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The Geographical Pivot of History

January 01, 1970

"World Island" redirects here. For the artificial archipelago, see The World (archipelago).

"The Geographical Pivot of History" is an article submitted by Halford John Mackinder in 1904 to the Royal Geographical Society that advances his heartland theory.[1][2][3] In this article, Mackinder extended the scope of geopolitical analysis to encompass the entire globe. He defined Afro-Eurasia as the "world island" and its "heartland" as the area east of the Volga, south of the Arctic, west of the Yangtze, and north of the Himalayas. Due to its strategic location and natural resources, Mackinder argued that whoever controlled the "heartland" could control the world.

"The Geographical Pivot of History"
AuthorHalford John Mackinder
CountryUnited Kingdom
LanguageEnglish
Publication date
1904
Media typePaper

The World Island edit

 
Map of the "Heartland Theory", as published by Mackinder in 1904.

According to Mackinder, Earth's land surface was divisible into:

Heartland edit

The Heartland lay at the centre of World Island, stretching from the Volga to the Yangtze and from the Arctic to the Himalayas. Mackinder's Heartland was the area then ruled by the Russian Empire and after that by the Soviet Union, minus the Kamchatka Peninsula region, which is located in the easternmost part of Russia, near the Aleutian Islands and the Kuril Islands.

Strategic importance of Eastern Europe edit

Later, in 1919, Mackinder summarised his theory thus:

Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland;
who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island;
who rules the World-Island commands the world.

— Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, p. 150

Any power which controlled the World-Island would control well over 50% of the world's resources. The Heartland's size and central position made it the key to controlling the World-Island.

The vital question was how to secure control for the Heartland. This question may seem pointless, since in 1904 the Russian Empire had ruled most of the area from the Volga to Eastern Siberia for centuries. But throughout the nineteenth century:

  • The West European powers had combined, usually successfully, in the Great Game to prevent Russian expansion.
  • The Russian Empire was huge but socially, politically and technologically backward – i.e. inferior in "virility, equipment and organization".

Mackinder held that effective political domination of the Heartland by a single power had been unattainable in the past because:

  • The Heartland was protected from sea power by ice to the north and mountains and deserts to the south.
  • Previous land invasions from east to west and vice versa were unsuccessful because lack of efficient transportation made it impossible to assure a continual stream of men and supplies.

He outlined the following ways in which the Heartland might become a springboard for global domination in the twentieth century (Sempa, 2000):

  • Successful invasion of Russia by a Western European nation (most probably Germany). Mackinder believed that the introduction of the railroad had removed the Heartland's invulnerability to land invasion. As Eurasia began to be covered by an extensive network of railroads, there was an excellent chance that a powerful continental nation could extend its political control over the Eastern European gateway to the Eurasian landmass. In Mackinder's words, "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland."
  • A Russo-German alliance. Before 1917 both countries were ruled by autocrats (the Tsar and the Kaiser), and both could have been attracted to an alliance against the democratic powers of Western Europe (the US was isolationist regarding European affairs, until it became a participant of World War I in 1917). Germany would have contributed to such an alliance its formidable army and its large and growing sea power.
  • Conquest of Russia by a Sino-Japanese empire (see below).

The combined empires' large East Asian coastline would also provide the potential for it to become a major sea power. Mackinder's "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland" does not cover this scenario, probably because the previous two scenarios were seen as the major risks of the nineteenth century and the early 1900s.

One of Mackinder's personal objectives was to warn Britain that its traditional reliance on sea power would become a weakness as improved land transport opened up the Heartland for invasion and/or industrialisation (Sempa, 2000).

A more modern development that may suggest that the Heartland theory still has some substance is the growth of Russia's oil exports through pipelines. Heartland theory implies that the world island is full of resources to be exploited.[4]

Influence on other geopolitical models edit

 
Colour representation, using a modern projection of the world.

Signs of Mackinder's Heartland Theory can be found in "Crush zone" of James Fairgrieve, Rimland of Nicholas Spykman, "Shutterbelt" of Saul Cohen and the Intermediate Region of Dimitri Kitsikis. There is a significant geographical overlap between the "Inner Crescent" of Mackinder, Crush zone, Rimland and Shutterbelt, as well as between the Heartland or "Pivot Area" and the Intermediate Region.

Kitsikis excludes Germany-Prussia and north-eastern China from the Intermediate Region. Mackinder, on the other hand, excludes North Africa, Eastern Europe and the Middle East from the Heartland. The reason for this difference is that Mackinder's model is primarily geo-strategic, while Kitsikis' model is geo-civilizational. However, the roles of both the Intermediate Region and the Heartland are regarded by their respective authors as being pivotal in the shaping of world history.

Max Ostrovsky discredited the existence of any permanent geographic pivot of history because climate is impermanent but his ultimate model echoes Mackinder: Who rules the largest temperate zone with the most optimum rainfall, rules the world.[5]

President Barack Obama initiated "Pivot to Asia" meaning US strategic, diplomatic and economic focus on the region[citation needed]. Mackinder's term became a popular buzzword[citation needed] after Obama's Secretary of State Hillary Clinton authored "America's Pacific Century," in Foreign Policy.[6] Former Chinese State Councilor, Dai Bingguo, suggested to Hillary Clinton: "Why don't you 'pivot out of here?'"[7]

Criticism edit

 
Map of world with Rimland and Heartland's theories

K. S. Gadzhev, in his book Introduction to Geopolitics (Введение в геополитику, Vvedenie v geopolitiku), raises a series of objections to Mackinder's Heartland; to start with that the significance physiography is given there for political strategy is a form of geographical determinism.[8]

Critics of the theory also argue that in modern day practice, the theory is outdated due to the evolution of technological warfare, as at the time of publication, Mackinder only considered land and sea powers. In modern day time there are possibilities of attacking a rival without the need for a direct invasion via aircraft, long-range missiles, or even cyber attacks.

Other critics of the theory argue that "Mackinderian analysis is not rational because it assumes conflict in a system where there is none. Such argument of the critics [however] is hardly found out because a variety of literatures repeatedly cites the geostrategic importance for USA security in fighting terrorism and preventing Russian dominance…"[4]

According to Matt Rosenberg, Mackinder's theory was never fully proven[9] as no singular power in history has had control of all three of the regions at the same time. The closest this ever occurred was during the Crimean War (1853–1856) whereby Russia attempted to fight for control over crumbling parts of the Ottoman Empire, ultimately losing to the French and the British. Rosenberg does not name which three regions he means, nor explains how any power involved in the Crimean War came close to control of those three regions.

A.F.K. Organski was more focused in his criticism. Those who have ruled East Europe, he wrote, have not commanded the world. "Extremists like Mackinder have gone too far."[10]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Mackinder, H. J., "The Geographical Pivot of History", The Geographical Journal, Vol. 23, No.4, (April 1904), pp. 421–437
  2. ^ Mackinder, H. J., Democratic Ideals and Reality. A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction, National Defense University Press, 1996, pp. 175–193
  3. ^ Charles Kruszewski, "The Pivot of History", Foreign Affairs, April 1954
  4. ^ a b Chowdhury, Suban Kumar; Hel Kafi, Abdullah (2015). "The Heartland theory of Sir Halford John Mackinder: justification of foreign policy of the United States and Russia in Central Asia". Journal of Liberty and International Affairs. 1 (2): 58–70. ISSN 1857-9760.
  5. ^ Ostrovsky, Max, (2007). The Hyperbola of the World Order, (Lanham: University Press of America), p 361.
  6. ^ Hillary Rodman Clinton, "America's Pacific Century," Foreign Policy, (November 2011).
  7. ^ Hillary Rodman Clinton, Hard Choices, (New York & London: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2014), p 71.
  8. ^ Anita Sengupta, Heartlands of Eurasia: The Geopolitics of Political Space, Lexington Books, 2009
  9. ^ Rosenberg, Matt (19 January 2022). "What Is Mackinder's Heartland Theory?". thoughco. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  10. ^ Organski, A. F. K., (1958). World Politics, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf), p 118, https://archive.org/details/worldpolitics00orga/page/n7/mode/2up?view=theater

Further reading edit

  • links to a large number of CIA analyses of Soviet economic, technological and military capability (as well as e.g. foreign policy), all in PDF format.
  • Christopher, J.F. , Parameters, Summer 2000
  • Mackinder, H.J. "The Geographical Pivot of History", in "Democratic Ideals and Reality", Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, 1996, pp. 175–193.
  • Odom, W.E. (1998) "The Collapse of the Soviet Military". Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08271-1
  • Sempa, F.P. (2000) "Mackinder's World" describes the background to Mackinder's thinking, the development of his theory after World War I (with many quotes) and its influence on geo-strategic thinking.
  • Venier, Pascal. , Geographical Journal, vol. 170, no 4, December 2004, pp. 330–336.
  • William R. Keylor, The Twentieth-Century World and Beyond: An International History Since 1900, 2006. ISBN 0-19-516843-7

External links edit

  • The Geographical Pivot of History (The Internet Archive ) The Geographical Journal, April 1904.
  • , Washington, DC: National Defence University Press, 1996, pp. 175–194

January 01, 1970
geographical, pivot, history, world, island, redirects, here, artificial, archipelago, world, archipelago, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article. World Island redirects here For the artificial archipelago see The World archipelago This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article includes a list of general references but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations January 2011 Learn how and when to remove this message This article or section possibly contains synthesis of material which does not verifiably mention or relate to the main topic Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page November 2012 Learn how and when to remove this message Learn how and when to remove this message The Geographical Pivot of History is an article submitted by Halford John Mackinder in 1904 to the Royal Geographical Society that advances his heartland theory 1 2 3 In this article Mackinder extended the scope of geopolitical analysis to encompass the entire globe He defined Afro Eurasia as the world island and its heartland as the area east of the Volga south of the Arctic west of the Yangtze and north of the Himalayas Due to its strategic location and natural resources Mackinder argued that whoever controlled the heartland could control the world The Geographical Pivot of History Halford John Mackinder the authorAuthorHalford John MackinderCountryUnited KingdomLanguageEnglishPublication date1904Media typePaper Contents 1 The World Island 1 1 Heartland 2 Strategic importance of Eastern Europe 3 Influence on other geopolitical models 4 Criticism 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksThe World Island edit nbsp Map of the Heartland Theory as published by Mackinder in 1904 According to Mackinder Earth s land surface was divisible into World Island comprising the interlinked continents of Africa Asia and Europe Afro Eurasia This was the largest most populous and richest of all possible land combinations The offshore islands including the British Isles Hainan the Japanese Archipelago Madagascar the Malay Archipelago Sri Lanka and Taiwan The outlying islands including the interlinked continents of North America and South America the Americas as well as Oceania Heartland edit The Heartland lay at the centre of World Island stretching from the Volga to the Yangtze and from the Arctic to the Himalayas Mackinder s Heartland was the area then ruled by the Russian Empire and after that by the Soviet Union minus the Kamchatka Peninsula region which is located in the easternmost part of Russia near the Aleutian Islands and the Kuril Islands Strategic importance of Eastern Europe editLater in 1919 Mackinder summarised his theory thus Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland who rules the Heartland commands the World Island who rules the World Island commands the world Mackinder Democratic Ideals and Reality p 150 Any power which controlled the World Island would control well over 50 of the world s resources The Heartland s size and central position made it the key to controlling the World Island The vital question was how to secure control for the Heartland This question may seem pointless since in 1904 the Russian Empire had ruled most of the area from the Volga to Eastern Siberia for centuries But throughout the nineteenth century The West European powers had combined usually successfully in the Great Game to prevent Russian expansion The Russian Empire was huge but socially politically and technologically backward i e inferior in virility equipment and organization Mackinder held that effective political domination of the Heartland by a single power had been unattainable in the past because The Heartland was protected from sea power by ice to the north and mountains and deserts to the south Previous land invasions from east to west and vice versa were unsuccessful because lack of efficient transportation made it impossible to assure a continual stream of men and supplies He outlined the following ways in which the Heartland might become a springboard for global domination in the twentieth century Sempa 2000 Successful invasion of Russia by a Western European nation most probably Germany Mackinder believed that the introduction of the railroad had removed the Heartland s invulnerability to land invasion As Eurasia began to be covered by an extensive network of railroads there was an excellent chance that a powerful continental nation could extend its political control over the Eastern European gateway to the Eurasian landmass In Mackinder s words Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland A Russo German alliance Before 1917 both countries were ruled by autocrats the Tsar and the Kaiser and both could have been attracted to an alliance against the democratic powers of Western Europe the US was isolationist regarding European affairs until it became a participant of World War I in 1917 Germany would have contributed to such an alliance its formidable army and its large and growing sea power Conquest of Russia by a Sino Japanese empire see below The combined empires large East Asian coastline would also provide the potential for it to become a major sea power Mackinder s Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland does not cover this scenario probably because the previous two scenarios were seen as the major risks of the nineteenth century and the early 1900s One of Mackinder s personal objectives was to warn Britain that its traditional reliance on sea power would become a weakness as improved land transport opened up the Heartland for invasion and or industrialisation Sempa 2000 A more modern development that may suggest that the Heartland theory still has some substance is the growth of Russia s oil exports through pipelines Heartland theory implies that the world island is full of resources to be exploited 4 Influence on other geopolitical models edit nbsp Colour representation using a modern projection of the world Signs of Mackinder s Heartland Theory can be found in Crush zone of James Fairgrieve Rimland of Nicholas Spykman Shutterbelt of Saul Cohen and the Intermediate Region of Dimitri Kitsikis There is a significant geographical overlap between the Inner Crescent of Mackinder Crush zone Rimland and Shutterbelt as well as between the Heartland or Pivot Area and the Intermediate Region Kitsikis excludes Germany Prussia and north eastern China from the Intermediate Region Mackinder on the other hand excludes North Africa Eastern Europe and the Middle East from the Heartland The reason for this difference is that Mackinder s model is primarily geo strategic while Kitsikis model is geo civilizational However the roles of both the Intermediate Region and the Heartland are regarded by their respective authors as being pivotal in the shaping of world history Max Ostrovsky discredited the existence of any permanent geographic pivot of history because climate is impermanent but his ultimate model echoes Mackinder Who rules the largest temperate zone with the most optimum rainfall rules the world 5 President Barack Obama initiated Pivot to Asia meaning US strategic diplomatic and economic focus on the region citation needed Mackinder s term became a popular buzzword citation needed after Obama s Secretary of State Hillary Clinton authored America s Pacific Century in Foreign Policy 6 Former Chinese State Councilor Dai Bingguo suggested to Hillary Clinton Why don t you pivot out of here 7 Criticism edit nbsp Map of world with Rimland and Heartland s theories K S Gadzhev in his book Introduction to Geopolitics Vvedenie v geopolitiku Vvedenie v geopolitiku raises a series of objections to Mackinder s Heartland to start with that the significance physiography is given there for political strategy is a form of geographical determinism 8 Critics of the theory also argue that in modern day practice the theory is outdated due to the evolution of technological warfare as at the time of publication Mackinder only considered land and sea powers In modern day time there are possibilities of attacking a rival without the need for a direct invasion via aircraft long range missiles or even cyber attacks Other critics of the theory argue that Mackinderian analysis is not rational because it assumes conflict in a system where there is none Such argument of the critics however is hardly found out because a variety of literatures repeatedly cites the geostrategic importance for USA security in fighting terrorism and preventing Russian dominance 4 According to Matt Rosenberg Mackinder s theory was never fully proven 9 as no singular power in history has had control of all three of the regions at the same time The closest this ever occurred was during the Crimean War 1853 1856 whereby Russia attempted to fight for control over crumbling parts of the Ottoman Empire ultimately losing to the French and the British Rosenberg does not name which three regions he means nor explains how any power involved in the Crimean War came close to control of those three regions A F K Organski was more focused in his criticism Those who have ruled East Europe he wrote have not commanded the world Extremists like Mackinder have gone too far 10 See also editIntermediate Region The Grand Chessboard Intermarium Land hemisphere Rimland Eurasianism Invasion of the United StatesReferences edit Mackinder H J The Geographical Pivot of History The Geographical Journal Vol 23 No 4 April 1904 pp 421 437 Mackinder H J Democratic Ideals and Reality A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction National Defense University Press 1996 pp 175 193 Charles Kruszewski The Pivot of History Foreign Affairs April 1954 a b Chowdhury Suban Kumar Hel Kafi Abdullah 2015 The Heartland theory of Sir Halford John Mackinder justification of foreign policy of the United States and Russia in Central Asia Journal of Liberty and International Affairs 1 2 58 70 ISSN 1857 9760 Ostrovsky Max 2007 The Hyperbola of the World Order Lanham University Press of America p 361 Hillary Rodman Clinton America s Pacific Century Foreign Policy November 2011 Hillary Rodman Clinton Hard Choices New York amp London Simon amp Schuster Paperbacks 2014 p 71 Anita Sengupta Heartlands of Eurasia The Geopolitics of Political Space Lexington Books 2009 Rosenberg Matt 19 January 2022 What Is Mackinder s Heartland Theory thoughco Retrieved 19 January 2022 Organski A F K 1958 World Politics New York Alfred A Knopf p 118 https archive org details worldpolitics00orga page n7 mode 2up view theaterFurther reading editCIA s Analysis of the Soviet Union 1947 1991 links to a large number of CIA analyses of Soviet economic technological and military capability as well as e g foreign policy all in PDF format Christopher J F Sir Halford Mackinder Geopolitics and Policymaking in the 21st Century Parameters Summer 2000 Mackinder H J The Geographical Pivot of History in Democratic Ideals and Reality Washington DC National Defense University Press 1996 pp 175 193 Odom W E 1998 The Collapse of the Soviet Military Yale University Press ISBN 0 300 08271 1 Sempa F P 2000 Mackinder s World describes the background to Mackinder s thinking the development of his theory after World War I with many quotes and its influence on geo strategic thinking Venier Pascal The Geographical Pivot of History and Early 20th Century Geopolitical Culture Geographical Journal vol 170 no 4 December 2004 pp 330 336 William R Keylor The Twentieth Century World and Beyond An International History Since 1900 2006 ISBN 0 19 516843 7External links editThe Geographical Pivot of History The Internet Archive version The Geographical Journal April 1904 Democratic Ideals and Reality Washington DC National Defence University Press 1996 pp 175 194 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title The Geographical Pivot of History amp oldid 1218538825, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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