Timor and Sulawesi. Although a single specimen was observed in the island of Sulawesi, it is thought that the specimen may have originated from the island of Java, as it was indistinguishable from Javan specimens.[8][9] Scientist De Hass did research on this species in two districts of western Java: in Nandjoeng Djaja, where it was relatively uncommon and in Bandjarwangi, where the altitude is 900 metres (3,000 ft) it was not recorded. A 1998 study by FB Yuwono found the species was abundant in Java. Dunn (1927b) reported specimens taken on Komodo from sea level to 650 metres (2,130 ft), the highest altitude this species has been found at.[10]
Habitat, behaviour and ecology
The Javan spitting cobra is found mostly in tropical forests and wet forest, but the species adapts well to a wide variety of habitats across its range on the islands, including more arid regions,[6] dry woodlands, and cultivated hill country.[8] In the island of Komodo, it has been observed in a variety of habitats including dry savanna and deciduous monsoon forest. It has also been reported that specimens in the island of Komodo are reluctant to spit, but field observations suggest the opposite. This species is easy prey for the Komodo dragon.[8] Naja sputatrix is very defensive and readily spits out venom when it feels threatened. It is a terrestrial snake that's nocturnal in nature. It preys predominantly on small mammals such as small rats and mice, but it will also feed on frogs, other snakes,[6] and lizards. Herpetologist Shine Boeadi, in a study published in 1998, measured and dissected 80 Javan specimens of this species and found that most prey items were mammals.[11]
Reproduction
Mating occurs during the dry season (August to October). Females often lay eggs at the end of the dry season in November or the very beginning of the wet season. As many as 13 to 19 eggs may be laid in a clutch,[8] the average is about 16 eggs. Javan females may produce and lay up to 36 eggs, but on average only 25 eggs are produced. The incubation period is about 88 days according to Kopstein.[12] Like other elapids, hatchlings are completely independent from birth.
Conservation Status
This species is listed as Appendix II by CITES meaning this species is not threatened with extinction, but may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with the survival of the species in the wild. They are commonly harvested for their skins. They are also occasionally found in the pet trade.[13]
Venom
The LD50 or (median lethal dose) of the crude venom of this species is 0.90 mg/kg IV (0.59-1.36 mg/kg).[14] The most significant constituents of the venom include high-molecular-weight proteins and enzymes, phospholipase A2 enzymes, postsynaptic neurotoxins and polypeptide cardiotoxins, meaning although the venom may be potent, it may not be particularly rapid-acting.[15] Like all cobra species, this species' venom also consists of postsynaptic neurotoxins.[6] However, the main components of its venom are cardiotoxins with cytotoxic activity.[15] In fact, polypeptide cardiotoxins make up 60% of the venom (dry weight), while postsynaptic neurotoxins make up only 4.5%. The two main neurotoxins, sputa-neurotoxin 1 (SN1) and sputa-neurotoxin 2 (SN2) isolated from the venom, are "short" neurotoxins, with 62 and 61 amino acid residues, respectively. The IV LD50 of the two toxins are 0.09 mg/g and 0.07 mg/g, respectively, and they possess amino acid sequences similar to those of other cobra venom neurotoxins. The venom was also found to exhibit an in vitro anticoagulant activity much stronger than most common cobra (genus Naja) venoms. The anticoagulants, phospholipase A2 enzymes, with a molecular weight of approximately 14 kDa, make up 15% of the venom (dry weight). Very few human fatalities are attributed to this species.[8]
References
^Iskandar, D.; Auliya, M.; Inger, R.F.; Lilley, R. (2012). "Naja sputatrix". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012: e.T192197A2054180. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T192197A2054180.en. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
^"Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
^"Naja sputatrix ". ITIS Standard Report Page. ITIS.gov. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
^ abcSpecies Naja sputatrix at The Reptile Database www.reptile-database.org
^Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN978-1-4214-0135-5. ("Boie", p. 31).
^ abcd"Naja sputatrix - General details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical effects, First Aid/Treatment, and Antivenom". Clinical Toxinology Resource. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
^Wüster, Wolfgang (1993). "A Century of Confusion: Asiatic cobras revisited". Vivarium. 4 (4): 14–18.
^ abcdeO'Shea, Mark (2 October 2005). Venomous Snakes of the World (1st ed.). United Kingdom: New Holland and Princeton University Press. p. 94. ISBN978-0-691-12436-0. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
^Wüster, Wolfgang (1996). "Taxonomic changes and toxinology: systematic revisions of the Asiatic cobras (Naja naja species complex)". Toxicon. 34 (4): 366–406. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(95)00139-5. PMID 8735239. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
^Auffenberg W (1980). "The herpetofauna of Komodo, with notes on adjacent areas" (PDF). Bulletin of the Florida State Museum. 25 (2): 36–156. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
^Boeadi B, Shine R, Sugardijto J, Amir M, Sinaga MH (1998). (PDF). Mertensiella. 9: 99–14. S2CID 37229739. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2019.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^(PDF). CITES. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
^Leong PK, Sim SM, Fung SY, Sumana K, Sitprija V, Tan NH (5 June 2012). "Cross Neutralization of Afro-Asian Cobra and Asian Krait Venoms by a Thai Polyvalent Snake Antivenom (Neuro Polyvalent Snake Antivenom)". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 6 (6): e1672. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001672. PMC3367981. PMID 22679522.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ abDonghui MA, Arunmozhiarasi A, Kandiah J (15 August 2002). "Cytotoxic potency of cardiotoxin from Naja sputatrix: development of a new cytolytic assay". Biochemical Journal. 366 (1): 35–43. doi:10.1042/BJ20020437. PMC1222773. PMID 12027804.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Further reading
Boie, Friedrich (1827). "Bemerkungen über Merrem's Versuch eines Systems der Amphibien. 1te Lieferung : Ophidier ". Isis von Oken20: 508–566. (Naja sputatrix, new species, p. 557). (in German and Latin).
January 07, 2023
javan, spitting, cobra, naja, sputatrix, also, called, indonesian, cobra, species, cobra, family, elapidae, found, lesser, sunda, islands, indonesia, including, java, bali, lombok, sumbawa, flores, komodo, others, conservation, statusleast, concern, iucn, cite. The Javan spitting cobra Naja sputatrix also called Indonesian cobra is a species of cobra in the family Elapidae found in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia including Java Bali Lombok Sumbawa Flores Komodo and others 4 Javan spitting cobraConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 1 CITES Appendix II CITES 2 Scientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass ReptiliaOrder SquamataSuborder SerpentesFamily ElapidaeGenus NajaSpecies N sputatrixBinomial nameNaja sputatrixF Boie 1827 3 4 Distribution of the Javan spitting cobra Synonyms 4 Naja sputatrixF Boie 1827 Naja leptocoryphaeaBerthold 1842 Naja tripudians var sputatrix Boulenger 1896 Naia naja sputatrix Stejneger 1907 Naja tripudians sputatrix de Rooij 1917 Naja naja sputatrix Kopstein 1938 Naja kaouthia sputatrix part Deraniyagala 1960 Naja naja sputatrix Harding amp Welch 1980 Naja sputatrix Wuster amp Thorpe 1989 Naja sputatrix Welch 1994 Naja Naja sputatrix Wallach et al 2009 Naja sputatrix Wallach et al 2014 Contents 1 Etymology and names 2 Description 3 Distribution 4 Habitat behaviour and ecology 5 Reproduction 6 Conservation Status 7 Venom 8 References 9 Further readingEtymology and names EditNaja sputatrix is classified under the genus Naja of the family Elapidae It was first described by German entomologist herpetologist ornithologist and lawyer Friedrich Boie in 1827 5 The generic name Naja is a Latinisation of the Sanskrit word naga न ग meaning cobra The specific epithet sputatrix comes from the Latin word sputator which means spitter Description EditThe Java spitting cobra is a medium to large sized snake and has long cervical ribs capable of expanding to form a hood when threatened The body of this species is compressed dorsoventrally and posteriorly cylindrical The average length of an adult is 1 3 metres 4 3 ft but they can grow to a maximum of around 1 85 metres 6 1 ft The head is elliptical slightly different from the neck with a short rounded snout and large nostrils Its eyes are of moderate size with round pupils The dorsal scales are smooth and very oblique Dorsal scale count is usually 25 19 6 Some colouration and pattern differences occur between Javan specimens and those from the other islands where this species occurs Javan adults are usually uniform yellowish brown or blackish in colour while juveniles often have throat bands and lateral throat spots Specimens do not always have hood marks but when there is a mark it is most often chevron shaped 7 Distribution EditThis species of cobra is native to the Indonesian islands of Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands of Bali Lombok Sumbawa Komodo Flores Lomblen and Alor They may possibly occur in the other islands in the group One was found on Rinca Island on 26 December 2015 Verification is still required as to whether or not this species of cobra also occurs in the islands of Timor and Sulawesi Although a single specimen was observed in the island of Sulawesi it is thought that the specimen may have originated from the island of Java as it was indistinguishable from Javan specimens 8 9 Scientist De Hass did research on this species in two districts of western Java in Nandjoeng Djaja where it was relatively uncommon and in Bandjarwangi where the altitude is 900 metres 3 000 ft it was not recorded A 1998 study by FB Yuwono found the species was abundant in Java Dunn 1927b reported specimens taken on Komodo from sea level to 650 metres 2 130 ft the highest altitude this species has been found at 10 Habitat behaviour and ecology EditThe Javan spitting cobra is found mostly in tropical forests and wet forest but the species adapts well to a wide variety of habitats across its range on the islands including more arid regions 6 dry woodlands and cultivated hill country 8 In the island of Komodo it has been observed in a variety of habitats including dry savanna and deciduous monsoon forest It has also been reported that specimens in the island of Komodo are reluctant to spit but field observations suggest the opposite This species is easy prey for the Komodo dragon 8 Naja sputatrix is very defensive and readily spits out venom when it feels threatened It is a terrestrial snake that s nocturnal in nature It preys predominantly on small mammals such as small rats and mice but it will also feed on frogs other snakes 6 and lizards Herpetologist Shine Boeadi in a study published in 1998 measured and dissected 80 Javan specimens of this species and found that most prey items were mammals 11 Reproduction EditMating occurs during the dry season August to October Females often lay eggs at the end of the dry season in November or the very beginning of the wet season As many as 13 to 19 eggs may be laid in a clutch 8 the average is about 16 eggs Javan females may produce and lay up to 36 eggs but on average only 25 eggs are produced The incubation period is about 88 days according to Kopstein 12 Like other elapids hatchlings are completely independent from birth Conservation Status EditThis species is listed as Appendix II by CITES meaning this species is not threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with the survival of the species in the wild They are commonly harvested for their skins They are also occasionally found in the pet trade 13 Venom EditThe LD50 or median lethal dose of the crude venom of this species is 0 90 mg kg IV 0 59 1 36 mg kg 14 The most significant constituents of the venom include high molecular weight proteins and enzymes phospholipase A2 enzymes postsynaptic neurotoxins and polypeptide cardiotoxins meaning although the venom may be potent it may not be particularly rapid acting 15 Like all cobra species this species venom also consists of postsynaptic neurotoxins 6 However the main components of its venom are cardiotoxins with cytotoxic activity 15 In fact polypeptide cardiotoxins make up 60 of the venom dry weight while postsynaptic neurotoxins make up only 4 5 The two main neurotoxins sputa neurotoxin 1 SN1 and sputa neurotoxin 2 SN2 isolated from the venom are short neurotoxins with 62 and 61 amino acid residues respectively The IV LD50 of the two toxins are 0 09 mg g and 0 07 mg g respectively and they possess amino acid sequences similar to those of other cobra venom neurotoxins The venom was also found to exhibit an in vitro anticoagulant activity much stronger than most common cobra genus Naja venoms The anticoagulants phospholipase A2 enzymes with a molecular weight of approximately 14 kDa make up 15 of the venom dry weight Very few human fatalities are attributed to this species 8 References Edit Iskandar D Auliya M Inger R F Lilley R 2012 Naja sputatrix IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2012 e T192197A2054180 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2012 1 RLTS T192197A2054180 en Retrieved 6 March 2022 Appendices CITES cites org Retrieved 14 January 2022 Naja sputatrix ITIS Standard Report Page ITIS gov Retrieved 21 March 2020 a b c Species Naja sputatrix at The Reptile Database www reptile database org Beolens Bo Watkins Michael Grayson Michael 2011 The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles Baltimore Johns Hopkins University Press xiii 296 pp ISBN 978 1 4214 0135 5 Boie p 31 a b c d Naja sputatrix General details Taxonomy and Biology Venom Clinical effects First Aid Treatment and Antivenom Clinical Toxinology Resource University of Adelaide Retrieved 1 April 2020 Wuster Wolfgang 1993 A Century of Confusion Asiatic cobras revisited Vivarium 4 4 14 18 a b c d e O Shea Mark 2 October 2005 Venomous Snakes of the World 1st ed United Kingdom New Holland and Princeton University Press p 94 ISBN 978 0 691 12436 0 Retrieved 1 April 2020 Wuster Wolfgang 1996 Taxonomic changes and toxinology systematic revisions of the Asiatic cobras Naja naja species complex Toxicon 34 4 366 406 doi 10 1016 0041 0101 95 00139 5 PMID 8735239 Retrieved 1 April 2020 Auffenberg W 1980 The herpetofauna of Komodo with notes on adjacent areas PDF Bulletin of the Florida State Museum 25 2 36 156 Retrieved 1 April 2020 Boeadi B Shine R Sugardijto J Amir M Sinaga MH 1998 Biology of the Commercially Harvested Rat Snake Ptyas mucosus and Cobra Naja sputatrix in Central Java PDF Mertensiella 9 99 14 S2CID 37229739 Archived from the original PDF on 7 March 2019 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora PDF CITES Archived from the original PDF on 24 December 2010 Retrieved 1 April 2020 Naja sputatrix CITES Retrieved 1 April 2020 Leong PK Sim SM Fung SY Sumana K Sitprija V Tan NH 5 June 2012 Cross Neutralization of Afro Asian Cobra and Asian Krait Venoms by a Thai Polyvalent Snake Antivenom Neuro Polyvalent Snake Antivenom PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6 6 e1672 doi 10 1371 journal pntd 0001672 PMC 3367981 PMID 22679522 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Donghui MA Arunmozhiarasi A Kandiah J 15 August 2002 Cytotoxic potency of cardiotoxin from Naja sputatrix development of a new cytolytic assay Biochemical Journal 366 1 35 43 doi 10 1042 BJ20020437 PMC 1222773 PMID 12027804 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Further reading EditBoie Friedrich 1827 Bemerkungen uber Merrem s Versuch eines Systems der Amphibien 1te Lieferung Ophidier Isis von Oken 20 508 566 Naja sputatrix new species p 557 in German and Latin Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Javan spitting cobra amp oldid 1112363256, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
