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Indian vulture crisis

January 07, 2023

Nine species of vulture can be found living in India, but most are now in danger of extinction[1] after a rapid and major population collapse in recent decades.[2] In the early 1980s, three species of Gyps vultures (the white-rumped vulture, the long-billed vulture and the slender-billed vulture) had a combined estimated population of 40 million in South Asia, but as of 2017, the total population numbered only 19,000 (6,000, 12,000, and 1,000 respectively), a decrease by about 99.95%.[3] A major contributing factor in declining populations of vultures is believed to be widespread use of drugs such as diclofenac, once commonly used as a livestock anti-inflammatory drug. Veterinary usage of diclofenac has been banned in India since 2006.[4][5] The IUCN Red Data Book has listed Gyps bengalensis as "critically endangered". In winter 2012, 56 vultures in three species (Eurasian griffon, cinereous vulture, Egyptian vulture) and 10 steppe eagles were found dead at Jorbeer dumping site. Six Eurasian griffons were found dead in May 2013 due to dehydration and wing weakness. The area has been declared as a conserved forest area, but the dead animal dumping site is not part of the protected area.

The white-rumped vulture, one of the species devastated in the crisis photographed in Mangaon, Raigad, Maharashtra
Both White-rumped vulture and Indian vulture in crisis photographed in Mangaon
Healthy flock of White-rumped vultures (Gyps bengalensis) & Indian vultures (Gyps indicus) from Mangaon, Maharashtra, India in March 2020
Gathered flock over ground near carcass in Mangaon, Maharashtra, India - March 2020

The dramatic vulture decline observed across India presents a range of ecological threats, by influencing the numbers and distribution of other scavenging species. Increased feral dog populations have been reported all over in India, posing many associated disease risks such as rabies to humans and wildlife. India already accounts for a very high incidence of rabies cases, and an absolute shortage of quality anti-rabies vaccine in rural areas can aggravate the problem even further. Similarly, increased crow populations at carcass sites near settlement areas pose a risk of infections to poultry, domesticated birds, and humans. Prevalence and concentration of diclofenac residues in ungulate carcasses is important for India's threatened vulture populations. A small proportion (< 0.8%) of ungulate carcasses containing lethal levels of diclofenac is enough to cause the observed rapid decline of vultures population. (Bohra D L)

Vultures previously played an important role in public sanitation in India and their disappearance has resulted in a number of problems, and as such numerous conservation schemes are in place to assist in the recovery of vulture populations.

History

Vultures in India live in communities and are generally very dependent on human activities. The Hindu religion, which represents 80% of the country's population,[6] is particularly favorable to vultures. Cows are considered sacred by majority of Hindus, so cow meat is generally not consumed. This results in the cow's corpse being left to be fed on by vultures. Of the estimated 500 million cattle in India, only 4% were destined for consumption by humans as meat.[7][8] Vultures constituted the natural animal disposal system, processing carcasses and nearly 15,000 vultures have been observed at the carcass depositories in capital New Delhi.[9]

Decline

In the 1990s, a decrease in the number of vultures was noted by Vibhu Prakash of the Bombay Natural History Society, who had monitored vulture populations at Keoladeo National Park.[10][11] As the decline accelerated, the international scientific community attempted to investigate the cause of such decline. However, it was not easy to examine this issue because vultures could not legally be killed for scientific study in India, and freshly dead animals had become extremely rare, a situation exacerbated by the extremely hot weather in India where temperatures before the monsoon routinely exceed 40 °C (104 °F). In 2002, National Geographic reported that scientists were "not sure" of the reason for the 95% population decline.[12] Andrew Cunningham of the Zoological Society of London found that the usual suspects of pesticide poisoning, industrial pollutants or bacteria did not show anything abnormal in the vultures he could examine and suspected a new type of toxin exposure.[13]

Causes

In 2003, after research on the possible viral causes of the decline, the culprit was discovered by Dr. Lindsay Oaks and his team at The Peregrine Fund to be diclofenac.[14] Diclofenac is a common anti-inflammatory drug administered to livestock and is used to treat the symptoms of inflammation, fevers and/or pain associated with disease or wounds. It was widely used in India beginning in the 1990s. The drug is fatal to vultures, however, and a vulture gets exposed to a mortal dose of diclofenac on eating from the carcass of an animal that has been treated with diclofenac recently.[15] A simulation model demonstrated that if only 1% of carcasses were contaminated by diclofenac, Indian vulture populations would fall by between 60% and 90% annually, and a study of carcasses showed that about 10% were contaminated.[16]

A genus of vultures called Gyps was the most affected by diclofenac.[17] The population of the white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis) fell 99.7% between 1993 and 2002. The populations of the Indian vulture (Gyps indicus) and the slender-billed vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) fell 97.4%. The percentages differ slightly because the white-rumped vulture is more sensitive to diclofenac than the other two species, but all three were in danger of extinction.[18] Two other species of Gyps, the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis) and the Eurasian griffon (Gyps fulvus) were less affected, the Eurasian griffon because it only winters in India and has a much smaller initial population, and the Himalayan vulture, with a similarly small population, because it is exclusively mountain-dwelling.[19]

Consequences

The sudden collapse of the natural animal disposal system in India has had multiple consequences. The carcasses formerly eaten by vultures rot in village fields leading to contaminated drinking water. The disappearance of vultures has allowed other species such as rat and feral dog populations to grow. These newly abundant scavengers are not as efficient as vultures. A vulture's metabolism is a true “dead-end” for pathogens, but dogs and rats become carriers of the pathogens.[20] India has an estimated 18 million feral dogs, the largest population of carnivores in the world, which has led to increase in leopards invading inhabited areas preying on feral dogs leading to conflicts with humans.

The mammals also carry diseases from rotting carcasses such as rabies, anthrax, plague etc. and are indirectly responsible for thousands of human deaths.[21] In India, 30,000 people die from rabies each year, more than half the world's total.[22] Around half a million Indians are treated for rabies each year, at a cost of ₹1,500 (US$19) per person, while the average wage in India is ₹120 (US$1.50) per day. According to a study in 2007, the expenses for medical care to treat animal bites cost India ₹750 million (US$9.4 million) per year. In addition to the cost of care, the government faces the problem of managing the population of disease carriers. Vaccination and sterilization of animals cost money. It is estimated that the decline of vultures costs India ₹1.7 trillion (US$21 billion) per year.[citation needed]

According to Parsi beliefs, Earth, Fire, and Water are sacred elements, and both cremation and burial are sacrilegious. For the deceased Parsi to reach heaven, vultures serve as intermediaries between earth and sky. The dead body is placed on a Tower of Silence where vultures, by consuming the body, liberate the soul. Due to the decline in vulture population, Parsis have been obliged to drop these ancient customs for reasons of hygiene, since now bodies take six months to disappear.

Reaction

 
Diclofenac bought in 2009

Diclofenac regulation

Following the findings on diclofenac, the drug was banned for veterinary use in India on March 11, 2006; Nepal followed suit in August, 2006, and Pakistan shortly thereafter. A replacement drug was quickly developed and proposed after tests on vultures in captivity: meloxicam. Meloxicam affects cattle the same way as diclofenac, but is harmless for vultures.[23] Diclofenac for human use was still being diverted into veterinary uses through black markets in certain parts of India as of 2009.[24]

Despite the vulture crisis, diclofenac remains available in other countries including many in Europe.[25] It was controversially approved for veterinary use in Spain in 2013 and continues to be available, despite Spain being home to around 90% of the European vulture population and an independent simulation showing that the drug could reduce the population of vultures by 1–8% annually. Spain's medicine agency presented simulations suggesting that the number of deaths would be quite small.[26] New sanitary regulation laws regarding animal carcass disposal in Spain also reduce the amount of available food for vultures while adding to costs and greenhouse emissions.[27]

Vulture breeding

As of 2002, the Parsis had asked the UK National Birds of Prey Centre for assistance with vulture breeding.[12]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ . IUCN. Archived from the original on June 27, 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
  2. ^ "Conserving South Asia's Threatened Vultures". Save Our Species. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
  3. ^ "Sharp decline in vulture population, from 40 million to 19,000: Prakash Javadekar". July 19, 2019 – via www.thehindu.com.
  4. ^ "Diclofenac Ban".
  5. ^ "Indian courts ban multi-dose vials of Diclofenac – another step in the right direction to save Southern Asia vultures from extinction". Vulture Conservation Foundation. 2017-11-04. Retrieved 2020-02-25.
  6. ^ Indian statistics, 2001
  7. ^ ILC 2003, projection based on Animal Husbandry Statistics, Government of India.
  8. ^ FAO, 2003
  9. ^ Greenwood 1938, p. 234.
  10. ^ Rana & Prakash 2003, p. 116–117.
  11. ^ Prakash 1988, p. 614–615.
  12. ^ a b Research Correspondence staff (July 2002). "Ask Us". National Geographic. p. 3.
  13. ^ McGrath, Susan (1 February 2007), The Vanishing, Smithsonian Magazine
  14. ^ Oaks et al. 2003, p. 630.
  15. ^ Oaks et al. 2003, p. 5909–5912.
  16. ^ Green et al. 2004, p. 793–800.
  17. ^ Johnson 2006, p. 65.
  18. ^ Swan, GE; Cuthbert, R; Quevedo, M; et al. (June 2006). "Diclofenac effect". Biol. Lett. 2 (2): 279–82. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0425. PMC 1618889. PMID 17148382.
  19. ^ Grimmet, Inskipp & Inskipp 1988, p. 10.
  20. ^ "Vultures bacteria biome". livescience.com. 25 November 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
  21. ^ Rana & Prakash 2003, p. 116.
  22. ^ Sudarshan MK (2004), "Assessing burden of rabies in India", WHO sponsored national multi-centric rabies survey, Assoc Prev Control Rabies India
  23. ^ Swan et al. 2006, p. 279-282.
  24. ^ "Society for Mahseer Conservancy". mahseerconservancy.com. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
  25. ^ "E-010588/2015: answer given by Mr Andriukaitis on behalf of the Commission". European Parliament. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  26. ^ Becker, Rachel (2016). "Cattle drug threatens thousands of vultures". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19839. S2CID 75173071. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  27. ^ Morales-Reyes, Zebensui; Pérez-García, Juan M.; Moleón, Marcos; Botella, Francisco; Carrete, Martina; Lazcano, Carolina; Moreno-Opo, Rubén; Margalida, Antoni; Donázar, José A. (2015-01-15). "Supplanting ecosystem services provided by scavengers raises greenhouse gas emissions". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 7811. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E7811M. doi:10.1038/srep07811. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4295086. PMID 25589381.

References

  • Swan, G. E; Cuthbert, R.; Quevedo, M.; Green, R. E; Pain, D. J; Bartels, P.; Cunningham, A. A; Duncan, N.; Meharg, A. A; Lindsay Oaks, J; Parry-Jones, J.; Shultz, S.; Taggart, M. A; Verdoorn, G.; Wolter, K. (2006). "Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures". Biology Letters. 2 (2): 279–282. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0425. PMC 1618889. PMID 17148382.
  • Johnson, Jeff A; Lerner, Heather RL; Rasmussen, Pamela C; Mindell, David P (2006). "Systematics within Gyps vultures: a clade at risk". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 6: 65. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-6-65. PMC 1569873.
  • Oaks, J. L.; Donahoe, S. L.; Rurangirwa, F. R.; Rideout, B. A.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M. Z. (2004). "Identification of a Novel Mycoplasma Species from an Oriental White-Backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 42 (12): 5909–5912. doi:10.1128/JCM.42.12.5909-5912.2004. PMC 535302. PMID 15583338.
  • Rana, G.; Prakash, V. (2003). "Cannibalism in Indian White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 100 (1).
  • Prakash, Vibhu (1988). "Indian Scavenger Vulture feeding on a dead White-backed Vulture(Gyps bengalensis)". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 85 (3).
  • Greenwood, J. A. C. (1938). "Strange accident to a Vulture". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 40 (2).
  • Green, Rhys E.; Newton, IAN; Shultz, Susanne; Cunningham, Andrew A.; Gilbert, Martin; Pain, Deborah J.; Prakash, Vibhu (2004). "Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent". Journal of Applied Ecology. 41 (5): 793–800. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00954.x.

External links

  • Saving Asia's Vultures from Extinction
  • The Peregrine Fund - Asian Vulture Crisis
  • Bombay Natural History Society - Vulture Program

January 07, 2023
indian, vulture, crisis, nine, species, vulture, found, living, india, most, danger, extinction, after, rapid, major, population, collapse, recent, decades, early, 1980s, three, species, gyps, vultures, white, rumped, vulture, long, billed, vulture, slender, b. Nine species of vulture can be found living in India but most are now in danger of extinction 1 after a rapid and major population collapse in recent decades 2 In the early 1980s three species of Gyps vultures the white rumped vulture the long billed vulture and the slender billed vulture had a combined estimated population of 40 million in South Asia but as of 2017 the total population numbered only 19 000 6 000 12 000 and 1 000 respectively a decrease by about 99 95 3 A major contributing factor in declining populations of vultures is believed to be widespread use of drugs such as diclofenac once commonly used as a livestock anti inflammatory drug Veterinary usage of diclofenac has been banned in India since 2006 4 5 The IUCN Red Data Book has listed Gyps bengalensis as critically endangered In winter 2012 56 vultures in three species Eurasian griffon cinereous vulture Egyptian vulture and 10 steppe eagles were found dead at Jorbeer dumping site Six Eurasian griffons were found dead in May 2013 due to dehydration and wing weakness The area has been declared as a conserved forest area but the dead animal dumping site is not part of the protected area The white rumped vulture one of the species devastated in the crisis photographed in Mangaon Raigad Maharashtra Both White rumped vulture and Indian vulture in crisis photographed in Mangaon Healthy flock of White rumped vultures Gyps bengalensis amp Indian vultures Gyps indicus from Mangaon Maharashtra India in March 2020 Gathered flock over ground near carcass in Mangaon Maharashtra India March 2020 The dramatic vulture decline observed across India presents a range of ecological threats by influencing the numbers and distribution of other scavenging species Increased feral dog populations have been reported all over in India posing many associated disease risks such as rabies to humans and wildlife India already accounts for a very high incidence of rabies cases and an absolute shortage of quality anti rabies vaccine in rural areas can aggravate the problem even further Similarly increased crow populations at carcass sites near settlement areas pose a risk of infections to poultry domesticated birds and humans Prevalence and concentration of diclofenac residues in ungulate carcasses is important for India s threatened vulture populations A small proportion lt 0 8 of ungulate carcasses containing lethal levels of diclofenac is enough to cause the observed rapid decline of vultures population Bohra D L Vultures previously played an important role in public sanitation in India and their disappearance has resulted in a number of problems and as such numerous conservation schemes are in place to assist in the recovery of vulture populations Contents 1 History 2 Decline 3 Causes 4 Consequences 5 Reaction 5 1 Diclofenac regulation 5 2 Vulture breeding 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External linksHistory EditVultures in India live in communities and are generally very dependent on human activities The Hindu religion which represents 80 of the country s population 6 is particularly favorable to vultures Cows are considered sacred by majority of Hindus so cow meat is generally not consumed This results in the cow s corpse being left to be fed on by vultures Of the estimated 500 million cattle in India only 4 were destined for consumption by humans as meat 7 8 Vultures constituted the natural animal disposal system processing carcasses and nearly 15 000 vultures have been observed at the carcass depositories in capital New Delhi 9 Decline EditIn the 1990s a decrease in the number of vultures was noted by Vibhu Prakash of the Bombay Natural History Society who had monitored vulture populations at Keoladeo National Park 10 11 As the decline accelerated the international scientific community attempted to investigate the cause of such decline However it was not easy to examine this issue because vultures could not legally be killed for scientific study in India and freshly dead animals had become extremely rare a situation exacerbated by the extremely hot weather in India where temperatures before the monsoon routinely exceed 40 C 104 F In 2002 National Geographic reported that scientists were not sure of the reason for the 95 population decline 12 Andrew Cunningham of the Zoological Society of London found that the usual suspects of pesticide poisoning industrial pollutants or bacteria did not show anything abnormal in the vultures he could examine and suspected a new type of toxin exposure 13 Causes EditIn 2003 after research on the possible viral causes of the decline the culprit was discovered by Dr Lindsay Oaks and his team at The Peregrine Fund to be diclofenac 14 Diclofenac is a common anti inflammatory drug administered to livestock and is used to treat the symptoms of inflammation fevers and or pain associated with disease or wounds It was widely used in India beginning in the 1990s The drug is fatal to vultures however and a vulture gets exposed to a mortal dose of diclofenac on eating from the carcass of an animal that has been treated with diclofenac recently 15 A simulation model demonstrated that if only 1 of carcasses were contaminated by diclofenac Indian vulture populations would fall by between 60 and 90 annually and a study of carcasses showed that about 10 were contaminated 16 A genus of vultures called Gyps was the most affected by diclofenac 17 The population of the white rumped vulture Gyps bengalensis fell 99 7 between 1993 and 2002 The populations of the Indian vulture Gyps indicus and the slender billed vulture Gyps tenuirostris fell 97 4 The percentages differ slightly because the white rumped vulture is more sensitive to diclofenac than the other two species but all three were in danger of extinction 18 Two other species of Gyps the Himalayan vulture Gyps himalayensis and the Eurasian griffon Gyps fulvus were less affected the Eurasian griffon because it only winters in India and has a much smaller initial population and the Himalayan vulture with a similarly small population because it is exclusively mountain dwelling 19 Consequences EditThe sudden collapse of the natural animal disposal system in India has had multiple consequences The carcasses formerly eaten by vultures rot in village fields leading to contaminated drinking water The disappearance of vultures has allowed other species such as rat and feral dog populations to grow These newly abundant scavengers are not as efficient as vultures A vulture s metabolism is a true dead end for pathogens but dogs and rats become carriers of the pathogens 20 India has an estimated 18 million feral dogs the largest population of carnivores in the world which has led to increase in leopards invading inhabited areas preying on feral dogs leading to conflicts with humans The mammals also carry diseases from rotting carcasses such as rabies anthrax plague etc and are indirectly responsible for thousands of human deaths 21 In India 30 000 people die from rabies each year more than half the world s total 22 Around half a million Indians are treated for rabies each year at a cost of 1 500 US 19 per person while the average wage in India is 120 US 1 50 per day According to a study in 2007 the expenses for medical care to treat animal bites cost India 750 million US 9 4 million per year In addition to the cost of care the government faces the problem of managing the population of disease carriers Vaccination and sterilization of animals cost money It is estimated that the decline of vultures costs India 1 7 trillion US 21 billion per year citation needed According to Parsi beliefs Earth Fire and Water are sacred elements and both cremation and burial are sacrilegious For the deceased Parsi to reach heaven vultures serve as intermediaries between earth and sky The dead body is placed on a Tower of Silence where vultures by consuming the body liberate the soul Due to the decline in vulture population Parsis have been obliged to drop these ancient customs for reasons of hygiene since now bodies take six months to disappear Reaction Edit Diclofenac bought in 2009 Diclofenac regulation Edit Following the findings on diclofenac the drug was banned for veterinary use in India on March 11 2006 Nepal followed suit in August 2006 and Pakistan shortly thereafter A replacement drug was quickly developed and proposed after tests on vultures in captivity meloxicam Meloxicam affects cattle the same way as diclofenac but is harmless for vultures 23 Diclofenac for human use was still being diverted into veterinary uses through black markets in certain parts of India as of 2009 24 Despite the vulture crisis diclofenac remains available in other countries including many in Europe 25 It was controversially approved for veterinary use in Spain in 2013 and continues to be available despite Spain being home to around 90 of the European vulture population and an independent simulation showing that the drug could reduce the population of vultures by 1 8 annually Spain s medicine agency presented simulations suggesting that the number of deaths would be quite small 26 New sanitary regulation laws regarding animal carcass disposal in Spain also reduce the amount of available food for vultures while adding to costs and greenhouse emissions 27 Vulture breeding Edit As of 2002 the Parsis had asked the UK National Birds of Prey Centre for assistance with vulture breeding 12 See also EditAfrican vulture crisis Critically EndangeredNotes Edit IUCN red list IUCN Archived from the original on June 27 2014 Retrieved 13 August 2015 Conserving South Asia s Threatened Vultures Save Our Species Retrieved 13 August 2015 Sharp decline in vulture population from 40 million to 19 000 Prakash Javadekar July 19 2019 via www thehindu com Diclofenac Ban Indian courts ban multi dose vials of Diclofenac another step in the right direction to save Southern Asia vultures from extinction Vulture Conservation Foundation 2017 11 04 Retrieved 2020 02 25 Indian statistics 2001 ILC 2003 projection based on Animal Husbandry Statistics Government of India FAO 2003 Greenwood 1938 p 234 Rana amp Prakash 2003 p 116 117 Prakash 1988 p 614 615 a b Research Correspondence staff July 2002 Ask Us National Geographic p 3 McGrath Susan 1 February 2007 The Vanishing Smithsonian Magazine Oaks et al 2003 p 630 sfn error no target CITEREFOaksDonahoeRurangirwaRideout2003 help Oaks et al 2003 p 5909 5912 sfn error no target CITEREFOaksDonahoeRurangirwaRideout2003 help Green et al 2004 p 793 800 Johnson 2006 p 65 sfn error no target CITEREFJohnson2006 help Swan GE Cuthbert R Quevedo M et al June 2006 Diclofenac effect Biol Lett 2 2 279 82 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2005 0425 PMC 1618889 PMID 17148382 Grimmet Inskipp amp Inskipp 1988 p 10 sfn error no target CITEREFGrimmetInskippInskipp1988 help Vultures bacteria biome livescience com 25 November 2014 Retrieved 18 February 2016 Rana amp Prakash 2003 p 116 Sudarshan MK 2004 Assessing burden of rabies in India WHO sponsored national multi centric rabies survey Assoc Prev Control Rabies India Swan et al 2006 p 279 282 Society for Mahseer Conservancy mahseerconservancy com Retrieved 18 February 2016 E 010588 2015 answer given by Mr Andriukaitis on behalf of the Commission European Parliament Retrieved 2 May 2016 Becker Rachel 2016 Cattle drug threatens thousands of vultures Nature doi 10 1038 nature 2016 19839 S2CID 75173071 Retrieved 2 May 2016 Morales Reyes Zebensui Perez Garcia Juan M Moleon Marcos Botella Francisco Carrete Martina Lazcano Carolina Moreno Opo Ruben Margalida Antoni Donazar Jose A 2015 01 15 Supplanting ecosystem services provided by scavengers raises greenhouse gas emissions Scientific Reports 5 1 7811 Bibcode 2015NatSR 5E7811M doi 10 1038 srep07811 ISSN 2045 2322 PMC 4295086 PMID 25589381 References EditSwan G E Cuthbert R Quevedo M Green R E Pain D J Bartels P Cunningham A A Duncan N Meharg A A Lindsay Oaks J Parry Jones J Shultz S Taggart M A Verdoorn G Wolter K 2006 Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures Biology Letters 2 2 279 282 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2005 0425 PMC 1618889 PMID 17148382 Johnson Jeff A Lerner Heather RL Rasmussen Pamela C Mindell David P 2006 Systematics within Gyps vultures a clade at risk BMC Evolutionary Biology 6 65 doi 10 1186 1471 2148 6 65 PMC 1569873 Oaks J L Donahoe S L Rurangirwa F R Rideout B A Gilbert M Virani M Z 2004 Identification of a Novel Mycoplasma Species from an Oriental White Backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42 12 5909 5912 doi 10 1128 JCM 42 12 5909 5912 2004 PMC 535302 PMID 15583338 Rana G Prakash V 2003 Cannibalism in Indian White backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur Rajasthan Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 100 1 Prakash Vibhu 1988 Indian Scavenger Vulture feeding on a dead White backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 85 3 Greenwood J A C 1938 Strange accident to a Vulture Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 40 2 Green Rhys E Newton IAN Shultz Susanne Cunningham Andrew A Gilbert Martin Pain Deborah J Prakash Vibhu 2004 Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent Journal of Applied Ecology 41 5 793 800 doi 10 1111 j 0021 8901 2004 00954 x External links EditSaving Asia s Vultures from Extinction Vulture Rescue The Peregrine Fund Asian Vulture Crisis Bombay Natural History Society Vulture Program Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Indian vulture crisis amp oldid 1109942675, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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