Mixtec

For the language group, see Mixtec languages.

The Mixtecs (/ˈmiːstɛks, ˈmiːʃtɛks/),^[3] or Mixtecos, are indigenous Mesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as La Mixteca of Oaxaca and Puebla as well as La Montaña Region and Costa Chica Regions of the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec culture was the main Mixtec civilization, which lasted from around 1500 BC until being conquered by the Spanish in 1523.

Mixtec
Ñuù savi

Mixtec king and warlord Eight Deer Jaguar Claw (right) Meeting with Four Jaguar, in a depiction from the pre-Columbian Codex Zouche-Nuttall.
Total population
Approximately 830,000^[1]^[2]
Regions with significant populations
Mexico ( Oaxaca, Puebla,  Guerrero,  Chiapas)
Languages
Mixtec, Spanish
Religion
Roman Catholicism with elements of traditional beliefs
Related ethnic groups
Zapotecs, Trique

People	Mixtec ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi
Language	Mixtec sa'an davi, da'an davi, tu'un savi,..
Country	Mixteca Ñuu Savi, Ñuu Djau, Ñuu Davi,..

Turquoise mosaic mask. Mixtec-Aztec, 1400–1521 AD

The Mixtec region is generally divided into three subregions based on geography: the Mixteca Alta (Upper Mixtec or Ñuu Savi Sukun), the Mixteca Baja (Lower Mixtec or Ñuu I'ni), and the Mixteca Costa (Coastal Mixtec or Ñuu Andivi). The Alta is drier with higher elevations, while the Baja is lower in elevation, hot but dry, and the Coasta is also low in elevation but much more humid and tropical. The Alta has seen the most study by archaeologists, with evidence for human settlement going back to the Archaic and Early Formative periods.^[4] The first urbanized sites emerged here. Long considered to be part of the larger Mixteca region, groups living in the Baja were probably more culturally related to neighboring peoples in Eastern Guerrero than they were to the Mixtecs of the Alta.^[5] They even had their own hieroglyphic writing system called ñuiñe.^[6] The Costa only came under control of the Mixtecs during the military campaigns of the Mixtec cultural hero Eight Deer Jaguar Claw. Originally from Tilantongo in the Alta, Eight Deer and his armies conquered several major and minor kingdoms on their way to the coast, establishing the capital of Tututepec in the Lower Río Verde valley. Previously, the Costa had been primarily occupied by the Chatinos.

In pre-Columbian times, some Mixtec kingdoms competed and allied with each other and with Zapotec kingdoms in the Central Valleys. Like the rest of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtecs were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbian Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million.^[7] Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States. The Mixtec languages form a major branch of the Oto-Manguean language family.

Nomenclature and etymology

The term Mixtec (Mixteco in Spanish) comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah [miʃˈtekaʔ], "cloud people". There are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves: ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi.^{[pronunciation?]} etc. All these denominations can be translated as 'the land of the rain'.^[8] The historic homeland of Mixtec people is La Mixteca, called in Mixtec language Ñuu Savi,^{[pronunciation?]} Ñuu Djau,^{[pronunciation?]} Ñuu Davi,^{[pronunciation?]} etc., depending on the local variant. They call their language sa'an davi,^{[pronunciation?]} da'an davi^{[pronunciation?]} or tu'un savi.^{[pronunciation?]}

Overview

 

Plate 37 of the Codex Vindobonensis. The central scene supposedly depicts the origin of the Mixtecs as a people whose ancestors sprang from a tree.

In pre-Columbian times, the Mixtec were one of the major civilizations of Mesoamerica. Important ancient centers of the Mixtec include the ancient capital of Tilantongo, as well as the sites of Achiutla, Cuilapan, Huajuapan, Mitla, Tlaxiaco, Tututepec, Juxtlahuaca, and Yucuñudahui. The Mixtecs also made major constructions at the ancient city of Monte Albán (which had originated as a Zapotec city before the Mixtecs gained control of it). The work of Mixtec artisans who produced work in stone, wood, and metal was well regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica.

According to West, "the Mixtec of Oaxaca...were the foremost goldsmiths of Mesoamerica," which included the "lost-wax casting of gold and its alloys."^[9]

At the height of the Aztec Empire, many Mixtecs paid tribute to the Aztecs, but not all Mixtec towns became vassals. They put up resistance to Spanish rule until they were subdued by the Spanish and their central Mexican allies led by Pedro de Alvarado.

Mixtecs have migrated to various parts of both Mexico and the United States. In recent years a large exodus of indigenous peoples from Oaxaca, such as the Zapotec and Triqui, has seen them emerge as one of the most numerous groups of Amerindians in the United States. As of 2011, an estimated 150,000 Mixteco people were living in California, and 25,000 to 30,000 in New York City.^[10] Large Mixtec communities exist in the border cities of Tijuana, Baja California, San Diego, California and Tucson, Arizona. Mixtec communities are generally described as transnational or trans-border because of their ability to maintain and reaffirm social ties between their native homelands and diasporic communities. (See: Mixtec transnational migration.)

Mixtecs in the colonial era

 

Mixtec funerary mask; Grave No. 7, Monte Alban; Museum of Cultures of Oaxaca.

 

The stucco reliefs in the Tomb 1 of Zaachila (The Valley, Oaxaca) reveal a remarkable influence from Mixtec art. The tomb likely belongs to a person whose name is registered in the Nuttall Codex. Tomb 1 of Zaachila, Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Late Postclassic.

There is considerable documentation in the Mixtec (Ñudzahui) native language for the colonial era, which has been studied as part of the New Philology. Mixtec documentation indicates parallels between many indigenous social and political structures with those in the Nahua areas, but published research on the Mixtecs does not primarily focus on economic matters. There is considerable Mixtec documentation for land issues, but sparse for market activity, perhaps because indigenous cabildos did not regulate commerce or mediate economic disputes except for land.^[11] Long-distance trade existed in the prehispanic era and continued in indigenous hands in the early colonial. In the second half of the colonial period, there were bilingual Mixtec merchants, dealing in both Spanish and indigenous goods, who operated regionally. However, in the Mixteca “by the eighteenth century, commerce was dominated by Spaniards in all but the most local venues of exchange, involving the sale of agricultural commodities and indigenous crafts or the resale of imported goods.”.^[12]

Despite the development of a local exchange economy, many Spaniards with economic interests in Oaxaca, including “[s]ome of the Mixteca priests, merchants, and landowners maintained permanent residence in Puebla, and labor for the obrajes (textile workshops) of the city of Puebla in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was sometimes recruited from peasant villages in the Mixteca."^[13] There is evidence of community litigation against Mixtec caciques who leased land to Spaniards and the growth of individually contracted wage labor. Mixtec documentation from the late eighteenth century indicates that "most caciques were simply well-to-do investors in Spanish-style enterprises"; some married non-Indians; and in the late colonial era had little claim to hereditary authority.^[14]

Geography

 

Codex Zouche-Nuttall Mixtec British Museum.

 

Map showing the historic Mixtec area. Pre-Classic archeological sites are marked with a triangle, Classic sites with a round dot, and Post-classic sites with a square.

The Mixtec area, both historically and currently, corresponds roughly to the western half of the state of Oaxaca, with some Mixtec communities extending into the neighboring state of Puebla to the north-west and also the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec people and their homelands are often subdivided into three geographic areas: The Mixteca Alta or Highland Mixtec living in the mountains in, around, and to the west of the Valley of Oaxaca; the Mixteca Baja or Lowland Mixtec living to the north and west of these highlands, and the Mixteca de la Costa or Coastal Mixtec living in the southern plains and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. For most of Mixtec history, the Mixteca Alta was the dominant political force, with the capitals of the Mixtec nation located in the central highlands. The valley of Oaxaca itself was often a disputed border region, sometimes dominated by the Mixtec and sometimes by their neighbors to the east, the Zapotec.

An ancient Coixtlahuaca Basin cave site known as the Colossal Natural Bridge is an important sacred place for the Mixtec.

Mixtec rulers

Notes:

• The names of the rulers are composed by the day of the birth + nickname;
• For the sake of a simpler list, minor settlements will be joined with major ones if there are family connections between their rulers;
• Some Zapotec/Toltec kingdoms are included here, because of the many marital connections between the Mixtec and Zapotec royal lineages;
• The dynasty never breaks while a member of the family rules: the line goes through women if they ruled as queen regnants. However, if a son inherits the different kingdoms of the two reigning parents, the paternal line will be favoured.
• A family tree of some of the rulers is available in this link.

In Mixteca Costa

Acatepec, Yucu Yoo

See also: Acatepec

• 1090-1097: Lady 6 Monkey War Quexquemitl (usurper, deposed),
  • Sub-rulers Lord 3 Aligator and Lord 1 Movement
• 1097-1115: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)

Tututepec, Yucu Dzaa

See also: Tututepec

• ?: Nizainzo Huidzo
• c.357: Mzatzin
• 1084-1097: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)
  • to Tilantongo

Zacatepec, Yucu Chatuta

See also: Zacatepec, Morelos

• 1120-?: Lord 11 Jaguar Tlaloc Fire Wall

In Mixteca Alta

Achiutla, Ñuu Ndecu

See also: Achiutla

Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty

• ?: Lord 11 Flower Cloud Xicolli, with Lady 13 Wind Cloud Hair (siblings and spouses, children of Lord 4 Wind, King of Nuu Yuchi)
• ?: Lord 10 Aligator Digging Stick (father-in-law of Lord 2 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
• ?: Lord 8 Wind Smoked Claw (brother-in-law of Lord 12 Deer, King of Tlaxiaco)
• ?: Lord 7 Movement Blood Shedding Rain (son-in-law of 11 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
• ?: Lord 9 Wind Sun Fire Serpent
• ?: Lord 10 Aligator Jaguar with Claws like Flints (son of the previous)

Water Rubber Ball (Chacahua? Manialtepec?)

• ?: Lord 9 Serpent (deposed)
• ?-1115: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)

Andua

• c.887: Lord 12 Vulture Golden Eagle
• ?: Lord 3 Monkey Mexican Jaguar

Bulto de Xipe/Huachino

• ?: Lord 10 Movement
• ?: Lord 12 Lizard
• ?-1101: Lord 11 Wind Blood Jaguar (son of the previous)
  • To Tilantongo (1101-1115) and Nuu Yuchi (1115-1164)
• ?: Lord 6 Vulture Jaguar with Knife (son of Lord 9 Rain of Tlaxiaco)^[15]

Chalcatongo, Nuu Ndaya

See also: Chalcatongo

• ?: Lord 8 Aligator Bloody Coyote
  • ?: Lord 3 Dog (son-in-law of Lord 8 Alligator, in the settlement of Santa Catarina Yuxia, Yuu Usa)
• ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Beard (descendant)

Cholula

See also: Cholula (Mesoamerican site)

• ?: Lord 1 Lizard Serpent-Decorated Shield, with Lady 11 Serpent Jewel Mouth (wife)
• c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face

Hill of the Mask

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
Tlaxiaco dynasty^[15]
Lord 8 Jaguar Bloody Coyote	1113 Tlaxiaco	?	?	Lady 2 Vulture Jewel Fan two children	King at Tlaxiaco, partition from Teozacoalco. His children possibly divided the realm.
Lord 4 Grass Sun Face	? Son of Lord 8 Jaguar	?	?	Lady 6 Reed Venus Face one child	Also king at Sosola (Acuchi).
Lord 1 Movement Fire Serpent with Feathers	? Son of Lord 4 Grass and Lady 6 Reed	?	?	Lady 2 House Precious Quexquemitl one child	Possibly survived his son, and was succeeded by his grandson.
Lord 7 Serpent Eagle	? Son of Lord 4 House, Prince of Hill of the Mask and Lady 3 House	?	?	Lady 3 Jaguar War Quexquemitl one child Lady 4 Serpent one child	Possibly survived his son (given the son's absence of nickname), and was succeeded by his grandson.
Lord 7 Rain Ascending Flame	? Son of Lord 7 Serpent and Lady 4 Serpent	?-1338	1338 Hill of the Mask	Lady 4 Monkey of Tilantongo, Precious Fire Serpent no children
Hill of the Mask annexed to Teozacoalco

Jaltepec, Añute

See also: Jaltepec

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
Apoala-Jaltepec dynasty
Lord 10 Reed Eagle	c.880? Son of Lord 2 Grass Death Serpent, prince of Apoala and Lady 8 Rabbit Sun Headdress, Queen of Whirlpool of Blood-Temple of the Spiderweb and Smoke	?-after 920	after 920	Lady 2 Lizard Venus Red and White Band at least one child
Lord 3 Rain Ballcourt with Lines	? Son of Lord 10 Reed and Lady 2 Lizard	?	?	Lady 7 Death Rain Flaming Knot no children
Suchixtlán dynasty
Lady 9 Wind Stone Quexquemitl	c.1010 Daughter of Lord 8 Wind Twenty Eagles, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quexquemitl	?-1090	1090 Jaltepec aged 79-80?	1041 five children	Spouses, ruled jointly. Lord 13 Grass, Lady 9 Wind's brother, ruled in the settlement of Arrow-Red Liquid
Lord 10 Eagle Stone Jaguar	? Son of Lord 10 Flower, King of Tilantongo and Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán		?
Lady 6 Monkey War Quexquemitl	? Daughter of Lord 10 Eagle and Lady 9 Wind	1090-1101	1101 Huachino	Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino, Bloody Jaguar 1090 two children	Assassinated with her husband in Huachino during the Tilantongo coup d'état of Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw.
Lord 1 Alligator Ballcourt Eagle	1094 Huachino Second son of Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino and Lady 6 Monkey	1101-after 1122	after 1122	Lady 6 Wind of Tilantongo, Feather Blood Quetzal 1122 one child Lady 6 Flint of Tilantongo, Precious Fire Serpent 1122 no children	Married daughters of the assassin of his mother; he inherited her main settlement at Jaltepec.
Lord 5 Lizard Blood Jewel	1122 or after 1122 Son of Lord 1 Alligator and Lady 6 Wind of Tilantongo	?	?	Lady 4 Rain Heartcross Lady 8 Rabbit (Both women were sisters and from the town of Temazcal Cave of Atl Tlachinolli) (three known children in total)
Lord 1 Rain Celestial Eagle	? Son of Lord 5 Lizard	?	?	Lady 2 Alligator Smoke Spiderweb four children
Lord 5 Flower Celestial Eagle	? Son of Lord 1 Rain and Lady 2 Alligator	?	?	Lady 10 Water Xolotl Red Jewel two children
Lord 6 Reed Jaguar Sun	? Son of Lord 5 Flower and Lady 10 Water	?	?	Lady 5 Movement Copal Ornament two children
Lord 13 Wind Tlachtli War	? Son of Lord 6 Reed and 5 Movement	?	?	Lady 12 Rain of Zahuatlán, Butterfly Quetzal Blood four children
Lord 9 Lizard Fire Face	? Son of Lord 13 Wind and Lady 12 Rain of Zahuatlán	? - after 1381	after 1381	Lady 12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán, War Quexquemitl three children	In his reign Zaachila attacked Jaltepec, took the eldest sons of Lord 9 Lizard, and executed them. His minor son was the only one that survived. This son, Lord 2 Jaguar, would eventually succeed his father.
Lord 2 Jaguar	? Son of Lord 9 Lizard and Lady 12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán	after 1381-?	?	Lady 1 Serpent of Teozacoalco, Sun Fan 1372 one child
Lord 5 Water Jaguar of Tlaxiaco	? Son of Lord 2 Jaguar and Lady 1 Serpent of Teozacoalco	?-after 1339	?	Lady 7 Rain of Tlaxiaco, Fan of Tlaxiaco two children
Lord 10 Monkey Rain Falling from Heaven	1339 Jaltepec Son of Lord 5 Water and Lady 7 Rain of Tlaxiaco	?	?	Lady 2 Water of Yanhuitlán, Xolotl-Jewel three children
Lord 3 Death Grey Eagle	? Son of Lord 10 Monkey and Lady 2 Water of Yanhuitlán	?-1444	1444 Jaltepec	Lady 3 Serpent Flower Garland 1368 three children
Lord 1 Monkey Rain Sun	1416 Jaltepec Son of Lord 3 Death and Lady 3 Serpent	1444-1480	1480 Jaltepec aged 63-64	Lady 7 Water of Teozacoalco, Plumed Sun (d.1477) 1447 at least one child Lady 10 Movement, Plumed Sun, Queen of Quetzaltepec no children
Lord 4 Serpent Bloody Eagle	1451 Jaltepec Son of Lord 1 Monkey and Lady 7 Water of Teozacoalco	1480-1520	1520 Jaltepec aged 68–69	Lady 5 Monkey of Teozacoalco, Seed of the Broken Mountain (1466-1518) two children
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lord 13 Grass Fire Serpent	1516 Jaltepec Son of Lord 4 Deer, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec	1520-1541	1541 Jaltepec aged 24-25	Lady 2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco, Jewel Red Objects Package 1523 five children Lady 5 Jaguar Cocoa Garland	Grandson of his predecessor.
Lord 10 Grass Jaguar Smoke Tlaltecuhtli	1527 Jaltepec Son of Lord 13 Grass and Lady 2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco	1541-after 1556	After 1556	Lady 10 Serpent Flowered Tree Golden Band 1546 unknown children	Last known ruler in the settlement.

Juquila, Nuu Sitoho

See also: Juquila

• ?: Lord 1 Death Sun Serpent, with Lady 11 Serpent Flower Quetzal Feathers (wife)

"Monkey"

• ?: Lord 7 Grass Bloody Jaguar

Mitlatongo, Dzandaya

• ?: Lord 1 Monkey

Flower Mountain, Yucu Ita

• ?: Lord 11 Jaguar

Broken Mountain

• ?: Lady 1 Death

Place of Flints/Pedernales, Nuu Yuchi

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
Lord 4 Wind Fire Serpent	1092 Huachino Son of Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino and Lady 6 Monkey, Queen of Jaltepec	1115-1164	1164 Pedernales aged 71–72	Lady 10 Flower of Tilantongo, Rain Spiderweb 1124 one child Lady 5 Lizard of Deep Valley, Zacate-Pulque Vase 1124 or 1125 three children Lady 5 Wind of Tilantongo, Jade and Fur Ornament 1125 no children	First known ruler of the settlement, which seems to have been separated either from Tilantongo or Jaltepec.
Lady 13 Flower Precious Bird	? Daughter of Lord 4 Wind and Lady 10 Flower of Tilantongo	1164-?	?	Prince Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo, Sacred Serpent c.1138 ten children
Lord 7 Eagle Flames	1138 Pedernales First son of Lord Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo and Lady 13 Flower	?	?	Lady 3 Serpent of Achiutla, Sacred Jewel no children	Left no children and was succeeded by his brother.
Lord 4 Jaguar War Jaguar	1144 Pedernales Second son of Lord Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo and Lady 13 Flower	?	?	Lady 8 Jaguar of Achiutla, Serpent Jewel at least one child	Nephew of his predecessors.
Lord 1 Eagle Rain	c.1160 Son of Lord 4 Water, prince of Pedernales and Lady 1 Grass of Achiutla	?-after 1171	After 1171	Unmarried
Lord 7 Reed Pheasant	? Son of Lord 13 Serpent, Prince of Pedernales and Lady 11 Deer, Princess of Pedernales	?	?	?	Cousin of his predecessor.
Pedernales annexed to Teozacoalco

Quetzal

• ?: Lord 4 Stone Face with Quetzal Feathers

Río de la Serpiente

• ?: Lord 3 Eagle

San Pedro Cántaros, Nuu Naha

Teozacoalco dynasty

• ?: Lord 1 House Jaguar Sky Assassin (son of Lord 8 Rabbit, King of Teozacoalco)
• ?: Lord 6 Death Sun Rain (descendant, brother-in-law of Lord 6 Deer, King of Teozacoalco)
• ?: Lord 3 Dog (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 3 Monkey (grandson of the previous)

Place of the Drum (Soyaltepec) (?)

See also: San Bartolo Soyaltepec

• ?: Lord 4 Jaguar Serpent War Snare

Suchixtlán, Chiyo Yuhu

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
Suchixtlán dynasty
Lord 8 Wind Stone Eagle/ Twenty Eagles	? Son or descendant of Lord 3 Rain, King of Jaltepec	?-1027	1027 Suchixtlán or Jaltepec	Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quexquemitl 1009 Lady 10 Grass 1010 Lady 10 Eagle 1011 seven children in total
Hiatus with no known rulers
Lord 12 Movement Jaguar that Burns the Mexicans	?	?	?	Lady 1 Jaguar Divine Fan at least one child
Lord 13 Eagle Bloody Jaguar	? Son of Lord 12 Movement and Lady 1 Jaguar	?	?	Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo four children
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lady 2 Flower Rising Jewel	? Daughter of Lord 13 Eagle and Lady 12 Flower of Tilantongo	?	?	two children	Spouses and explicitly co-rulers in Suchixtlán (according to Codex Muro). Lord 6 Death possibly also inherited his kingdom at San Pedro Cántaros.
Lord 6 Death Sun Rain	? Son of Lord 10 Alligator, king of Cántaros and Lady 7 Vulture (of Tilantongo?)	?-1461	1461
Lady 11 Monkey Jade Spiderweb	? Son of Lord 6 Death and Lady 2 Flower	?	?	three children	Probably ruled jointly, as despite she inherited the kingdom, her husband is said to have also ruled there.
Lord 4 Death War Venus	? Son of Lord 6 Deer, king of Tilantongo and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec	?	?
Lord 8 Monkey	? Son of Lord 4 Death and Lady 11 Monkey	?	?	Lady 4 Water of Tilantongo, Butterfly with Red Spots no children
Hiatus with no known rulers
Lord 8 Movement Jaguar Tlaloc Wall	?	?	?	Lady 8 Flint of Jaltepec, Venus Legs Bent Strip (born 1528) c.1530/40? no children	Last known ruler of the town.

Teita

• ?: Lord 10 Rabbit Heart
• ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Eagle

Teozacoalco, Chiyo Cahnu

See also: Teozacoalco

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
2nd Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 4 Dog Coyote Hunter	1110 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 8 Deer and Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino	1115-after 1132	after 1132	Lady 4 Death Jewel (born 1115) 1125 two children
Lord 13 Dog Venus Eagle	1132 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 4 Dog and Lady 4 Death	?-after 1149	after 1149	Lady 8 Vulture Stone Quechquemitl Lady 4 Rabbit Feathers on the Sand two children in total
Lord 7 Water Red Eagle	1149 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 13 Dog	?	?	Lady 11 Water Precious Serpent two children
Lord 13 Eagle Sacred Rain	Son of Lord 7 Water and Lady 11 Water	?-after 1189	after 1189	Lady 13 Death Jade Quechquemitl two children Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quechquemitl three children Lady 8 Reed Precious Girl one child Lady of the Staff of Respect no children Lady 11 Movement Jewel with Quetzal Feathers two children Lady 9 Monkey one child
Lord 8 Rabbit Fire of Tlaxiaco	1189 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 13 Eagle and Lady 8 Reed	?	?	Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo, Transparent Butterfly five children
Lord 12 House Fire Serpent Flying in the Sky	? Son of Lord 8 Rabbit and Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo	?	?	five children	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. Their brother, Lord 1 House ''Jaguar Assassin from the Sky'', ruled at the settlement of Nuu Naha .
Lady 11 Alligator Quetzal Jewel	? Daughter of Lord 8 Rabbit and Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo		?
Lord 9 Movement Precious Water	? Son of Lord 12 House and Lady 11 Alligator	?-1321^[15]	1321 Teozacoalco	no children	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. Left no children.
Lady 2 Jaguar Jade Spiderweb	? Daughter of Lord 12 House and Lady 11 Alligator
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lord 2 Dog Rope and Knives	? Son of Lord 5 Flower, King of Zaachila and Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco	1321^[15]-after 1323	?	Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo, Plumed Serpent three children
Lord 9 House Mexican Jaguar	1323 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 2 Dog and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo	?-after 1357	after 1357	Lady 3 Rabbit of Tilantongo, Divine Flame (born 1345) no children	Also, by marriage, king of Tilantongo.
Lord 2 Water Fire Serpent	1357 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 9 House and Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco	?-after 1402	after 1402	Lady 2 Vulture of Teita, Flower Jewel one child Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila, Jade Fan six children Lady 12 Flint of Teita one child Lady 4 Reed Twenty Jaguars no children	After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila.
Lord 5 Rain Water Falling from the Sky	1402? Son of Lord Lord 2 Water and Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila	?-after 1416	after 1416	Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco, Quetzal Sun 1416 four children	His children inherited their mother's realm. Teozacoalco reunited with Tilantongo.
Lord 6 Deer Sacred Rain	1393 Son of Lord 13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo	?	?	Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec, Seed of the Broken Mountain two children	Nephew of the predecessor.
Lord 4 Flower Pheasant	1409 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 6 Deer and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec	?-after 1438	after 1438	Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo, Quetzal Fan seven children	Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this fact isn't certain.
Lord 10 Rain Sun Rain	1438 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 4 Flower and Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo	?-after 1476	after 1476	Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán, Cocoa Flower four children
Lord 4 Deer Eagle of Tlaxiaco	1476 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 10 Rain and Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán	?-1521	1521 Teozacoalco aged 44–45	Lady 11 Serpent Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec, Sun Fan (born 1484) one child in total	His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec.
Teozacoalco occupied by the Spanish

Tilantongo, Ñuu Tnoo

See also: Tilantongo

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
1st Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 10 House Jaguar	?	?	?	Lady 1 Grass Puma one child
Lord 3 Eagle Eagle of the Serpent Place	? Son of Lord 10 House and Lady 1 Grass	?-after 942	after 942	Lady 4 Rabbit of Mitlatongo, Quexquemitl two children
Lord 9 Wind Stone Skull	942 Tilantongo Son of Lord Lord 3 Eagle and Lady 4 Rabbit of Mitlatongo	?-1020	1020 aged 77-78	Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán, Rain Hill c.990 three children	His brother, Lord 1 Monkey, inherited their mother's city of Mitlatongo.
Lord 10 Flower Burnt-Eyed Jaguar	992 Tilantongo Son of Lord 9 Wind and Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán	1020-1043	1043 aged 50-51	Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán, Plumed Serpent (born 1005) 1013 six children	Many of his relatives are known to have sit exclusively in some throness: ?: Lord 10 Flower (II) Tail Arc (his brother-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Dark Speckled Mountain ) ?: Lord 13 Death (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Head ; he would also become father-in-law of Lord 8 Deer) ?: Lord 10 Reed (I) Precious Jaguar (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Tataltepec (Yucu Tatnu)) ?: Lord 10 Reed (II) (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Topiltepec, Yucu Quesi/Nuu Ñañu )
Lord 12 Lizard Arrow Feet	c.1013 Son of Lord 10 Flower and Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán	1043-c.1080?	c.1080? Tilantongo aged around 66-67	Lady 4 Flint of Topiltepec, Face Quetzal Feathers Lady 4 Alligator of Topiltepec, Jewel Face four children in total	Married his nieces, daughters of his sister.
Lord 5 Movement Smoked Sky	? Son of Lord 12 Lizard	1080-?	?	Lady 4 Death of Jaltepec, Jewel of the People no children Lady 2 Grass 1073 one child	The succession of the son and grandson of Lord 12 Lizard is debated, as Lord 12 Lizard is the last of his dynasty explicitly depicted as king of Tilantongo before Lord 8 Deer's conquest (1097). Even his grandson, who died young in a mysterious suicide ritual, is sometimes called by experts as an heir, instead of an official ruler. There isn't also any indication of the time of death of Lord 12 Lizard, which confuses matters. What is known is that, as Lady 2 Grass (Lord 2 Rain's mother) came from Visible Stones (a place under domination of Suchixtlán), Suchixtlán became influent in Tilantongo during this period of uncertainty. It's also possible that Lord 12 Lizard's sister, Lady 4 Rabbit ''Precious Quetzal'', was his next heiress, as, before usurping the throne, Lord 8 Deer had bowed to her and her husband in their town at Sosola (Acuchi).
Lord 2 Rain Twenty Jaguars	1075 Tilantongo Son of Lord 5 Movement and Lady 2 Grass	?-18 June 1097	18 June 1097 Tilantongo aged 21–22	Unmarried
2nd Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw	1063 Tilantongo Son of Lord 5 Alligator Sun Rain, Priest and Lady 11 Water Jewel Bird	18 June 1097 – 10 November 1115	10 November 1115 Tilantongo aged 51–52	Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino, Flowered Serpent 1103 five children Lady 6 Eagle of Chalcatongo, Jaguar Spiderweb 1105 one child Lady 10 Vulture Shining Quexquemitl 1105 two children Lady 11 Serpent of Totomihuacan, Jaguar Flower Turquoise Teeth 1105 two children Lady Lady 6 Wind of Cuyotepeji, Great Feathers of Noble Blood no children	Usurper and founder of a new royal line at Tilantongo. After his death the influence in Mixtec realms passed to Pedernales, but the succession continued in Tilantongo. Lord 8 Deer was related to other settlements: His father-in-law, Lord 1 Deer Coanacoch is the only known ruler in the settlement of Cuyotepeji.
Regency of Lady 6 Eagle of Chacaltongo, Jaguar Spiderweb during Lord 6 House's minority
Lord 6 House Jaguar Falling from Heaven	1109 Tilantongo Son of Lord 8 Deer and Lady 6 Eagle of Chacaltongo	10 November 1115-?	?	Lady 9 Movement of Juquila, Heart one child
Lord 5 Water Stone Jaguar Heaven	? Son of Lord 6 House and Lady Lady 9 Movement of Juquila	?	?	Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo, Quetzal Jewel eight children	Married his cousin, daughter of his father's half-brother.
Lord 8 Reed Pheasant	? Son of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo	?	?	two children	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
Lady 5 Rabbit Jewel	? Daughter of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo		?
Lord 2 Movement Serpent with Markings	? Son of Lord 8 Reed and Lady 5 Rabbit	?-1206	1206 Tilantongo	Lady 4 Eagle of Teita, Blood Quechquemitl Lady 12 Flint of Mountain of Flowers, Hummingbird Jewel Lady 10 Eagle of Mountain of Flowers, Serpent Spiderweb three children in total	Apparently survived his own sons and heirs, Lord 8 Grass ''Coyote Sacrificer'' and Lord 1 Lizard ''Bloody Jaguar'', and was succeeded by his grandchildren.
Lord 12 Reed Coyote Sun	? Son of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain	1206-?	?	three children	Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
Lady 3 Jaguar Precious Butterfly Sun	? Daughter of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain		?
Lord 5 Rain Sun Movement	? Son of Lord 12 Reed and Lady 3 Jaguar	?	?	Lady 13 Lizard of Puma, Truly Precious Butterfly one child	Lord 5 Rain was related to other settlements' rulers: ?: Lord 7 Movement Bloody Jaguar, his father-in-law, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Puma .
Lord 13 Wind Fire Serpent	? Son of Lord 5 Rain and Lady 13 Lizard of Puma	?	?	Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco, Venus Quechquemitl 1277 one child
Lord 9 Serpent Jaguar War Illuminator	? Son of Lord 13 Wind and Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco	?	?	Lady 8 Flint of Yucuita Lady 7 Flower of Yucuita four children in total
Lord 4 Water Bloody Eagle	? Son of Lord 9 Serpent	?-1341	1341 Tilantongo	Lady Lady 6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War no children	Left no children, and his dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his widow.
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lady 6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War	? Daughter of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo	1341-after 1345	after 1345	Lord 4 Water Bloody Eagle no children Prince Lord 4 Death of Tlaxiaco, War Venus 1343 four children	Widow and niece of the previous. As the eldest child of the only sister of Lord 4 Water that had children, she became the inheritor of his uncle-husband's kingdom. She inherited it not as widow of her husband, but as a rightful heir of her uncle.
Lady 3 Rabbit Divine Flame	1345 Tilantongo Daughter of Lord Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo	after 1345-after 1372	after 1372	1353 six children	Like her mother, she married her own uncle (her mother's brother), keeping the kingdom in the family, and made possible the reunion of Tilantongo and Teozacoalco.
Lord 9 House Mexican Jaguar	1323 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo
Lord 2 Water Fire Serpent	1357 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 9 House and Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco	?-after 1402	after 1402	Lady 2 Vulture of Teita, Flower Jewel one child Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila, Jade Fan six children Lady 12 Flint of Teita one child Lady 4 Reed Twenty Jaguars no children	After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila.
Lady 12 Flower Broken Mountain Butterfly	? Daughter of Lord 2 Water and 2 Vulture of Teita	?	?	Lord Lord 12 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán, Bloody Jaguar no children	First separate ruler of Tilantongo since 1341. At her death, her children inherited Tilantongo.
Lord 6 Deer Sacred Rain	1393 Son of Lord 13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 12 Flower	?	?	Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec, Seed of the Broken Mountain two children	Nephew of the predecessor.
Lord 4 Flower Pheasant	1409 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 6 Deer and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec	?-after 1438	after 1438	Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo, Quetzal Fan seven children	Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this fact isn't certain.
Lord 10 Rain Sun Rain	1438 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 4 Flower and Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo	?-after 1476	after 1476	Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán, Cocoa Flower four children
Lord 4 Deer Eagle of Tlaxiaco	1476 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 10 Rain and Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán	?-1521	1521 Teozacoalco aged 44–45	Lady 11 Serpent Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec, Sun Fan (born 1484) one child in total	His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec.
Tilantongo occupied by the Spanish

Tlaxiaco, Ndisi Nuu

See also: Tlaxiaco

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
Tlaxiaco dynasty^[15]
Lord 8 Jaguar Bloody Coyote	1113 Tlaxiaco	?	?	Lady 2 Vulture ''Jewel Fan'' two children	First known king at Tlaxiaco, partition from Teozacoalco.
Lord 4 Grass Sun Face	? Son of Lord 8 Jaguar	?	?	Lady 6 Reed ''Venus Face'' one child
Lord 2 Wind Bloody Rain	? Son of Lord 4 Grass and Lady 6 Reed ''Venus Face''	?	?	Lady 4 Death of Achiutla no children	Left no children. Tlaxiaco was inherited by his uncle.
Lord 2 Movement Fire Serpent in Flames	? Son of Lord 8 Jaguar	?	?	Lady 2 Death ''Plumed Sun'' one child
Lord 3 Serpent Flame Rain	? Son of Lord 2 Movement and Lady 2 Death	?	?	Lady 12 Wind ''Quetzal Jewel'' Lady 7 Death two children in total
Lord 1 Deer Eagle	? Son of Lord 3 Serpent and Lady 12 Wind ''Quetzal Jewel''!Lady 12 Wind or Lady 7 Death	?	?	Lady 10 Grass ''Precious Butterfly'' two children
Lord 12 Rain Bloody Jaguar	? Son of Lord 3 Serpent and Lady 12 Wind or Lady 7 Death	?-1305	1305 Tlaxiaco	Lady 1 Monkey of Tilantongo, Jade Quexquemitl one child
Lord 12 Deer Serpent that Lightens the War	? Son of Lord 3 Dog and Lady 8 Serpent, heiress of Tlaxiaco	?	?	Lady 11 Lizard of Achiutla, Flame Jewel 1305 no children Lady 6 Rabbit of Tilantongo, Jewel Seed no children	It 's possible that he succeeded his maternal grandfather during his mother's lifespan; she chose to follow her husband (12 Deer's father) in a peregrination.^[15] The male line is explicitly broken off after 12 Deer's death: he had no children. A succession crisis is opened, and is ultimately won by Lady 11 Rabbit, who was cleverly allied with Tilantongo-Teozacoalco.
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
Lady 11 Rabbit Jewel of the Rising Sun	? Daughter of Lord 8 Wind, King of Achiutla and Lady 10 Dog of Tlaxiaco	c.1330	?	two children	Spouses, ruled jointly. Lady 11 Rabbit (from Achiutla on paternal side) was a niece of Lord 12 Deer.
Lord 10 Rabbit Jaguar of Tlaxiaco	? Son of Lord 4 Movement ''Rain Falling from the Sky'' and Lady 2 Eagle ''Sunflower''		?
Lord 9 Rain Bloody Jaguar	? Son of Lord 10 Rabbit and Lady 11 Rabbit	?-after 1343	after 1343	Lady 7 Flint of Teozacoalco 1343 three children
Lord 11 Wind Smoked Claw	? Son of Lord 9 Rain and Lady 7 Flint of Teozacoalco	?	?	Lady 4 Grass of Achiutla, Jewel Flower five children	Lord 1 Dog, his brother-in-law, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Feline Mountain .
Lord 1 Monkey Sun Rain	? Son of Lord 11 Wind and Lady 4 Grass of Achiutla	?	?	Lady 5 Flint Heavenly Fan three children
Lord 13 Eagle Eagle of Tlaxiaco	? Son of Lord 1 Monkey and Lady 5 Flint	?-after 1400	after 1400	Lady 8 Jaguar of Achiutla c.1400 one child	His heiress didn't succeed in the kingdom; his successor was his granddaughter. Lord 3 Reed Smoked Eye, his brother, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Cuilapán.
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty^[15]
Lady 8 Deer Quetzal Spiderweb	? Daughter of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	?	?	Lord 10 Alligator, King of Achiutla, Stone Claw no children	Her twin brother ascended in the Zapotec throne of Zaachila.
Lord 3 Serpent Venus Sun	? Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	?	?	Lady 10 Movement Sun Jewel no children	Younger brother of the twins.
Lord 8 Grass/ Malinaltzin Sun Rain	c.1435 Tlaxiaco Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	?-1503	1511 Tlaxiaco aged 75–76	Lady 9 Deer of Teozacoalco, Jewel Flower 1460 one child Lady 1 Serpent Butterfly Quetzal Feathers no children	Younger brother of the former. In 1503 Tlaxiaco was defeated by the Aztec Empire.
Tlaxiaco annexed to the Aztec Empire

Totomihuacan

• ?: Lord 5 Eagle

Tula (Toltec)

See also: Toltec

• c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face

Deep Valley

• ?: Lord 12 Dog Eagle, with Lady 5 Lizard Pulque-Zacate Vase (wife)

Yanhuitlán

See also: Yanhuitlán

• c.1320: Lord 6 Water Multicolored Feathers
• c.1500?: Lady 1 Flower Jaguar Quexquemitl, with Lord 8 Death Fire Serpent (husband; son of Lord 10 Rain, King of Teozacualco)

Zaachila, Tocuisi (Zapotec)

See also: Zapotec civilization

Name	Born	Reign	Death	Consort (s)	Notes
Zaachila Zapotec dynasty^[15]
Lord 9 Serpent	?	?	?	Lady 11 Rabbit Venus Quexquemitl at least one child
Lord 5 Flower Xipe	? Son of Lord 9 Serpent and Lady 11 Rabbit	?-1328	1328 Zaachila	Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco, Quetzal six children
Lord 3 Alligator (Ozomatli)	? Son of Lord 5 Flower and Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco	1328-1361	1361 Zaachila	Lady 12 Flint Staff of Respect Lady 10 House ''Jewel'' five children in total
Lord 11 Water Stone Rain (Cosijoeza I; Huijatoo)	? Son of Lord 3 Alligator	1361-1386	1386 Zaachila	Lady 8 Movement of Zaachila, Fire Serpent no children Lady 13 Serpent of Cacaxtli, Plumed Serpent six children
Lord 6 Water Cracked Boards (Zaachila I)	c.1350 Son of Lord 11 Water and Lady 13 Serpent of Cacaxtli	1386-1415	1415 Zaachila aged 64–65	Lady 1 Reed of Tlaxiaco, Sun Jewel one child
Lord 3 Reed Smoked Eye (Zaachila II)	? Son of Lord 6 Water and Lady 1 Reed of Tlaxiaco	1415-1454	1454 Zaachila	Unmarried	Left no descendants. He was succeeded by a cousin.
Lord 5 Reed Twenty Jaguars (Cosijopii I; Zaachila III)	1397 Son of Lord 2 Water, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila	1454-1487	1487 Zaachila aged 89–90	Unmarried	Left no descendants. He was succeeded by a nephew.
Lord 8 Deer Fire Serpent (Cosijoeza II)	? Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco	1487-1504	1504 Zaachila	Xilabela of the Aztec Empire two children	Nephew of the predecessor. Had a twin sister, Lady 8 Deer, who ascended to the throne of Tlaxiaco.
Regency of Xilabela of the Aztec Empire (1504-1518)
Cosijopii II	30 December 1502 Zaachila Son of Lord 8 Deer and Xilabela of the Aztec Empire	1504-1523	1563 Zaachila aged 60–61	?	Siblings, it's possible that they ruled jointly.
Pinopija	? Zaachila Daughter of Lord 8 Deer and Xilabela of the Aztec Empire	1504-1520	c.1520 Zaachila	?
Zaachila annexed to the Aztec Empire

In Mixteca Baja

Acatlan

See also: Acatlán de Osorio

• ?: Lord 1 Rain
• ?: Lord 9 Reed (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 6 Deer (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Flint (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Alligator (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 7 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Movement (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 9 Flint (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 6 Water (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 Eagle (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 10 Reed (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 Flower (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 4 House (son of the previous)
• ?-1519/20: Unknown (son of the previous)
  • To the Spanish

Chila

See also: Chila (municipality)

• ?: Lord 10 Flint
• ?: Lord 4 Deer (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 1 Eagle (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 13 Dog (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 13 Reed (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 2 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 10 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 10 Movement (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 3 House (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 8 Wind (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 6 Rabbit (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 13 Death (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 1 House (son of the previous)
• ?: Lord 5 Monkey (son of the previous)
• ?-1519/20: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)
  • To the Spanish

Language, codices, and artwork

 

The preconquest Codex Bodley, page 21, names Lord Eight Grass as being the last king of Tiaxiaco.

 

Shield of Yanhuitlan in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico city

The Mixtecan languages (in their many variants) were estimated to be spoken by about 300,000 people at the end of the 20th century, although the majority of Mixtec speakers also had at least a working knowledge of the Spanish language. Some Mixtecan languages are called by names other than Mixtec, particularly Cuicatec (Cuicateco), and Triqui (or Trique).

The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices or phonetic pictures in which they wrote their history and genealogies in deerskin in the "fold-book" form. The best-known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of Lord Eight Deer, named after the day in which he was born, whose personal name is Jaguar Claw, and whose epic history is related in several codices, including the Codex Bodley and Codex Zouche-Nuttall. He successfully conquered and united most of the Mixteca region.

They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry and mosaic, among which gold and turquoise figure prominently. Products by Mixtec goldsmiths formed an important part of the tribute the Mixtecs paid to the Aztecs during parts of their history.^{[16][unreliable source?]} Turquoise mosaic masks also played an important role in both political and religious functions.^[17] These masks were used as gifts to form political alliances, in ceremonies during which the wearer of the mask impersonated a god, and were fixed to funerary bundles that were seen as oracles.^[18]

References

1. Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indios (CDI) (2000): Lenguas indígenas de México. Viewed 30 November 2006.
2. Instituto de los Mexicanos en el Exterior: Lazos. Síntesis informativa 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 24 January 2005. Viewed 30 November 2006
3. "Mixtec". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
4. Joyce, Arthur (2009). Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631209782.
5. Gutiérrez, Gerardo (7 February 2017). "Classic and Postclassic Archaeological Features of the Mixteca-Tlapaneca-Nahua region of Guerrero: Why Didn't Anyone Tell Me the Classic was Over". After Monte Albán: Transformation and Negotiation in Oaxaca, Mexico. University Press of Colorado. pp. 367–362. ISBN 978-1-60732-597-0.
6. Lind, Michael (2008). "Arqueología de la Mixteca" (PDF). Desacatos. 27: 13–32.
7. archaeology.about.com › ... › Archaeology 101 › Glossary › M Terms
8. "About". San Diego State University. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
9. West, Robert. Early Silver Mining in New Spain, 1531–1555 (1997). Bakewell, Peter (ed.). Mines of Silver and Gold in the Americas. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing Limited. p. 48.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
10. Claudia Torrens (28 May 2011). "Some NY immigrants cite lack of Spanish as a barrier". UTSanDiego.com. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
11. Kevin Terraciano, ‘’The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca: Ñudzahui History, Sixteen through Eighteenth Centuries’’. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001, 248–49.
12. Terraciano, ibid. p. 251
13. William B. Taylor, "Town and Country in the Valley of Oaxaca", ‘’The Provinces of Early Mexico’’, Ida Altman and James Lockhart, eds. Los Angeles, UCLA Latin American Center 1976, p. 74.
14. Kevin Terraciano, "The Colonial Mixtec Community," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 80, Feb. 2000 p. 39
15. Pérez Jiménez & Jansen 2010, p.407-461
16. . www.ancientscripts.com. Archived from the original on 18 August 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2006.
17. McEwan, Colin; et al. (2006). Turquoise Mosaics from Mexico. Durham: Duke University Press.
18. Headrick, Annabeth (1999). "The Street of the Dead ... It Really Was: Mortuary bundles at Teotihuacan". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (1): 69–85. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101044. JSTOR 26307065. S2CID 162410036.

Further reading

• Kevin Terraciano (2004). The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca: Nudzahui History, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804751049.
• Pérez Jiménez, Gabina Aurora; Jansen, Marteen (2010). The Mixtec Pictorial Manuscripts - Time, Agency and Memory in Ancient Mexico. ISBN 978-90-04-19358-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

  Media related to Mixtec at Wikimedia Commons