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Micrurus fulvius

January 06, 2023

Micrurus fulvius, commonly known as the eastern coral snake,[3] common coral snake, American cobra,[4] and more, is a species of highly venomous coral snake in the family Elapidae. The species is endemic to the southeastern United States.[1] It should not be confused with the scarlet snake (Cemophora coccinea) or scarlet kingsnake (Lampropeltis elapsoides), which are harmless mimics.[3] No subspecies are currently recognized.[5]

Micrurus fulvius
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Elapidae
Genus: Micrurus
Species:
M. fulvius
Binomial name
Micrurus fulvius
(Linnaeus, 1766)
Synonyms[2]
  • Coluber fulvius
    Linnaeus, 1766
  • Elaps fulvius
    — Daudin, 1803
  • Vipera fulvia
    — Harlan, 1826
  • Elaps tristis
    Baird & Girard, 1853
  • Elaps fulvius
    — Boulenger, 1896
  • Micrurus fulvius fulvius
    — Schmidt, 1928
  • Micrurus fulvius barbouri
    Schmidt, 1928
  • Micruroides fulvius
    — Stickel, 1952

Description

 

M. fulvius is generally less than 80 cm (31 in) in total length (including tail). The maximum reported total lengths are 121.8 cm (48.0 in) for a specimen in Florida (Neill, 1958) and 129.5 cm (51.0 in) (Roze, 1996). Males have longer tails than females, but females reach a greater total length.[2]

The dorsal scales are smooth, and are in 15 rows at midbody.[3] The ventral scales number 197–217 in males and 219–233 in females. There are 40–47 subcaudals in males and 30–37 in females.[2] The anal plate is divided.[3]

The color pattern consists of a series of rings that encircle the body: wide red and black rings separated by narrow yellow rings. The head is black from the rostral scale to just behind the eyes. The red rings are usually speckled with black.[3] People who live in its natural range are often taught a folk rhyme as children such as: "Red next to black, safe from attack; red next to yellow, you're a dead fellow," or "Red touching black, friend of Jack; red touching yellow, you're a dead fellow", or simply "red and yellow kill a fellow".[6] These rhymes are useful in teaching children to distinguish king snakes (Lampropeltis ssp.), which are considered helpful predators of vermin such as rats and mice, from the venomous coral snake, which should only be handled by an experienced biologist or herpetologist. However, this rhyme is only applicable to the United States species, and cannot be used reliably in the Caribbean, or Central or South America.

Common names

Among the many common names for M. fulvius are eastern coral snake,[3] American cobra, candy-stick snake, common coral snake, coral adder, Elaps harlequin snake, Florida coral snake, harlequin coral snake, North American coral snake, red bead snake, thunder-and-lightning snake,[4][2] and, in Spanish, serpiente-coralillo arlequín (literally "harlequin coral snake").[5]

Geographic range

 
U.S. coral snake species range

M. fulvius is found in the Southeastern United States from southeastern North Carolina, south through South Carolina and peninsular Florida, and westward through southern Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi to southeastern Louisiana. Coral snakes in Texas, western Louisiana, and southeastern Arkansas are now considered to be a different species, Micrurus tener, which was previously considered a subspecies of M. fulvius. M. fulvius may be found at altitudes of near sea level to about 400 m (1,300 ft).[2] Climate models have shown that the range of Micrurus fulvius could be decreased throughout the southeast in the future.[7]

Habitat

M. fulvius occurs in upland mesophytic and tropical hammocks in Florida, as well as glade land, high pine, scrub oak and live oak hammock, slash pine and wiregrass flatwoods. In southern Georgia and Florida, it is found in dry areas with open ground that are bushy but not heavily vegetated. It is associated with sandy ridges in Mississippi and sandy creek bottoms in Louisiana.[2] It is rarer in North and South Carolina, but is more typically found there in the scrub oak forests and pitch pine habitats near the coast, as well as the coastal plain of the southeast.[8]

Feeding

M. fulvius eats lizards, birds, frogs, fish, insects, and smaller snakes, including other coral snakes.[3][9][10]

Reproduction

Females of M. fulvius are reported to lay three to 12 eggs in June that hatch in September. Neonates are 18–23 cm (7.1–9.1 in) in length.[3] Males mature 11–16 months after hatching while females mature approximately 26 months after hatching. Adult females are typically larger than males.[11]

Venom

The venom of M. fulvius is a potent neurotoxin with a median LD50 of 1.3 mg/kg SC.[12] Envenomation causes rapid paralysis and respiratory failure in prey. In humans, symptoms include slurred speech, double vision, and muscular paralysis eventually leading to respiratory failure.[13]

M. fulvius bites and fatalities are very rare. Only two documented fatalities were attributed to this species in the 1950s, and only one has been reported since Wyeth antivenin became available for it in the 1960s. The snakes have a mortality rate between 5–20% The most recent fatality attributed to the eastern coral snake occurred in 2006 (confirmed in 2009 report).[14] The victim failed to seek proper medical attention and died several hours after being bitten, becoming the first fatality caused by M. fulvius in over 40 years.[14]

M. fulvius does not account for many cases of snakebite in the U.S., with only about 100 bites each year.[15] The snake is considered secretive and generally reluctant to bite (its venomous potential was still being debated in the 1880s), and envenomation (i.e., secretion of venom during a strike) is thought to occur in only 40% of all bites.[2] Unlike New World pit vipers, this New World coral snake cannot control the amount of primarily neurotoxic venom injected. Dry bites often result from a near miss or deflection; although the venom an adult coral snake holds is enough to kill up to five adults, it cannot release all its venom in a single bite.[16][17] Historically, however, the mortality rate was estimated to be about 10–20%, with death occurring in as little as one to two hours, or as much as 26 hours after the bite. This is not that surprising, since the LD100 for humans is estimated to be 4–5 mg of dried venom, while the average venom yield is 2–6 mg with a maximum of more than 12 mg. This is probably why current standard hospital procedure in the U.S. is to start with antivenin therapy for coral snake bites, even if no symptoms are found yet.[2]

Wyeth discontinued the manufacture of coral snake antivenin in 2010, citing a lack of profitability.[15] Pfizer has also decided to halt production of its antivenin for similar reasons (see Coral snake antivenom shortage). As of July 2021, Pfizer indicates that antivenom is available[18] and one source states that production has resumed.[19]

References

  1. ^ a b Hammerson GA (2007). "Micrurus fulvius". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2007: e.T64025A12737582. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T64025A12737582.en. Downloaded on 14 December 2020.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Campbell, Jonathan A.; Lamar, William W. (2004). The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. 870 pp., 1500 plates. ISBN 0-8014-4141-2.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Behler John L.; King, F. Wayne (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 743 pp., 657 color plates. LCCCN 79-2217. ISBN 0-394-50824-6. (Micrurus fulvius, p. 681 + Plates 617, 618).
  4. ^ a b Wright, Albert Hazen; Wright, Anna Allen (1957). Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. (7th printing, 1985). 1,105 pp. (in 2 volumes). ISBN 0-8014-0463-0. (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 890–897, Map 63, Figures 256–257).
  5. ^ a b "Micrurus fulvius". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 12 December 2006.
  6. ^ Powell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp., 47 plates, 207 figures. ISBN 978-0-544-12997-9. (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 434–435, Figure 196 + Plate 44).
  7. ^ Archis, Jennifer (1 May 2018). "Is the future already here? The impact of climate change on the distribution of the eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)". PeerJ. 6: e4647. doi:10.7717/peerj.4647. PMC 5935076. PMID 29736330.
  8. ^ "Savannah river ecology lab".[permanent dead link]
  9. ^ "Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius". National Geographic: Animals. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
  10. ^ "Micrurus fulvius (Eastern Coral Snake, Harlequin Coralsnake)".
  11. ^ Jackson, Dale (December 1981). "Ecology of the Eastern Coral Snake (Micrurus fulvius) in Northern Peninsular Florida". Herpetologica. 37 (4).
  12. ^ http://snakedatabase.org/ld50/micrurus/fulvius
  13. ^ "Coral Snakes: Colors, Bites, Farts & Facts". Live Science. 16 December 2014.
  14. ^ a b Norris, Robert L.; Pfalzgraf, Robert R.; Laing, Gavin. (March 2009). "Death following coral snake bite in the United States – First documented case (with ELISA confirmation of envenomation) in over 40 years". Toxicon. 53 (6): 693–697. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.01.032. PMID 19673084.[dead link]
  15. ^ a b Derene, Glenn. (10 May 2010). "Cost of Antivenom Production Creates Shortages". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
  16. ^ "Snake Bites". Survive Outdoors. Retrieved 13 May 2010.
  17. ^ "Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius". National Geographic. Retrieved 13 May 2010.
  18. ^ "Antivenin (Micrurus fulvius equine origin) North American Coral Snake Antivenin". Pfizer Hospital US. from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
  19. ^ Greene, Spencer (9 April 2021). Alcock, Joe (ed.). "What is the treatment for coral snake envenomation?". Medscape. from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.

Further reading

  • Conant, Roger; Bridges, William (1939). What Snake Is That?: A Field Guide to the Snakes of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains. (With 108 drawings by Edmond Malnate). New York and London: D. Appleton-Century Company. Frontispiece map + viii + 163 pp. + Plates A-C, 1–32. (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 133–135 + Plate 26, figure 76).
  • Hubbs, Brian; O'Connor, Brendan (2012). A Guide to the Rattlesnakes and other Venomous Serpents of the United States. Tempe, Arizona: Tricolor Books.129 pp. ISBN 978-0-9754641-3-7. (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 91–92).
  • Linnaeus C (1766). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, diferentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Duodecima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 532 pp. (Coluber fulvius, new species, p. 381). (in Latin).
  • Morris, Percy A. (1948). Boy's Book of Snakes: How to Recognize and Understand Them. (A volume of the Humanizing Science Series, edited by Jaques Cattell). New York: Ronald Press. viii + 185 pp. (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 117–119, 180).
  • Schmidt, Karl P.; Davis, D. Dwight (1941). Field Book of Snakes of the United States and Canada. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 365 pp. (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 274–276, Figure 90 + Plate 6).
  • Smith, Hobart M.; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ISBN 0-307-13666-3 (paperback), ISBN 0-307-47009-1 (hardcover). (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 196–197).
  • Zim HS, Smith HM (1956). Reptiles and Amphibians: A Guide to Familiar American Species: A Golden Nature Guide. New York: Simon and Schuster. 160 pp. (Micrurus fulvius, pp. 108, 156).

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Micrurus fulvius.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Micrurus fulvius.
  • Micrurus fulvius at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database Accessed 14 December 2020.
  • Eastern Coral Snake at Herpetology, Florida Museum of Natural History. Accessed 20 December 2006.
  • at . Accessed 20 December 2006.
  • Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius at Davidson College, Biology Department. Accessed 20 December 2006.
  • Eastern Coral Snake at . Accessed 20 December 2006.
  • Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius at Snakes of South Carolina and Georgia. Accessed 20 December 2006.

January 06, 2023
micrurus, fulvius, this, article, uses, bare, urls, which, uninformative, vulnerable, link, please, consider, converting, them, full, citations, ensure, article, remains, verifiable, maintains, consistent, citation, style, several, templates, tools, available,. This article uses bare URLs which are uninformative and vulnerable to link rot Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting such as Reflinks documentation reFill documentation and Citation bot documentation September 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Micrurus fulvius commonly known as the eastern coral snake 3 common coral snake American cobra 4 and more is a species of highly venomous coral snake in the family Elapidae The species is endemic to the southeastern United States 1 It should not be confused with the scarlet snake Cemophora coccinea or scarlet kingsnake Lampropeltis elapsoides which are harmless mimics 3 No subspecies are currently recognized 5 Micrurus fulviusConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 1 Scientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass ReptiliaOrder SquamataSuborder SerpentesFamily ElapidaeGenus MicrurusSpecies M fulviusBinomial nameMicrurus fulvius Linnaeus 1766 Synonyms 2 Coluber fulvius Linnaeus 1766 Elaps fulvius Daudin 1803 Vipera fulvia Harlan 1826 Elaps tristis Baird amp Girard 1853 Elaps fulvius Boulenger 1896 Micrurus fulvius fulvius Schmidt 1928 Micrurus fulvius barbouri Schmidt 1928 Micruroides fulvius Stickel 1952 Contents 1 Description 2 Common names 3 Geographic range 4 Habitat 5 Feeding 6 Reproduction 7 Venom 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksDescription Edit M fulvius is generally less than 80 cm 31 in in total length including tail The maximum reported total lengths are 121 8 cm 48 0 in for a specimen in Florida Neill 1958 and 129 5 cm 51 0 in Roze 1996 Males have longer tails than females but females reach a greater total length 2 The dorsal scales are smooth and are in 15 rows at midbody 3 The ventral scales number 197 217 in males and 219 233 in females There are 40 47 subcaudals in males and 30 37 in females 2 The anal plate is divided 3 The color pattern consists of a series of rings that encircle the body wide red and black rings separated by narrow yellow rings The head is black from the rostral scale to just behind the eyes The red rings are usually speckled with black 3 People who live in its natural range are often taught a folk rhyme as children such as Red next to black safe from attack red next to yellow you re a dead fellow or Red touching black friend of Jack red touching yellow you re a dead fellow or simply red and yellow kill a fellow 6 These rhymes are useful in teaching children to distinguish king snakes Lampropeltis ssp which are considered helpful predators of vermin such as rats and mice from the venomous coral snake which should only be handled by an experienced biologist or herpetologist However this rhyme is only applicable to the United States species and cannot be used reliably in the Caribbean or Central or South America Common names EditAmong the many common names for M fulvius are eastern coral snake 3 American cobra candy stick snake common coral snake coral adder Elaps harlequin snake Florida coral snake harlequin coral snake North American coral snake red bead snake thunder and lightning snake 4 2 and in Spanish serpiente coralillo arlequin literally harlequin coral snake 5 Geographic range Edit U S coral snake species range M fulvius is found in the Southeastern United States from southeastern North Carolina south through South Carolina and peninsular Florida and westward through southern Georgia Alabama and Mississippi to southeastern Louisiana Coral snakes in Texas western Louisiana and southeastern Arkansas are now considered to be a different species Micrurus tener which was previously considered a subspecies of M fulvius M fulvius may be found at altitudes of near sea level to about 400 m 1 300 ft 2 Climate models have shown that the range of Micrurus fulvius could be decreased throughout the southeast in the future 7 Habitat EditM fulvius occurs in upland mesophytic and tropical hammocks in Florida as well as glade land high pine scrub oak and live oak hammock slash pine and wiregrass flatwoods In southern Georgia and Florida it is found in dry areas with open ground that are bushy but not heavily vegetated It is associated with sandy ridges in Mississippi and sandy creek bottoms in Louisiana 2 It is rarer in North and South Carolina but is more typically found there in the scrub oak forests and pitch pine habitats near the coast as well as the coastal plain of the southeast 8 Feeding EditM fulvius eats lizards birds frogs fish insects and smaller snakes including other coral snakes 3 9 10 Reproduction EditFemales of M fulvius are reported to lay three to 12 eggs in June that hatch in September Neonates are 18 23 cm 7 1 9 1 in in length 3 Males mature 11 16 months after hatching while females mature approximately 26 months after hatching Adult females are typically larger than males 11 Venom EditThe venom of M fulvius is a potent neurotoxin with a median LD50 of 1 3 mg kg SC 12 Envenomation causes rapid paralysis and respiratory failure in prey In humans symptoms include slurred speech double vision and muscular paralysis eventually leading to respiratory failure 13 M fulvius bites and fatalities are very rare Only two documented fatalities were attributed to this species in the 1950s and only one has been reported since Wyeth antivenin became available for it in the 1960s The snakes have a mortality rate between 5 20 The most recent fatality attributed to the eastern coral snake occurred in 2006 confirmed in 2009 report 14 The victim failed to seek proper medical attention and died several hours after being bitten becoming the first fatality caused by M fulvius in over 40 years 14 M fulvius does not account for many cases of snakebite in the U S with only about 100 bites each year 15 The snake is considered secretive and generally reluctant to bite its venomous potential was still being debated in the 1880s and envenomation i e secretion of venom during a strike is thought to occur in only 40 of all bites 2 Unlike New World pit vipers this New World coral snake cannot control the amount of primarily neurotoxic venom injected Dry bites often result from a near miss or deflection although the venom an adult coral snake holds is enough to kill up to five adults it cannot release all its venom in a single bite 16 17 Historically however the mortality rate was estimated to be about 10 20 with death occurring in as little as one to two hours or as much as 26 hours after the bite This is not that surprising since the LD100 for humans is estimated to be 4 5 mg of dried venom while the average venom yield is 2 6 mg with a maximum of more than 12 mg This is probably why current standard hospital procedure in the U S is to start with antivenin therapy for coral snake bites even if no symptoms are found yet 2 Wyeth discontinued the manufacture of coral snake antivenin in 2010 citing a lack of profitability 15 Pfizer has also decided to halt production of its antivenin for similar reasons see Coral snake antivenom shortage As of July 2021 update Pfizer indicates that antivenom is available 18 and one source states that production has resumed 19 References Edit a b Hammerson GA 2007 Micrurus fulvius The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2007 e T64025A12737582 https dx doi org 10 2305 IUCN UK 2007 RLTS T64025A12737582 en Downloaded on 14 December 2020 a b c d e f g h Campbell Jonathan A Lamar William W 2004 The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere Ithaca and London Comstock Publishing Associates 870 pp 1500 plates ISBN 0 8014 4141 2 a b c d e f g h Behler John L King F Wayne 1979 The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians New York Alfred A Knopf 743 pp 657 color plates LCCCN 79 2217 ISBN 0 394 50824 6 Micrurus fulvius p 681 Plates 617 618 a b Wright Albert Hazen Wright Anna Allen 1957 Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada Ithaca and London Comstock Publishing Associates 7th printing 1985 1 105 pp in 2 volumes ISBN 0 8014 0463 0 Micrurus fulvius pp 890 897 Map 63 Figures 256 257 a b Micrurus fulvius Integrated Taxonomic Information System Retrieved 12 December 2006 Powell R Conant R Collins JT 2016 Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America Fourth Edition Boston and New York Houghton Mifflin Harcourt xiv 494 pp 47 plates 207 figures ISBN 978 0 544 12997 9 Micrurus fulvius pp 434 435 Figure 196 Plate 44 Archis Jennifer 1 May 2018 Is the future already here The impact of climate change on the distribution of the eastern coral snake Micrurus fulvius PeerJ 6 e4647 doi 10 7717 peerj 4647 PMC 5935076 PMID 29736330 Savannah river ecology lab permanent dead link Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius National Geographic Animals National Geographic Society Retrieved 4 August 2016 Micrurus fulvius Eastern Coral Snake Harlequin Coralsnake Jackson Dale December 1981 Ecology of the Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius in Northern Peninsular Florida Herpetologica 37 4 http snakedatabase org ld50 micrurus fulvius Coral Snakes Colors Bites Farts amp Facts Live Science 16 December 2014 a b Norris Robert L Pfalzgraf Robert R Laing Gavin March 2009 Death following coral snake bite in the United States First documented case with ELISA confirmation of envenomation in over 40 years Toxicon 53 6 693 697 doi 10 1016 j toxicon 2009 01 032 PMID 19673084 dead link a b Derene Glenn 10 May 2010 Cost of Antivenom Production Creates Shortages Popular Mechanics Retrieved 19 February 2012 Snake Bites Survive Outdoors Retrieved 13 May 2010 Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius National Geographic Retrieved 13 May 2010 Antivenin Micrurus fulvius equine origin North American Coral Snake Antivenin Pfizer Hospital US Archived from the original on 1 March 2021 Retrieved 9 July 2021 Greene Spencer 9 April 2021 Alcock Joe ed What is the treatment for coral snake envenomation Medscape Archived from the original on 1 March 2021 Retrieved 9 July 2021 Further reading EditConant Roger Bridges William 1939 What Snake Is That A Field Guide to the Snakes of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains With 108 drawings by Edmond Malnate New York and London D Appleton Century Company Frontispiece map viii 163 pp Plates A C 1 32 Micrurus fulvius pp 133 135 Plate 26 figure 76 Hubbs Brian O Connor Brendan 2012 A Guide to the Rattlesnakes and other Venomous Serpents of the United States Tempe Arizona Tricolor Books 129 pp ISBN 978 0 9754641 3 7 Micrurus fulvius pp 91 92 Linnaeus C 1766 Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus diferentiis synonymis locis Tomus I Editio Duodecima Reformata Stockholm L Salvius 532 pp Coluber fulvius new species p 381 in Latin Morris Percy A 1948 Boy s Book of Snakes How to Recognize and Understand Them A volume of the Humanizing Science Series edited by Jaques Cattell New York Ronald Press viii 185 pp Micrurus fulvius pp 117 119 180 Schmidt Karl P Davis D Dwight 1941 Field Book of Snakes of the United States and Canada New York G P Putnam s Sons 365 pp Micrurus fulvius pp 274 276 Figure 90 Plate 6 Smith Hobart M Brodie Edmund D Jr 1982 Reptiles of North America A Guide to Field Identification New York Golden Press 240 pp ISBN 0 307 13666 3 paperback ISBN 0 307 47009 1 hardcover Micrurus fulvius pp 196 197 Zim HS Smith HM 1956 Reptiles and Amphibians A Guide to Familiar American Species A Golden Nature Guide New York Simon and Schuster 160 pp Micrurus fulvius pp 108 156 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Micrurus fulvius Wikispecies has information related to Micrurus fulvius Micrurus fulvius at the Reptarium cz Reptile Database Accessed 14 December 2020 Eastern Coral Snake at Herpetology Florida Museum of Natural History Accessed 20 December 2006 Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius at Georgia Museum of Natural History Accessed 20 December 2006 Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius at Davidson College Biology Department Accessed 20 December 2006 Eastern Coral Snake at Yale Herpetology Page Accessed 20 December 2006 Eastern Coral Snake Micrurus fulvius at Snakes of South Carolina and Georgia Accessed 20 December 2006 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Micrurus fulvius amp oldid 1116958752, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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