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Management of schizophrenia

April 08, 2024

The management of schizophrenia usually involves many aspects including psychological, pharmacological, social, educational, and employment-related interventions directed to recovery, and reducing the impact of schizophrenia on quality of life, social functioning, and longevity.[1]

Management of schizophrenia
SpecialtyPsychiatry
[edit on Wikidata]

Hospitalization edit

Hospitalization may occur with severe episodes of schizophrenia. This can be voluntary or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntary (called civil or involuntary commitment). Long-term inpatient stays are now less common due to deinstitutionalization, although still occur.[2] Following (or in lieu of) a hospital admission, support services available can include drop-in centers, visits from members of a community mental health team or Assertive Community Treatment team, supported employment[3] and patient-led support groups. Efforts to avoid repeated hospitalization include the obtaining of community treatment orders which, following judicial approval, coerce the affected individual to receive psychiatric treatment including long-acting injections of anti-psychotic medication. This legal mechanism has been shown to increase the affected patient's time out of the hospital.[4]

Medication edit

 
Risperidone (trade name Risperdal) is a common atypical antipsychotic medication.

The mainstay of treatment for schizophrenia is an antipsychotic medication.[5] Most antipsychotics can take around 7 to 14 days to have their full effect. Medication may improve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, and social and vocational functioning.[6] However, antipsychotics fail to significantly improve the negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction.[7][8] There is evidence of clozapine, amisulpride, olanzapine, and risperidone being the most effective medications. However, a high proportion of studies of risperidone were undertaken by its manufacturer, Janssen-Cilag, and should be interpreted with this in mind.[9] In those on antipsychotics, continued use decreases the risk of relapse.[10][11] There is little evidence regarding consistent benefits from their use beyond two or three years.[11]

Treatment of schizophrenia changed dramatically in the mid-1950s with the development and introduction of the first antipsychotic chlorpromazine.[12] Others such as haloperidol and trifluoperazine soon followed.

It remains unclear whether the newer antipsychotics reduce the chances of developing neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a rare but serious and potentially fatal neurological disorder most often caused by an adverse reaction to antipsychotics (neuroleptics).[13]

Most people on antipsychotics get side effects. People on typical antipsychotics tend to have a higher rate of extrapyramidal side effects while some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain, diabetes, and risk of metabolic syndrome; this is most pronounced with olanzapine, while risperidone and quetiapine are also associated with weight gain.[9] Risperidone has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol.[9] The American Psychiatric Association generally recommends that atypicals be used as first line treatment in most patients, but further states that therapy should be individually optimized for each patient.[14]

The response of symptoms to medication is variable; treatment resistant schizophrenia is the failure to respond to two or more antipsychotic medications given in therapeutic doses for six weeks or more.[15] Patients in this category may be prescribed clozapine, a medication that may be more effective at reducing symptoms of schizophrenia, but treatment may come with a higher risk of several potentially lethal side effects including agranulocytosis and myocarditis.[16][17] Clozapine is the only medication proven to be more effective for people who do not respond to other types of antipsychotics.[18] It also appears to reduce suicide in people with schizophrenia. As clozapine suppresses the development of bone marrow, in turn reducing white blood cells which can lead to infection, blood tests are taken for the first six months on this medication.[19] The risk of experiencing agranulocytosis due to clozapine treatment is higher in elderly people, children, and adolescents.[16] The effectiveness in the studies also needs to be interpreted with caution as the studies may have an increased risk of bias.[16]

Studies have found that antipsychotic treatment following NMS and neutropenia may sometimes be successfully rechallenged (restarted) with clozapine.[20][21]

Tobacco smoking increases the metabolism of some antipsychotics, by strongly activitating CYP1A2, the enzyme that breaks them down, and a significant difference is found in these levels between smokers and non-smokers.[22][23][24] It is recommended that the dosage for those smokers on clozapine be increased by 50%, and for those on olanzapine by 30%.[23] The result of stopping smoking can lead to an increased concentration of the antipsychotic that may result in toxicity, so that monitoring of effects would need to take place with a view to decreasing the dosage; many symptoms may be noticeably worsened, and extreme fatigue, and seizures are also possible with a risk of relapse. Likewise those who resume smoking may need their dosages adjusted accordingly.[22][25] The altering effects are due to compounds in tobacco smoke and not to nicotine; the use of nicotine replacement therapy therefore has the equivalent effect of stopping smoking and monitoring would still be needed.[22]

Research findings suggested that other neurotransmission systems, including serotonin, glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine, were implicated in the development of schizophrenia, and that a more inclusive medication was needed.[24] A new first-in-class antipsychotic that targets multiple neurotransmitter systems called lumateperone (ITI-007), was trialed and approved by the FDA in December 2019 for the treatment of schizophrenia in adults.[24][26][27] Lumateperone is a small molecule agent that shows improved safety, and tolerance. It interacts with dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate in a complex, uniquely selective manner, and is seen to improve negative and positive symptoms, and social functioning.[28] Lumateperone was also found to reduce potential metabolic dysfunction, have lower rates of movement disorders, and have lower cardiovascular side effects such as a fast heart rate.[24]

Add-on agents edit

Sometimes the use of a second antipsychotic in combination with another is recommended where there has been a poor response. A review of this use found some evidence for an improvement in symptoms but not for relapse or hospitalisation. The use of combination antipsychotics is increasing in spite of limited supporting evidence, with some countries including Finland, France, and the UK recommending its use and others including Canada, Denmark, and Spain in opposition.[29] Anti-inflammatories, anti-depressants, and mood stabilisers are other add-ons used. Other strategies used include ECT, or repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) but evidence for these is lacking.

Note: Only adjuncts for which at least one double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial has provided support are listed in this table.

Adjuncts[30][31] Symptoms against which efficacy is known Notable adverse effects seen in clinical trials Highest quality of clinical data available N Notes
Adjuncts to clozapine[32][33]
Antipsychotics
Amisulpride Global Extrapyramidal side effects (e.g. tremor, dystonia, akathisia, etc.), headache, somnolence, insomnia, elevated serum prolactin, etc. 1 DB-RPCTs 16 Not approved for use in the US or Canada. Approved for use in Australia, Europe and several countries in East Asia. Can prolong the QT interval, some in vivo evidence[34] suggests it may have anti-diabetogenic effects and hence may improve metabolic parameters in patients on clozapine.
Aripiprazole Global, esp. negative Akathisia 1 DB-RPCT 61 Can also improve metabolic side effects of clozapine (including body weight). Six studies so far; only one negative.
Risperidone Global Impaired cognitive functioning, prolactin elevation and hyperglycaemia 2 DB-RPCTs, 1 DB-RCT 357 (DB-RPCTs) & 24 (DB-RCT) 11 studies have been conducted, 5 negative. A meta-analysis[32] found no clinically significant difference between risperidone augmentation and placebo augmentation.
Sulpiride Global Increased serum prolactin 1 DB-RPCT 28 Not approved for use in the US, Canada and Australia.
Ziprasidone Global QTc interval prolongation 1 DB-RCT 24 Was compared with risperidone in the one DB-RCT.
Antidepressants
Citalopram Negative symptoms Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 61 Can prolong the QT interval and since clozapine can prolong the QT interval too it is advisable to avoid their concurrent use in patients with cardiovascular risk factors.
Fluvoxamine Negative and depressive symptoms Elevated serum levels of clozapine (via inhibition of P450 cytochromes) Open-label studies NA Improved metabolic parameters
Mirtazapine Negative, depressive and cognitive symptoms Weight gain 2 DB-RPCTs (1 negative) 80 5-HT2A/2C/3 & α2 adrenoceptor antagonist
Anticonvulsants
Lamotrigine Negative & depressive symptoms Stevens–Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, etc. 4 DB-RPCTs (2 negative) 108 Usually a relatively well tolerated anticonvulsant, but because of risk of potentially-fatal dermatologic AEs the dose must be slowly titrated up in order to prevent these AEs. A meta-analysis[32] found that it was ineffective.
Topiramate Negative symptoms Cognitive impairment, sedation, asthenia 2 DB-RPCTs (1 negative) 57 Can cause cognitive impairment and hence should probably be avoided in patients with cognitive impairments.
Valproate Reduced anxiety & depression Weight gain, hair loss One open-label study comparing it with lithium NA Increases the expression of mGluR2 and GAD67 via histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition.
Glutamatergic agents[35][36]
CX-516 Global Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 18 Statistically significant improvement in total symptoms but no significant improvement in negative and positive symptoms when considered separately.
Memantine Global Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 21 Statistically significant improvement in negative and total symptomtology.
Other
Lithium Global Weight gain, hypersalivation 1 DB-RPCT, 1 DB-RCT 10 (DB-RPCT), 20 (DB-RCT) Increased risk of neurological side effects such as neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
E-EPA Global (especially negative and cognitive symptoms) Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCT (1 negative) 131 Ester of the omega-3 fatty acid, eicosapentaenoic acid.
Adjuncts to other antipsychotics
Anti-inflammatory agents[37][38]
Aspirin[39][40] Global (especially positive symptoms) Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 70 Increased risk of bleeding, but seems relatively well tolerated.
Celecoxib Global (especially negative symptoms) Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCTs (1 negative) 147 May increased the risk of cardiovascular events (which is particularly worrisome as schizophrenia patients are a higher risk group for cardiovascular events). Case series (N=2) suggests efficacy in augmenting clozapine.
Minocycline[41][42][43][44] Global Well tolerated 4 DB-RPCTs 164 Increased risk of blood dyscarsias.
Omega-3 fatty acids Global Well tolerated 6 DB-RPCTs (1 negative)[45] 362 May have protective effects against depression.
Pregnenolone[46][47][48][49] Global Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCTs 100 Levels of this neurosteroid in the body are elevated by clozapine treatment.
Glutamatergics[35][50]
D-alanine[51][52] Global Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 31 A D-amino acid with affinity towards the glycine site on the NMDA receptor.
D-serine Global (especially negative symptoms) Well tolerated 4 DB-RPCTs 183 Affinity towards the glycine site on NMDA receptors. D. Souza 2013,[53] Heresco-Levy 2005,[54] Lane 2005,[55] Lane 2010,[56] Tsai 1999,[57] Weiser 2012[58]
Glycine Global (predominantly positive symptoms) Well tolerated 5 DB-RPCTs 219 Endogenous NMDA receptor ligand.
N-acetylcysteine[59] Global (especially negative symptoms) Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCTs 140 Cystine and glutathione prodrug.[60][61] Cystine increases intracellular glutamate levels via the glutamate-cystine anti porter.

Berk 2008,[62] Berk 2011,[63] Carmeli 2012,[64] Lavoie 2008[65]

Sarcosine Global (especially negative symptoms) Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCTs 112 GlyT1 antagonist (i.e. glycine reuptake inhibitor). Also known as N-methylglycine. Lane 2005,[55] Lane 2006,[66] Lane 2008,[67] Lane 2010,[56] Tsai 2004[68]
Cholinergics[69][36][70]
Donepezil Global Well tolerated 6 DB-RPCTs (5 negative; or 12 DB-RPCTs if one includes cross-over trials; 8 negative in total) 378, 474 (including cross-over trials) Possesses antidepressant effects according to one trial.
Galantamine Cognition Well tolerated 5 DB-RPCTs (1 negative) 170 Robust nootropic
Rivastigmine Cognition Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCTs (all 3 negative; 5 trials including cross-over trials; 4 negative) 93, 131 (including cross-over trials) Seems to be a weaker nootropic
Tropisetron†[71][72][73][74] Cognitive and negative symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCTs 120 Agonist at α7 nAChRs; antagonist at 5-HT3. Expensive (>$20 AUD/tablet).
Antidepressants[75]
Escitalopram†[76] Negative symptoms Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 40 May increase risk of QT interval prolongation.
Fluoxetine Negative symptoms Well tolerated 4 DB-RPCTs (3 negative) 136 The safest of antidepressants listed here in overdose.[77] Risk of QT interval prolongation is lower than with escitalopram (but still exists).
Mianserin[78] Negative and cognitive symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB-RPCTs 48 Weight gain, sedation, dry mouth, constipation and dizziness. Blood dyscarsias are a possible adverse effect and both the Australian Medicines Handbook and British National Formulary 65 (BNF 65) recommend regular complete blood counts to be taken.[79][80]
Mirtazapine[78] Cognition,[81][82] negative and positive symptoms†[83] Well tolerated ≥4 DB-RPCTs (one negative) 127 Relatively safe in overdose. Produces significant sedation and weight gain, however, which could potentially add to the adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics. Can reduce antipsychotic-induced akathisia.[84]
Ritanserin Negative symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB-RPCTs 73 5-HT2A/2C antagonist. Not clinically available.
Trazodone Negative symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB-RPCTs 72 5-HT2A antagonist and SSRI. Has sedative effects and hence might exacerbate some of the side effects of atypical antipsychotics.
Other
Alpha-lipoic acid[85][86] Weight gain Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 360 Offset antipsychotic drug-induced weight gain. Increased total antioxidant status. May also increase GSH:GSSG (reduced glutathione:oxidized glutathione) ratio.[87]
L-Theanine[88][89][90] Positive, activation, and anxiety symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB-RPCTs 40 Glutamic acid analog. Primary study noted reduction in positive, activation, and anxiety symptoms. Additional studies have noted improvements in attention.[91][92][93][94] Research suggests that theanime has a regulatory effect on the nicotine acetylcholine receptor-dopamine reward pathway, and was shown to reduced dopamine production in the midbrain of mice.[95]
Famotidine†[96] Global Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 30 May reduce the absorption of vitamin B12 from the stomach. Might also increase susceptibility to food poisoning.
Ginkgo biloba Tardive dyskinesia, positive symptoms Well tolerated 4 DB-RPCTs 157 Atmaca 2005,[97] Doruk 2008,[98] Zhang 2001,[99] Zhang 2001,[100] Zhang 2006,[101] Zhang 2011,[102] Zhou 1999[103]
Ondansetron[104] Negative and cognitive symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB-RPCTs 151 5-HT3 antagonist. May prolong the QT interval. Expensive (>$4 AUD/tablet).
SAM-e[105] Aggression Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 18 Study noted improvement of aggressive behavior and quality of life impairment. while in another study SAM-e has been purported to have a contributory effect on psychosis [106]
Vitamin C[107][108][109][110] Global Well tolerated 1 DB-RPCT 40 Improves BPRS scores.

Acronyms used:
DB-RPCT — Double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial.
DB-RCT — Double-blind randomized controlled trial.

Note: Global in the context of schizophrenia symptoms here refers to all four symptom clusters.

N refers to the total sample sizes (including placebo groups) of DB-RCTs.

† No secondary sources could be found on the utility of the drug in question, treating the symptom in question (or any symptom in the case of where † has been placed next to the drug's name).

Psychosocial edit

Psychotherapy is also widely recommended, though not widely used in the treatment of schizophrenia, due to reimbursement problems or lack of training. As a result, treatment is often confined to psychiatric medication.[111]

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is used to target specific symptoms and improve related issues such as self-esteem and social functioning. Although the results of early trials were inconclusive[112] as the therapy advanced from its initial applications in the mid-1990s, meta-analytic reviews suggested CBT to be an effective treatment for the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia.[113][114] Nonetheless, more recent meta analyses have cast doubt upon the utility of CBT as a treatment for the symptoms of psychosis.[115][116][117]

Another approach is cognitive remediation therapy, a technique aimed at remediating the neurocognitive deficits sometimes present in schizophrenia. Based on techniques of neuropsychological rehabilitation, early evidence has shown it to be cognitively effective, resulting in the improvement of previous deficits in psychomotor speed, verbal memory, nonverbal memory, and executive function, such improvements being related to measurable changes in brain activation as measured by fMRI.[118]

Metacognitive training (MCT): In view of many empirical findings [119] suggesting deficits of metacognition (thinking about one's thinking, reflecting upon one's cognitive process) in patients with schizophrenia, metacognitive training (MCT) [119][120] is increasingly adopted as a complementary treatment approach. MCT aims at sharpening the awareness of patients for a variety of cognitive biases (e.g. jumping to conclusions, attributional biases, over-confidence in errors), which are implicated in the formation and maintenance of schizophrenia positive symptoms (especially delusions),[121] and to ultimately replace these biases with functional cognitive strategies. The training consists of 8 modules and can be obtained cost-free from the internet in 15 languages.[119][120] Studies confirm the training's feasibility [122] and efficacy in ameliorating positive psychosis symptoms.[123][124] Studies of single training module show that this intervention target specific cognitive biases.[125] Recently, an individualized format has been developed which combines the metacognitive approach with methods derived from cognitive-behavioral therapy.[126]

Family Therapy or Education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, may be beneficial, at least if the duration of intervention is longer-term.[127][128][129] A 2010 Cochrane review concluded that many of the clinical trials that studied the effectiveness of family interventions were poorly designed, and may over estimate the effectiveness of the therapy. High-quality randomized controlled trials in this area are required.[129] Aside from therapy, the impact of schizophrenia on families and the burden on careers has been recognized, with the increasing availability of self-help books on the subject.[130][131] There is also some evidence for benefits from social skills training, although there have also been significant negative findings.[132][14] Some studies have explored the possible benefits of music therapy and other creative therapies.[133][134][135]

The Soteria model is alternative to inpatient hospitalization using full non professional care and a minimal medication approach.[136] Although evidence is limited, a review found the program equally as effective as treatment with medications but due to the limited evidence did not recommend it as a standard treatment.[137] Training in the detection of subtle facial expressions has been used to improve facial emotional recognition.[138]

Avatar Therapy, developed by Professor Julian Leff, was developed to help patients deal with the impact of auditory hallucinations. A 2020 Cochrane review however failed to find any consistent effects in the reviewed studies.[139]

Supplements edit

Disruption of the gut microbiota has been linked to inflammation, and disorders of the central nervous system. This includes schizophrenia, and probiotic supplementation has been proposed to improve its symptoms. A review found no evidence to support this but it concludes that probiotics may be of benefit in regulating bowel movements and lessening the metabolic effects of antipsychotics.[140]

A review explains the need for an optimal level of vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids for the proper synthesis and control of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Serotonin regulates executive function, sensory gating, and social behavior – all of which are commonly impaired in schizophrenia. The model proposed suggests that supplementation would help in preventing and treating these brain dysfunctions.[141] Another review finds that omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin D are among the nutritional factors known to have a beneficial effect on mental health.[142] A Cochrane review found evidence to suggest that the use of omega-3 fatty acids in the prodromal stage may prevent the transition to psychosis but the evidence was poor quality and further studies were called for.[143]

Treatment resistant schizophrenia edit

About half of those with schizophrenia will respond favourably to antipsychotics, and have a good return of functioning.[144] However, positive symptoms persist in up to a third of people. Following two trials of different antipsychotics over six weeks, that also prove ineffective, they will be classed as having treatment resistant schizophrenia (TRS), and clozapine will be offered.[145][146] Clozapine is of benefit to around half of this group although it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) in less than 4% of people.[147][148][149] Between 12 and 20 per cent will not respond to clozapine and this group is said to have ultra treatment resistant schizophrenia.[145][150] ECT may be offered to treat TRS as an add-on therapy, and is shown to sometimes be of benefit.[150] A review concluded that this use only has an effect on medium-term TRS and that there is not enough evidence to support its use other than for this group.[151]

TRS is often accompanied by a low quality of life, and greater social dysfunction.[152] TRS may be the result of inadequate rather than inefficient treatment; it also may be a false label due to medication not being taken regularly, or at all.[153] About 16 per cent of people who had initially been responsive to treatment later develop resistance. This could relate to the length of time on APs, with treatment becoming less responsive.[154] This finding also supports the involvement of dopamine in the development of schizophrenia.[153] Studies suggest that TRS may be a more heritable form.[155]

TRS may be evident from first episode psychosis, or from a relapse. It can vary in its intensity and response to other therapies.[152] This variation is seen to possibly indicate an underlying neurobiology such as dopamine supersensitivity (DSS), glutamate or serotonin dysfunction, inflammation and oxidative stress.[145] Studies have found that dopamine supersensitivity is found in up to 70% of those with TRS.[156] The variation has led to the suggestion that treatment responsive and treatment resistant schizophrenia be considered as two different subtypes.[145][155] It is further suggested that if the subtypes could be distinguished at an early stage significant implications could follow for treatment considerations, and for research.[150] Neuroimaging studies have found a significant decrease in the volume of grey matter in those with TRS with no such change seen in those who are treatment responsive.[150] In those with ultra treatment resistance the decrease in grey matter volume was larger.[145][150]

Rehabilitative interventions edit

Individual Placement and Support (IPS), where the rehabilitated person is directly placed and supported in the workplace with the support of a professional, promotes the employment of people with schizophrenia and their survival in the open labour market better than the model of gradual work practice before placement.[157]

Research evidence on the relative superiority of different types of housing units for people with psychosis in terms of symptomatic or functional development is scarce. The support and independence provided in a residential unit should be flexible, individualised and, as far as possible, at the choice of the person being rehabilitated. The living environment should be as normal as possible and the rehabilitated person should not be isolated from the rest of the community.[158][159]

Traditional Chinese medicine edit

Acupuncture is a procedure generally known to be safe and with few adverse effects. A Cochrane review found limited evidence for its possible antipsychotic effects in the treatment of schizophrenia and called for more studies.[160] Another review found limited evidence for its use as an add-on therapy for the relief of symptoms but positive results were found for the treatment of sleep disorders that often accompany schizophrenia.[161]

Wendan decoction is a classic herbal treatment in traditional Chinese medicine used for symptoms of psychosis, and other conditions. Wendan decoction is safe, accessible, and inexpensive, and a Cochrane review was carried out for its possible effects on schizophrenia symptoms. Limited evidence was found for its positive antipsychotic effects in the short term, and it was associated with fewer adverse effects. Used as an add-on to an antipsychotic, wider positive effects were found. Larger studies of improved quality were called for.[162][163]

Other edit

Various brain stimulation techniques have been used to treat the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, in particular auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs), and investigations are ongoing.[164] Most studies focus on transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCM), and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS).[165] Transcranial magnetic stimulation is low-cost, noninvasive, and almost free of side-effects making it a good therapeutic choice with promising outcomes.[164] Low-frequency TMS of the left temporoparietal cortex (the region containing Broca's area) can reduce auditory hallucinations.[164] rTMS seems to be the most effective treatment for those with persistent AVHs, as an add-on therapy.[165] AVHs are not resolved in up to 30 per cent of those on antipsychotics and a further percentage still experience only a partial response.[165] Techniques based on focused ultrasound for deep brain stimulation could provide insight for the treatment of AVHs.[165]

An established brain stimulation treatment is electroconvulsive therapy. This is not considered a first-line treatment but may be prescribed in cases where other treatments have failed. It is more effective where symptoms of catatonia are present,[166] and is recommended for use under NICE guidelines in the UK for catatonia if previously effective, though there is no recommendation for use for schizophrenia otherwise.[167] Psychosurgery has now become a rare procedure and is not a recommended treatment for schizophrenia.[168]

A study in 2014 conducted by an Australian researcher indicated that the pericarp powder of Garcinia mangostana L. have the ability to reduce oxidative stress as an effective treatment for schizophrenia. This process includes increasing glutathione S-transferase levels which enhances mitochondrial activity over a period of 180 days under a sustained intake of 1000 mg/day.[169]

There may be some benefit in trying several treatment modalities at the same time, especially those that could be classed as lifestyle interventions.[170] Nidotherapy is suggested to be a cost-effective social prescribing intervention using efforts to change the environment to improve functional ability.[171]

Numerous people diagnosed with schizophrenia have found it necessary to organize confidential groups with each other where they can discuss their experiences without clinicians present.[172][173] Peer support in which people with experiential knowledge of mental illness provide knowledge, experience, emotional, social or practical help to each other is considered an important aspect of coping with schizophrenia and other serious mental health conditions. A 2019 Cochrane reviews of evidence for peer-support interventions compared to supportive or psychosocial interventions were unable to support or refute the effectiveness of peer-support due to limited data.[174]

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April 08, 2024
management, schizophrenia, management, schizophrenia, usually, involves, many, aspects, including, psychological, pharmacological, social, educational, employment, related, interventions, directed, recovery, reducing, impact, schizophrenia, quality, life, soci. The management of schizophrenia usually involves many aspects including psychological pharmacological social educational and employment related interventions directed to recovery and reducing the impact of schizophrenia on quality of life social functioning and longevity 1 Management of schizophreniaSpecialtyPsychiatry edit on Wikidata Contents 1 Hospitalization 2 Medication 2 1 Add on agents 3 Psychosocial 3 1 Supplements 3 1 1 Treatment resistant schizophrenia 4 Rehabilitative interventions 5 Traditional Chinese medicine 6 Other 7 ReferencesHospitalization editHospitalization may occur with severe episodes of schizophrenia This can be voluntary or if mental health legislation allows it involuntary called civil or involuntary commitment Long term inpatient stays are now less common due to deinstitutionalization although still occur 2 Following or in lieu of a hospital admission support services available can include drop in centers visits from members of a community mental health team or Assertive Community Treatment team supported employment 3 and patient led support groups Efforts to avoid repeated hospitalization include the obtaining of community treatment orders which following judicial approval coerce the affected individual to receive psychiatric treatment including long acting injections of anti psychotic medication This legal mechanism has been shown to increase the affected patient s time out of the hospital 4 Medication edit nbsp Risperidone trade name Risperdal is a common atypical antipsychotic medication The mainstay of treatment for schizophrenia is an antipsychotic medication 5 Most antipsychotics can take around 7 to 14 days to have their full effect Medication may improve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia and social and vocational functioning 6 However antipsychotics fail to significantly improve the negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction 7 8 There is evidence of clozapine amisulpride olanzapine and risperidone being the most effective medications However a high proportion of studies of risperidone were undertaken by its manufacturer Janssen Cilag and should be interpreted with this in mind 9 In those on antipsychotics continued use decreases the risk of relapse 10 11 There is little evidence regarding consistent benefits from their use beyond two or three years 11 Treatment of schizophrenia changed dramatically in the mid 1950s with the development and introduction of the first antipsychotic chlorpromazine 12 Others such as haloperidol and trifluoperazine soon followed It remains unclear whether the newer antipsychotics reduce the chances of developing neuroleptic malignant syndrome a rare but serious and potentially fatal neurological disorder most often caused by an adverse reaction to antipsychotics neuroleptics 13 Most people on antipsychotics get side effects People on typical antipsychotics tend to have a higher rate of extrapyramidal side effects while some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain diabetes and risk of metabolic syndrome this is most pronounced with olanzapine while risperidone and quetiapine are also associated with weight gain 9 Risperidone has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol 9 The American Psychiatric Association generally recommends that atypicals be used as first line treatment in most patients but further states that therapy should be individually optimized for each patient 14 The response of symptoms to medication is variable treatment resistant schizophrenia is the failure to respond to two or more antipsychotic medications given in therapeutic doses for six weeks or more 15 Patients in this category may be prescribed clozapine a medication that may be more effective at reducing symptoms of schizophrenia but treatment may come with a higher risk of several potentially lethal side effects including agranulocytosis and myocarditis 16 17 Clozapine is the only medication proven to be more effective for people who do not respond to other types of antipsychotics 18 It also appears to reduce suicide in people with schizophrenia As clozapine suppresses the development of bone marrow in turn reducing white blood cells which can lead to infection blood tests are taken for the first six months on this medication 19 The risk of experiencing agranulocytosis due to clozapine treatment is higher in elderly people children and adolescents 16 The effectiveness in the studies also needs to be interpreted with caution as the studies may have an increased risk of bias 16 Studies have found that antipsychotic treatment following NMS and neutropenia may sometimes be successfully rechallenged restarted with clozapine 20 21 Tobacco smoking increases the metabolism of some antipsychotics by strongly activitating CYP1A2 the enzyme that breaks them down and a significant difference is found in these levels between smokers and non smokers 22 23 24 It is recommended that the dosage for those smokers on clozapine be increased by 50 and for those on olanzapine by 30 23 The result of stopping smoking can lead to an increased concentration of the antipsychotic that may result in toxicity so that monitoring of effects would need to take place with a view to decreasing the dosage many symptoms may be noticeably worsened and extreme fatigue and seizures are also possible with a risk of relapse Likewise those who resume smoking may need their dosages adjusted accordingly 22 25 The altering effects are due to compounds in tobacco smoke and not to nicotine the use of nicotine replacement therapy therefore has the equivalent effect of stopping smoking and monitoring would still be needed 22 Research findings suggested that other neurotransmission systems including serotonin glutamate GABA and acetylcholine were implicated in the development of schizophrenia and that a more inclusive medication was needed 24 A new first in class antipsychotic that targets multiple neurotransmitter systems called lumateperone ITI 007 was trialed and approved by the FDA in December 2019 for the treatment of schizophrenia in adults 24 26 27 Lumateperone is a small molecule agent that shows improved safety and tolerance It interacts with dopamine serotonin and glutamate in a complex uniquely selective manner and is seen to improve negative and positive symptoms and social functioning 28 Lumateperone was also found to reduce potential metabolic dysfunction have lower rates of movement disorders and have lower cardiovascular side effects such as a fast heart rate 24 Add on agents edit Sometimes the use of a second antipsychotic in combination with another is recommended where there has been a poor response A review of this use found some evidence for an improvement in symptoms but not for relapse or hospitalisation The use of combination antipsychotics is increasing in spite of limited supporting evidence with some countries including Finland France and the UK recommending its use and others including Canada Denmark and Spain in opposition 29 Anti inflammatories anti depressants and mood stabilisers are other add ons used Other strategies used include ECT or repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation rTMS but evidence for these is lacking Note Only adjuncts for which at least one double blind randomized placebo controlled trial has provided support are listed in this table Adjuncts 30 31 Symptoms against which efficacy is known Notable adverse effects seen in clinical trials Highest quality of clinical data available N NotesAdjuncts to clozapine 32 33 AntipsychoticsAmisulpride Global Extrapyramidal side effects e g tremor dystonia akathisia etc headache somnolence insomnia elevated serum prolactin etc 1 DB RPCTs 16 Not approved for use in the US or Canada Approved for use in Australia Europe and several countries in East Asia Can prolong the QT interval some in vivo evidence 34 suggests it may have anti diabetogenic effects and hence may improve metabolic parameters in patients on clozapine Aripiprazole Global esp negative Akathisia 1 DB RPCT 61 Can also improve metabolic side effects of clozapine including body weight Six studies so far only one negative Risperidone Global Impaired cognitive functioning prolactin elevation and hyperglycaemia 2 DB RPCTs 1 DB RCT 357 DB RPCTs amp 24 DB RCT 11 studies have been conducted 5 negative A meta analysis 32 found no clinically significant difference between risperidone augmentation and placebo augmentation Sulpiride Global Increased serum prolactin 1 DB RPCT 28 Not approved for use in the US Canada and Australia Ziprasidone Global QTc interval prolongation 1 DB RCT 24 Was compared with risperidone in the one DB RCT AntidepressantsCitalopram Negative symptoms Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 61 Can prolong the QT interval and since clozapine can prolong the QT interval too it is advisable to avoid their concurrent use in patients with cardiovascular risk factors Fluvoxamine Negative and depressive symptoms Elevated serum levels of clozapine via inhibition of P450 cytochromes Open label studies NA Improved metabolic parametersMirtazapine Negative depressive and cognitive symptoms Weight gain 2 DB RPCTs 1 negative 80 5 HT2A 2C 3 amp a2 adrenoceptor antagonistAnticonvulsantsLamotrigine Negative amp depressive symptoms Stevens Johnson syndrome toxic epidermal necrolysis etc 4 DB RPCTs 2 negative 108 Usually a relatively well tolerated anticonvulsant but because of risk of potentially fatal dermatologic AEs the dose must be slowly titrated up in order to prevent these AEs A meta analysis 32 found that it was ineffective Topiramate Negative symptoms Cognitive impairment sedation asthenia 2 DB RPCTs 1 negative 57 Can cause cognitive impairment and hence should probably be avoided in patients with cognitive impairments Valproate Reduced anxiety amp depression Weight gain hair loss One open label study comparing it with lithium NA Increases the expression of mGluR2 and GAD67 via histone deacetylase HDAC inhibition Glutamatergic agents 35 36 CX 516 Global Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 18 Statistically significant improvement in total symptoms but no significant improvement in negative and positive symptoms when considered separately Memantine Global Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 21 Statistically significant improvement in negative and total symptomtology OtherLithium Global Weight gain hypersalivation 1 DB RPCT 1 DB RCT 10 DB RPCT 20 DB RCT Increased risk of neurological side effects such as neuroleptic malignant syndrome E EPA Global especially negative and cognitive symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB RPCT 1 negative 131 Ester of the omega 3 fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid Adjuncts to other antipsychoticsAnti inflammatory agents 37 38 Aspirin 39 40 Global especially positive symptoms Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 70 Increased risk of bleeding but seems relatively well tolerated Celecoxib Global especially negative symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB RPCTs 1 negative 147 May increased the risk of cardiovascular events which is particularly worrisome as schizophrenia patients are a higher risk group for cardiovascular events Case series N 2 suggests efficacy in augmenting clozapine Minocycline 41 42 43 44 Global Well tolerated 4 DB RPCTs 164 Increased risk of blood dyscarsias Omega 3 fatty acids Global Well tolerated 6 DB RPCTs 1 negative 45 362 May have protective effects against depression Pregnenolone 46 47 48 49 Global Well tolerated 3 DB RPCTs 100 Levels of this neurosteroid in the body are elevated by clozapine treatment Glutamatergics 35 50 D alanine 51 52 Global Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 31 A D amino acid with affinity towards the glycine site on the NMDA receptor D serine Global especially negative symptoms Well tolerated 4 DB RPCTs 183 Affinity towards the glycine site on NMDA receptors D Souza 2013 53 Heresco Levy 2005 54 Lane 2005 55 Lane 2010 56 Tsai 1999 57 Weiser 2012 58 Glycine Global predominantly positive symptoms Well tolerated 5 DB RPCTs 219 Endogenous NMDA receptor ligand N acetylcysteine 59 Global especially negative symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB RPCTs 140 Cystine and glutathione prodrug 60 61 Cystine increases intracellular glutamate levels via the glutamate cystine anti porter Berk 2008 62 Berk 2011 63 Carmeli 2012 64 Lavoie 2008 65 Sarcosine Global especially negative symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB RPCTs 112 GlyT1 antagonist i e glycine reuptake inhibitor Also known as N methylglycine Lane 2005 55 Lane 2006 66 Lane 2008 67 Lane 2010 56 Tsai 2004 68 Cholinergics 69 36 70 Donepezil Global Well tolerated 6 DB RPCTs 5 negative or 12 DB RPCTs if one includes cross over trials 8 negative in total 378 474 including cross over trials Possesses antidepressant effects according to one trial Galantamine Cognition Well tolerated 5 DB RPCTs 1 negative 170 Robust nootropicRivastigmine Cognition Well tolerated 3 DB RPCTs all 3 negative 5 trials including cross over trials 4 negative 93 131 including cross over trials Seems to be a weaker nootropicTropisetron 71 72 73 74 Cognitive and negative symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB RPCTs 120 Agonist at a7 nAChRs antagonist at 5 HT3 Expensive gt 20 AUD tablet Antidepressants 75 Escitalopram 76 Negative symptoms Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 40 May increase risk of QT interval prolongation Fluoxetine Negative symptoms Well tolerated 4 DB RPCTs 3 negative 136 The safest of antidepressants listed here in overdose 77 Risk of QT interval prolongation is lower than with escitalopram but still exists Mianserin 78 Negative and cognitive symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB RPCTs 48 Weight gain sedation dry mouth constipation and dizziness Blood dyscarsias are a possible adverse effect and both the Australian Medicines Handbook and British National Formulary 65 BNF 65 recommend regular complete blood counts to be taken 79 80 Mirtazapine 78 Cognition 81 82 negative and positive symptoms 83 Well tolerated 4 DB RPCTs one negative 127 Relatively safe in overdose Produces significant sedation and weight gain however which could potentially add to the adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics Can reduce antipsychotic induced akathisia 84 Ritanserin Negative symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB RPCTs 73 5 HT2A 2C antagonist Not clinically available Trazodone Negative symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB RPCTs 72 5 HT2A antagonist and SSRI Has sedative effects and hence might exacerbate some of the side effects of atypical antipsychotics OtherAlpha lipoic acid 85 86 Weight gain Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 360 Offset antipsychotic drug induced weight gain Increased total antioxidant status May also increase GSH GSSG reduced glutathione oxidized glutathione ratio 87 L Theanine 88 89 90 Positive activation and anxiety symptoms Well tolerated 2 DB RPCTs 40 Glutamic acid analog Primary study noted reduction in positive activation and anxiety symptoms Additional studies have noted improvements in attention 91 92 93 94 Research suggests that theanime has a regulatory effect on the nicotine acetylcholine receptor dopamine reward pathway and was shown to reduced dopamine production in the midbrain of mice 95 Famotidine 96 Global Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 30 May reduce the absorption of vitamin B12 from the stomach Might also increase susceptibility to food poisoning Ginkgo biloba Tardive dyskinesia positive symptoms Well tolerated 4 DB RPCTs 157 Atmaca 2005 97 Doruk 2008 98 Zhang 2001 99 Zhang 2001 100 Zhang 2006 101 Zhang 2011 102 Zhou 1999 103 Ondansetron 104 Negative and cognitive symptoms Well tolerated 3 DB RPCTs 151 5 HT3 antagonist May prolong the QT interval Expensive gt 4 AUD tablet SAM e 105 Aggression Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 18 Study noted improvement of aggressive behavior and quality of life impairment while in another study SAM e has been purported to have a contributory effect on psychosis 106 Vitamin C 107 108 109 110 Global Well tolerated 1 DB RPCT 40 Improves BPRS scores Acronyms used DB RPCT Double blind randomized placebo controlled trial DB RCT Double blind randomized controlled trial Note Global in the context of schizophrenia symptoms here refers to all four symptom clusters N refers to the total sample sizes including placebo groups of DB RCTs dd No secondary sources could be found on the utility of the drug in question treating the symptom in question or any symptom in the case of where has been placed next to the drug s name Psychosocial editPsychotherapy is also widely recommended though not widely used in the treatment of schizophrenia due to reimbursement problems or lack of training As a result treatment is often confined to psychiatric medication 111 Cognitive behavioral therapy CBT is used to target specific symptoms and improve related issues such as self esteem and social functioning Although the results of early trials were inconclusive 112 as the therapy advanced from its initial applications in the mid 1990s meta analytic reviews suggested CBT to be an effective treatment for the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia 113 114 Nonetheless more recent meta analyses have cast doubt upon the utility of CBT as a treatment for the symptoms of psychosis 115 116 117 Another approach is cognitive remediation therapy a technique aimed at remediating the neurocognitive deficits sometimes present in schizophrenia Based on techniques of neuropsychological rehabilitation early evidence has shown it to be cognitively effective resulting in the improvement of previous deficits in psychomotor speed verbal memory nonverbal memory and executive function such improvements being related to measurable changes in brain activation as measured by fMRI 118 Metacognitive training MCT In view of many empirical findings 119 suggesting deficits of metacognition thinking about one s thinking reflecting upon one s cognitive process in patients with schizophrenia metacognitive training MCT 119 120 is increasingly adopted as a complementary treatment approach MCT aims at sharpening the awareness of patients for a variety of cognitive biases e g jumping to conclusions attributional biases over confidence in errors which are implicated in the formation and maintenance of schizophrenia positive symptoms especially delusions 121 and to ultimately replace these biases with functional cognitive strategies The training consists of 8 modules and can be obtained cost free from the internet in 15 languages 119 120 Studies confirm the training s feasibility 122 and efficacy in ameliorating positive psychosis symptoms 123 124 Studies of single training module show that this intervention target specific cognitive biases 125 Recently an individualized format has been developed which combines the metacognitive approach with methods derived from cognitive behavioral therapy 126 Family Therapy or Education which addresses the whole family system of an individual with a diagnosis of schizophrenia may be beneficial at least if the duration of intervention is longer term 127 128 129 A 2010 Cochrane review concluded that many of the clinical trials that studied the effectiveness of family interventions were poorly designed and may over estimate the effectiveness of the therapy High quality randomized controlled trials in this area are required 129 Aside from therapy the impact of schizophrenia on families and the burden on careers has been recognized with the increasing availability of self help books on the subject 130 131 There is also some evidence for benefits from social skills training although there have also been significant negative findings 132 14 Some studies have explored the possible benefits of music therapy and other creative therapies 133 134 135 The Soteria model is alternative to inpatient hospitalization using full non professional care and a minimal medication approach 136 Although evidence is limited a review found the program equally as effective as treatment with medications but due to the limited evidence did not recommend it as a standard treatment 137 Training in the detection of subtle facial expressions has been used to improve facial emotional recognition 138 Avatar Therapy developed by Professor Julian Leff was developed to help patients deal with the impact of auditory hallucinations A 2020 Cochrane review however failed to find any consistent effects in the reviewed studies 139 Supplements edit Disruption of the gut microbiota has been linked to inflammation and disorders of the central nervous system This includes schizophrenia and probiotic supplementation has been proposed to improve its symptoms A review found no evidence to support this but it concludes that probiotics may be of benefit in regulating bowel movements and lessening the metabolic effects of antipsychotics 140 A review explains the need for an optimal level of vitamin D and omega 3 fatty acids for the proper synthesis and control of the neurotransmitter serotonin Serotonin regulates executive function sensory gating and social behavior all of which are commonly impaired in schizophrenia The model proposed suggests that supplementation would help in preventing and treating these brain dysfunctions 141 Another review finds that omega 3 fatty acids and vitamin D are among the nutritional factors known to have a beneficial effect on mental health 142 A Cochrane review found evidence to suggest that the use of omega 3 fatty acids in the prodromal stage may prevent the transition to psychosis but the evidence was poor quality and further studies were called for 143 Treatment resistant schizophrenia edit About half of those with schizophrenia will respond favourably to antipsychotics and have a good return of functioning 144 However positive symptoms persist in up to a third of people Following two trials of different antipsychotics over six weeks that also prove ineffective they will be classed as having treatment resistant schizophrenia TRS and clozapine will be offered 145 146 Clozapine is of benefit to around half of this group although it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis lowered white blood cell count in less than 4 of people 147 148 149 Between 12 and 20 per cent will not respond to clozapine and this group is said to have ultra treatment resistant schizophrenia 145 150 ECT may be offered to treat TRS as an add on therapy and is shown to sometimes be of benefit 150 A review concluded that this use only has an effect on medium term TRS and that there is not enough evidence to support its use other than for this group 151 TRS is often accompanied by a low quality of life and greater social dysfunction 152 TRS may be the result of inadequate rather than inefficient treatment it also may be a false label due to medication not being taken regularly or at all 153 About 16 per cent of people who had initially been responsive to treatment later develop resistance This could relate to the length of time on APs with treatment becoming less responsive 154 This finding also supports the involvement of dopamine in the development of schizophrenia 153 Studies suggest that TRS may be a more heritable form 155 TRS may be evident from first episode psychosis or from a relapse It can vary in its intensity and response to other therapies 152 This variation is seen to possibly indicate an underlying neurobiology such as dopamine supersensitivity DSS glutamate or serotonin dysfunction inflammation and oxidative stress 145 Studies have found that dopamine supersensitivity is found in up to 70 of those with TRS 156 The variation has led to the suggestion that treatment responsive and treatment resistant schizophrenia be considered as two different subtypes 145 155 It is further suggested that if the subtypes could be distinguished at an early stage significant implications could follow for treatment considerations and for research 150 Neuroimaging studies have found a significant decrease in the volume of grey matter in those with TRS with no such change seen in those who are treatment responsive 150 In those with ultra treatment resistance the decrease in grey matter volume was larger 145 150 Rehabilitative interventions editIndividual Placement and Support IPS where the rehabilitated person is directly placed and supported in the workplace with the support of a professional promotes the employment of people with schizophrenia and their survival in the open labour market better than the model of gradual work practice before placement 157 Research evidence on the relative superiority of different types of housing units for people with psychosis in terms of symptomatic or functional development is scarce The support and independence provided in a residential unit should be flexible individualised and as far as possible at the choice of the person being rehabilitated The living environment should be as normal as possible and the rehabilitated person should not be isolated from the rest of the community 158 159 Traditional Chinese medicine editAcupuncture is a procedure generally known to be safe and with few adverse effects A Cochrane review found limited evidence for its possible antipsychotic effects in the treatment of schizophrenia and called for more studies 160 Another review found limited evidence for its use as an add on therapy for the relief of symptoms but positive results were found for the treatment of sleep disorders that often accompany schizophrenia 161 Wendan decoction is a classic herbal treatment in traditional Chinese medicine used for symptoms of psychosis and other conditions Wendan decoction is safe accessible and inexpensive and a Cochrane review was carried out for its possible effects on schizophrenia symptoms Limited evidence was found for its positive antipsychotic effects in the short term and it was associated with fewer adverse effects Used as an add on to an antipsychotic wider positive effects were found Larger studies of improved quality were called for 162 163 Other editVarious brain stimulation techniques have been used to treat the positive symptoms of schizophrenia in particular auditory verbal hallucinations AVHs and investigations are ongoing 164 Most studies focus on transcranial direct current stimulation tDCM and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation rTMS 165 Transcranial magnetic stimulation is low cost noninvasive and almost free of side effects making it a good therapeutic choice with promising outcomes 164 Low frequency TMS of the left temporoparietal cortex the region containing Broca s area can reduce auditory hallucinations 164 rTMS seems to be the most effective treatment for those with persistent AVHs as an add on therapy 165 AVHs are not resolved in up to 30 per cent of those on antipsychotics and a further percentage still experience only a partial response 165 Techniques based on focused ultrasound for deep brain stimulation could provide insight for the treatment of AVHs 165 An established brain stimulation treatment is electroconvulsive therapy This is not considered a first line treatment but may be prescribed in cases where other treatments have failed It is more effective where symptoms of catatonia are present 166 and is recommended for use under NICE guidelines in the UK for catatonia if previously effective though there is no recommendation for use for schizophrenia otherwise 167 Psychosurgery has now become a rare procedure and is not a recommended treatment for schizophrenia 168 A study in 2014 conducted by an Australian researcher indicated that the pericarp powder of Garcinia mangostana L have the ability to reduce oxidative stress as an effective treatment for schizophrenia This process includes increasing glutathione S transferase levels which enhances mitochondrial activity over a period of 180 days under a sustained intake of 1000 mg day 169 There may be some benefit in trying several treatment modalities at the same time especially those that could be classed as lifestyle interventions 170 Nidotherapy is suggested to be a cost effective social prescribing intervention using efforts to change the environment to improve functional ability 171 Numerous people diagnosed with schizophrenia have found it necessary to organize confidential groups with each other where they can discuss their experiences without clinicians present 172 173 Peer support in which people with experiential knowledge of mental illness provide knowledge experience emotional social or practical help to each other is considered an important aspect of coping with schizophrenia and other serious mental health conditions A 2019 Cochrane reviews of evidence for peer support interventions compared to supportive or psychosocial interventions were unable to support or refute the effectiveness of peer support due to limited data 174 References edit Psychosis and schizophrenia in adults treatment and management Key priorities for implementation Guidance and guidelines The United Kingdom National Institute for Health and Care Excellence NICE 12 February 2014 Becker T Kilian R 2006 Psychiatric services for 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