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Epicoccum nigrum

May 01, 2024

Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. A plant pathogen and endophyte, it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi. The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it.

Epicoccum nigrum
E. nigrum growing on Lycoperdon pyriforme
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Phylum:
Ascomycota
Class:
Dothidiomycetes
Order:
Pleosporales
Family:
Didymellaceae
Genus:
Epicoccum
Species:
E. nigrum
Binomial name
Epicoccum nigrum
Link
Synonyms

Epicoccum purpurascens Ehrenb.
Epicoccum vulgare Corda
Phoma epicoccina Punith.
Toruloidea tobaica Svilv.

Growth and morphology edit

Epicoccum nigrum (1825) is a fungus with no known teleomorph form.[1] It has been classified as a member of the Hyphomycetes,[2] in the Deuteromycota, as well as the Fungi Imperfecti because it is only known to reproduce asexually. Despite that it is not yeast-like, it has been included in the broad, unrelated category of fungi known as black yeasts.[2] The fungus grows felty colonies in bright shades of yellow, orange, and red, often with brown or black throughout.[1][2] Colonies grow quickly, reaching about 6 cm in diameter in 2 days at room temperature.[1] Mycelia contain both chitin and cellulose.[1]

Epicoccum nigrum forms blastoconidia that are darkly coloured, warted and spherical, reaching 15 to 25 µm in diameter.[1] Conidia grow on a sporodochium, formed by warty and fibrous hyphae.[1][3] Sporets have been found to contain up to 15 cells.[4] The spores of E. nigrum are actively released depending on temperature, light, and relative humidity conditions.[5] The mechanism of release involves the separation of the conidium from the sporodochium via a double septum. It capitalizes on the spherical shape of the conidia, allowing it to "bounce" off the sporodochium.[6] Conidia then become airborne with movement or wind.[7] Sporulation is induced under Wood's light, or sometimes upon exposure to cold temperatures with a subsequent return to room temperature.[1] Pigment production is also sensitive to light and temperature changes.[8] Ideal growth temperatures range between 23–28 °C (73–82 °F), and ideal growth pH ranges from 5.0 to 6.0.[1] Although E. nigrum will grow in a range of water activity (aw of 0.99 to 0.97),[9] growth is optimized at water vapour saturation.[1]

Epicoccum nigrum produces a variety of biomedically and industrially useful metabolites, including important antifungal agents and pigments, including: flavipin, epicorazines A and B, epirodin, epicocconone, and a variety of carotenoid pigments.[10][11] Epicoccum nigrum has also been utilized in the biosynthetic manufacture of silver- and gold nanoparticles.[12][13]

Habitat and ecology edit

A highly robust and ubiquitous fungus,[14] E. nigrum has an almost global spread, occurring in the Americas, Asia, and Europe.[1] Spores of E. nigrum have been cultured from a variety of environments, predominantly soil (i.e. peat, forest floor, raw humus, compost, tundra, sewage)[1] and sand (e.g., dunes, saline sands).[1][15] It is a saprophytic fungus, forming pustules (composed of sporodochia and conidia) on dead and dying plants.[4] This species is commonly found growing on cereals and seeds, as well as other crops including corn, beans, potatoes, peas and peaches.[1][16] It has been found to grow colonies on leaves submersed in water as cold as 0 °C (32 °F), and is considered a facultative marine fungus.[17] It is capable of colonizing algae and marsh grasses.[17] In indoor environments, E. nigrum has been found on paintings and wallpaper,[18] cotton and textiles,[1][4] in dust,[16][18] and in air.[1][16][19][20] It is tolerant of changes in water availability, and hyphal growth has been found to resume within an hour of exposure to water.[17]

Biomedical, industrial, and agricultural uses edit

Epicoccum nigrum has a wide array of medical, industrial, and agricultural applications. It produces a variety of pigmented and non-pigmented antifungal and antibacterial compounds.[11][21] These antimicrobial compounds are effective against other fungi and bacteria present in soil.[11] Flavipin, and epirodins A and B are pigmented antifungal agents;[10][11] non-pigmented compounds include epicorazines A and B.[11] Endophytic fungi such as E. nigrum are being explored as alternative sources of antibiotics to treat important resistant infections.[22] Polysaccharide antioxidants are also produced by E. nigrum.[23] Epicocconone is a fluorescent pigment unique to E. nigrum.[24] Epicocconone is valuable in terms of its ability to pigment cells orange, which then fluoresce red without impacting cell structure or function.[24]

Industrially, E. nigrum has a variety of broad applications. It has demonstrated a capacity to biosynthesize nanoparticles from silver and gold, which have applications in chemical, industrial, and medical processes.[12][13] It has been applied as biological treatment for mechanical oily effluent, reducing the content of hydrogen peroxide, phenols, and chemical oxygen demand in the oily effluent.[25] Epicoccum nigrum pigments have been considered as natural replacements for artificial pigments currently used in food.[26] It produces a variety of pigments, ranging from darker oranges to yellows and greens.[26] These pigments were synthesized by nonpathogenic strains of E. nigrum.[26]

In Brazil, E. nigrum is used to support root growth and control sugarcane pathogens.[27] It is a biocontrol antifungal agent active against brown rot in stone fruit, caused the species Monilinia laxa and Monilinia fructigena.[28] In contrast to these uses for E. nigrum metabolites, there has been an investigation into methods of controlling E. nigrum fungal colonies that have contaminated historic and cultural artifacts.[29] The fungus was found to be quite sensitive to essential oils from plants such as lavender and rosemary.[29] This is important in terms of the preservation of artifacts in humid climates, where fungal growth is an important determinant in the deterioration of stone structures and wood frames.[29]

Epidemiology edit

Epicoccum nigrum produces the glycoprotein allergen Epi p 1 which binds to IgE, sometimes cross-reacting with other fungal allergens.[16] Cross-reactivity was found to exist with Alternaria alternata, Curvularia lunata, Cladosporium herbarum, and Penicillium citrinum.[30] Epicoccum nigrum is associated with respiratory fungal allergies, including allergic asthma, rhinitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and allergic fungal sinusitis.[16][31] Two pediatric cases of hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by E. nigrum were reported in children living in a damp and mouldy home, with daily exposure to E. nigrum in the shower.[32] The fungus has been found on human skin and in spit samples.[1] It does not typically cause systemic infection, although one case has been reported in an immunocompromised patient.[33]

History and reclassification edit

Epicoccum nigrum has been treated under a variety of names in the genus Epicoccum. It was first identified in 1815 by botanist Johaan Heinrich Friedrich Link.[34] Today, all previously identified species are considered to be different variants of the species E. nigrum.[4] These include: E. purpurascens, E. diversisporum, E. versicolor, E. vulgare, E. granulatum, E. menispermi, and E. neglectum.[4][34] More recently, two distinct genotypes for E. nigrum have been identified with the combined use of DNA sequencing, morphology, physiology, and recombination factors.[35] This indicates the existence of cryptic species, and a subsequent call to re-classify E. nigrum into more than one species.[35]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Anderson, K.H. Domsch, W. Gams, Traute-Heidi (1981). Compendium of soil fungi. London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-220401-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b c Pfaller, [edited by] Elias J. Anaissie, Michael R. McGinnis, Michael A. (2009). Clinical mycology (2nd ed.). [Edinburgh?]: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-1-4160-5680-5. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Mims, C.W.; Richardson, E.A. (October 2005). "Ultrastructure of sporodochium and conidium development in the anamorphic fungus". Canadian Journal of Botany. 83 (10): 1354–1363. doi:10.1139/b05-137.
  4. ^ a b c d e Schol-Schwarz, M. Beatrice (June 1959). "The genus Epicoccum Link". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 42 (2): 149–IN3. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(59)80024-3.
  5. ^ Meredith, Donald S. (1966). "Diurnal periodicity and violent liberation of conidia in epicoccum". Phytopathology. 56: 988.
  6. ^ Webster, J. (June 1966). "Spore projection in Epicoccum and Arthrinium". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 49 (2): 339–IN14. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(66)80068-2.
  7. ^ McGinnis, Michael R. (January 2007). "Indoor mould development and dispersal". Medical Mycology. 45 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1080/13693780600928495. PMID 17325938.
  8. ^ Gribanovski-Sassu, Olga; Foppen, F.H. (September 1968). "Light and temperature effect on Epicoccum nigrum". Phytochemistry. 7 (9): 1605–1612. Bibcode:1968PChem...7.1605G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)88613-6.
  9. ^ ALDRED, DAVID; PENN, JULIA; MAGAN, NARESH (February 2005). "Water availability and metabolomic profiles of Epicoccum nigrum and Sarophorum palmicola grown in solid substrate fermentation systems". Mycologist. 19 (1): 18–23. doi:10.1017/S0269915X05001035.
  10. ^ a b Bamford, P.C.; Norris, G.L.F.; Ward, G. (September 1961). "Flavipin production by Epicoccum spp". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 44 (3): 354–356. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(61)80028-4.
  11. ^ a b c d e Brown, Averil E.; Finlay, Ruth; Ward, J.S. (January 1987). "Antifungal compounds produced by Epicoccum purpurascens against soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 19 (6): 657–664. doi:10.1016/0038-0717(87)90044-7.
  12. ^ a b Qian, Yongqing; Yu, Huimei; He, Dan; Yang, Hui; Wang, Wanting; Wan, Xue; Wang, Li (6 March 2013). "Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by the endophytic fungus Epicoccum nigrum and their activity against pathogenic fungi". Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 36 (11): 1613–1619. doi:10.1007/s00449-013-0937-z. PMID 23463299. S2CID 19159298.
  13. ^ a b Sheikhloo, Zeinab; Salouti, Mojtaba; Katiraee, Farzad (15 September 2011). "Biological Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles by Fungus Epicoccum nigrum". Journal of Cluster Science. 22 (4): 661–665. doi:10.1007/s10876-011-0412-4. S2CID 97716088.
  14. ^ Ahumada-Rudolph, Ramón; Cajas-Madriaga, Daniel; Rudolph, Anny; Reinoso, Rodrigo; Torres, Cristian; Silva, Mario; Becerra, José (August 2014). "Variation of sterols and fatty acids as an adaptive response to changes in temperature, salinity and pH of a marine fungus Epicoccum nigrum isolated from the Patagonian Fjords". Revista de Biología Marina y Oceanografía. 49 (2): 293–305. doi:10.4067/S0718-19572014000200009.
  15. ^ Debrecen, edited by Mahendra Rai, University of (2010). Progress in mycology. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-3712-1. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ a b c d e Miller, edited by Brian Flannigan, Robert A. Samson, J. David (2011). Microorganisms in home and indoor work environments : diversity, health impacts, investigation and control (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-9334-6. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ a b c Cole, Edited by Garry; Kendrick, Edited by Bryce (1981). Biology of conidial fungi. New York [u.a.]: Acad. Press. ISBN 978-0-12-179501-6. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
  18. ^ a b Singh, Jagjit, ed. (1994). Building Mycology Management of Decay and Health in Buildings (1st ed.). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN 978-0-203-97473-5.
  19. ^ PUSZ, Wojciech; PLĄSKOWSKA, Elzbieta; YILDIRIM, İsmet; WEBER, Ryszard (2015). "Fungi occurring on the plants of the genus Amaranthus L." Turkish Journal of Botany. 39: 147–161. doi:10.3906/bot-1403-106.
  20. ^ Wilman, Karolina; Stępień, Łukasz; Fabiańska, Izabela; Kachlicki, Piotr (29 January 2014). "Plant-Pathogenic Fungi in Seeds of Different Pea Cultivars in Poland". Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. 65 (3): 329–338. doi:10.2478/10004-1254-65-2014-2480. PMID 25205690.
  21. ^ Gribanovski-Sassu, Olga; Foppen, Fredrik H. (January 1967). "The carotenoids of the fungus Epicoccum nigrum link". Phytochemistry. 6 (6): 907–909. Bibcode:1967PChem...6..907G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86041-0.
  22. ^ Radić, Nataša; Štrukelj, Borut (November 2012). "Endophytic fungi—The treasure chest of antibacterial substances". Phytomedicine. 19 (14): 1270–1284. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2012.09.007. PMID 23079233.
  23. ^ Sun, Hai-Hong; Mao, Wen-Jun; Jiao, Jie-Ying; Xu, Jia-Chao; Li, Hong-Yan; Chen, Yin; Qi, Xiao-Hui; Chen, Yan-Li; Xu, Jian; Zhao, Chun-Qi; Hou, Yu-Jiao; Yang, Yu-Pin (29 January 2011). "Structural Characterization of Extracellular Polysaccharides Produced by the Marine Fungus Epicoccum nigrum JJY-40 and Their Antioxidant Activities". Marine Biotechnology. 13 (5): 1048–1055. doi:10.1007/s10126-011-9368-5. PMID 21279405. S2CID 5103926.
  24. ^ a b Bell, Phillip J. L.; Karuso, Peterq (2003). "Epicocconone, A Novel Fluorescent Compound from the Fungus Epicoccum nigrum". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 125 (31): 9304–9305. doi:10.1021/ja035496+. PMID 12889954.
  25. ^ Queissada, Daniel Delgado; Silva, Flávio Teixeira da; Penido, Juliana Sundfeld; Siqueira, Carolina Dell'Aquila; Paiva, Tereza Cristina Brazil de (2013). "Epicoccum nigrum and Cladosporium sp. for the treatment of oily effluent in an air-lift reactor". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 44 (2): 607–612. doi:10.1590/S1517-83822013000200041. PMC 3833166. PMID 24294260.
  26. ^ a b c Mapari, Sameer A. S.; Meyer, Anne S.; Thrane, Ulf (16 July 2008). "Evaluation of Epicoccum nigrum for growth, morphology and production of natural colorants in liquid media and on a solid rice medium". Biotechnology Letters. 30 (12): 2183–2190. doi:10.1007/S10529-008-9798-y. PMID 18629439. S2CID 25396842.
  27. ^ Fávaro, Léia Cecilia de Lima; Sebastianes, Fernanda Luiza de Souza; Araújo, Welington Luiz; Liles, Mark R. (4 June 2012). "Epicoccum nigrum P16, a Sugarcane Endophyte, Produces Antifungal Compounds and Induces Root Growth". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e36826. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736826F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036826. PMC 3366970. PMID 22675473.
  28. ^ De Cal, A.; Larena, I.; Liñán, M.; Torres, R.; Lamarca, N.; Usall, J.; Domenichini, P.; Bellini, A.; de Eribe, X.O.; Melgarejo, P. (February 2009). "Population dynamics of a biocontrol agent against brown rot in stone fruit". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 106 (2): 592–605. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.04030.x. PMID 19200324.
  29. ^ a b c Stupar, M.; Grbić, M. Lj.; Džamić, A.; Unković, N.; Ristić, M.; Jelikić, A.; Vukojević, J. (July 2014). "Antifungal activity of selected essential oils and biocide benzalkonium chloride against the fungi isolated from cultural heritage objects". South African Journal of Botany. 93: 118–124. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2014.03.016.
  30. ^ Bisht, Vandana; Singh, Bhanu Pratap; Arora, Naveen; Gaur, Shailendra Nath; Sridhara, Susheela (September 2002). "Antigenic and allergenic cross-reactivity of Epicoccum nigrum with other fungi". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 89 (3): 285–291. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61956-4. PMID 12269649.
  31. ^ Kurup, Viswanath P; Shen, Horng-Der; Banerjee, Banani (July 2000). "Respiratory fungal allergy". Microbes and Infection. 2 (9): 1101–1110. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(00)01264-8. PMID 10967290.
  32. ^ Hogan, Mary Beth (1 September 1996). "Basement Shower Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Secondary to <italic>Epicoccum nigrum</italic>". Chest. 110 (3): 854–856. doi:10.1378/chest.110.3.854. PMID 8797443.
  33. ^ Suraiya, S.; Azira, N. (July 2010). "PP-067 Intramuscular Epicoccum nigrum infection in an immunocompromised patient: A case report". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 14: S45–S46. doi:10.1016/S1201-9712(10)60135-X.
  34. ^ a b "Epicoccum nigrum Link 1816". Species Fungorum.
  35. ^ a b Fávaro, Léia Cecilia de Lima; de Melo, Fernando Lucas; Aguilar-Vildoso, Carlos Ivan; Araújo, Welington Luiz; Litvintseva, Anastasia P. (11 August 2011). "Polyphasic Analysis of Intraspecific Diversity in Epicoccum nigrum Warrants Reclassification into Separate Species". PLOS ONE. 6 (8): e14828. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...614828F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014828. PMC 3154903. PMID 21853017.

May 01, 2024
epicoccum, nigrum, species, fungus, phylum, ascomycota, plant, pathogen, endophyte, widespread, fungus, which, produces, coloured, pigments, that, used, antifungal, agents, against, other, pathogenic, fungi, fluorescent, stain, epicocconone, extracted, from, n. Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota A plant pathogen and endophyte it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it Epicoccum nigrum E nigrum growing on Lycoperdon pyriforme Scientific classification Kingdom Fungi Phylum Ascomycota Class Dothidiomycetes Order Pleosporales Family Didymellaceae Genus Epicoccum Species E nigrum Binomial name Epicoccum nigrumLink Synonyms Epicoccum purpurascens Ehrenb Epicoccum vulgare Corda Phoma epicoccina Punith Toruloidea tobaica Svilv Contents 1 Growth and morphology 2 Habitat and ecology 3 Biomedical industrial and agricultural uses 4 Epidemiology 5 History and reclassification 6 ReferencesGrowth and morphology editEpicoccum nigrum 1825 is a fungus with no known teleomorph form 1 It has been classified as a member of the Hyphomycetes 2 in the Deuteromycota as well as the Fungi Imperfecti because it is only known to reproduce asexually Despite that it is not yeast like it has been included in the broad unrelated category of fungi known as black yeasts 2 The fungus grows felty colonies in bright shades of yellow orange and red often with brown or black throughout 1 2 Colonies grow quickly reaching about 6 cm in diameter in 2 days at room temperature 1 Mycelia contain both chitin and cellulose 1 Epicoccum nigrum forms blastoconidia that are darkly coloured warted and spherical reaching 15 to 25 µm in diameter 1 Conidia grow on a sporodochium formed by warty and fibrous hyphae 1 3 Sporets have been found to contain up to 15 cells 4 The spores of E nigrum are actively released depending on temperature light and relative humidity conditions 5 The mechanism of release involves the separation of the conidium from the sporodochium via a double septum It capitalizes on the spherical shape of the conidia allowing it to bounce off the sporodochium 6 Conidia then become airborne with movement or wind 7 Sporulation is induced under Wood s light or sometimes upon exposure to cold temperatures with a subsequent return to room temperature 1 Pigment production is also sensitive to light and temperature changes 8 Ideal growth temperatures range between 23 28 C 73 82 F and ideal growth pH ranges from 5 0 to 6 0 1 Although E nigrum will grow in a range of water activity aw of 0 99 to 0 97 9 growth is optimized at water vapour saturation 1 Epicoccum nigrum produces a variety of biomedically and industrially useful metabolites including important antifungal agents and pigments including flavipin epicorazines A and B epirodin epicocconone and a variety of carotenoid pigments 10 11 Epicoccum nigrum has also been utilized in the biosynthetic manufacture of silver and gold nanoparticles 12 13 Habitat and ecology editA highly robust and ubiquitous fungus 14 E nigrum has an almost global spread occurring in the Americas Asia and Europe 1 Spores of E nigrum have been cultured from a variety of environments predominantly soil i e peat forest floor raw humus compost tundra sewage 1 and sand e g dunes saline sands 1 15 It is a saprophytic fungus forming pustules composed of sporodochia and conidia on dead and dying plants 4 This species is commonly found growing on cereals and seeds as well as other crops including corn beans potatoes peas and peaches 1 16 It has been found to grow colonies on leaves submersed in water as cold as 0 C 32 F and is considered a facultative marine fungus 17 It is capable of colonizing algae and marsh grasses 17 In indoor environments E nigrum has been found on paintings and wallpaper 18 cotton and textiles 1 4 in dust 16 18 and in air 1 16 19 20 It is tolerant of changes in water availability and hyphal growth has been found to resume within an hour of exposure to water 17 Biomedical industrial and agricultural uses editEpicoccum nigrum has a wide array of medical industrial and agricultural applications It produces a variety of pigmented and non pigmented antifungal and antibacterial compounds 11 21 These antimicrobial compounds are effective against other fungi and bacteria present in soil 11 Flavipin and epirodins A and B are pigmented antifungal agents 10 11 non pigmented compounds include epicorazines A and B 11 Endophytic fungi such as E nigrum are being explored as alternative sources of antibiotics to treat important resistant infections 22 Polysaccharide antioxidants are also produced by E nigrum 23 Epicocconone is a fluorescent pigment unique to E nigrum 24 Epicocconone is valuable in terms of its ability to pigment cells orange which then fluoresce red without impacting cell structure or function 24 Industrially E nigrum has a variety of broad applications It has demonstrated a capacity to biosynthesize nanoparticles from silver and gold which have applications in chemical industrial and medical processes 12 13 It has been applied as biological treatment for mechanical oily effluent reducing the content of hydrogen peroxide phenols and chemical oxygen demand in the oily effluent 25 Epicoccum nigrum pigments have been considered as natural replacements for artificial pigments currently used in food 26 It produces a variety of pigments ranging from darker oranges to yellows and greens 26 These pigments were synthesized by nonpathogenic strains of E nigrum 26 In Brazil E nigrum is used to support root growth and control sugarcane pathogens 27 It is a biocontrol antifungal agent active against brown rot in stone fruit caused the species Monilinia laxa and Monilinia fructigena 28 In contrast to these uses for E nigrum metabolites there has been an investigation into methods of controlling E nigrum fungal colonies that have contaminated historic and cultural artifacts 29 The fungus was found to be quite sensitive to essential oils from plants such as lavender and rosemary 29 This is important in terms of the preservation of artifacts in humid climates where fungal growth is an important determinant in the deterioration of stone structures and wood frames 29 Epidemiology editEpicoccum nigrum produces the glycoprotein allergen Epi p 1 which binds to IgE sometimes cross reacting with other fungal allergens 16 Cross reactivity was found to exist with Alternaria alternata Curvularia lunata Cladosporium herbarum and Penicillium citrinum 30 Epicoccum nigrum is associated with respiratory fungal allergies including allergic asthma rhinitis hypersensitivity pneumonitis and allergic fungal sinusitis 16 31 Two pediatric cases of hypersensitivity pneumonitis caused by E nigrum were reported in children living in a damp and mouldy home with daily exposure to E nigrum in the shower 32 The fungus has been found on human skin and in spit samples 1 It does not typically cause systemic infection although one case has been reported in an immunocompromised patient 33 History and reclassification editEpicoccum nigrum has been treated under a variety of names in the genus Epicoccum It was first identified in 1815 by botanist Johaan Heinrich Friedrich Link 34 Today all previously identified species are considered to be different variants of the species E nigrum 4 These include E purpurascens E diversisporum E versicolor E vulgare E granulatum E menispermi and E neglectum 4 34 More recently two distinct genotypes for E nigrum have been identified with the combined use of DNA sequencing morphology physiology and recombination factors 35 This indicates the existence of cryptic species and a subsequent call to re classify E nigrum into more than one species 35 References edit a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Anderson K H Domsch W Gams Traute Heidi 1981 Compendium of soil fungi London Academic Press ISBN 978 0 12 220401 2 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c Pfaller edited by Elias J Anaissie Michael R McGinnis Michael A 2009 Clinical mycology 2nd ed Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone ISBN 978 1 4160 5680 5 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a first1 has generic name help CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Mims C W Richardson E A October 2005 Ultrastructure of sporodochium and conidium development in the anamorphic fungus Canadian Journal of Botany 83 10 1354 1363 doi 10 1139 b05 137 a b c d e Schol Schwarz M Beatrice June 1959 The genus Epicoccum Link Transactions of the British Mycological Society 42 2 149 IN3 doi 10 1016 S0007 1536 59 80024 3 Meredith Donald S 1966 Diurnal periodicity and violent liberation of conidia in epicoccum Phytopathology 56 988 Webster J June 1966 Spore projection in Epicoccum and Arthrinium Transactions of the British Mycological Society 49 2 339 IN14 doi 10 1016 S0007 1536 66 80068 2 McGinnis Michael R January 2007 Indoor mould development and dispersal Medical Mycology 45 1 1 9 doi 10 1080 13693780600928495 PMID 17325938 Gribanovski Sassu Olga Foppen F H September 1968 Light and temperature effect on Epicoccum nigrum Phytochemistry 7 9 1605 1612 Bibcode 1968PChem 7 1605G doi 10 1016 S0031 9422 00 88613 6 ALDRED DAVID PENN JULIA MAGAN NARESH February 2005 Water availability and metabolomic profiles of Epicoccum nigrum and Sarophorum palmicola grown in solid substrate fermentation systems Mycologist 19 1 18 23 doi 10 1017 S0269915X05001035 a b Bamford P C Norris G L F Ward G September 1961 Flavipin production by Epicoccum spp Transactions of the British Mycological Society 44 3 354 356 doi 10 1016 S0007 1536 61 80028 4 a b c d e Brown Averil E Finlay Ruth Ward J S January 1987 Antifungal compounds produced by Epicoccum purpurascens against soil borne plant pathogenic fungi Soil Biology and Biochemistry 19 6 657 664 doi 10 1016 0038 0717 87 90044 7 a b Qian Yongqing Yu Huimei He Dan Yang Hui Wang Wanting Wan Xue Wang Li 6 March 2013 Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by the endophytic fungus Epicoccum nigrum and their activity against pathogenic fungi Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering 36 11 1613 1619 doi 10 1007 s00449 013 0937 z PMID 23463299 S2CID 19159298 a b Sheikhloo Zeinab Salouti Mojtaba Katiraee Farzad 15 September 2011 Biological Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles by Fungus Epicoccum nigrum Journal of Cluster Science 22 4 661 665 doi 10 1007 s10876 011 0412 4 S2CID 97716088 Ahumada Rudolph Ramon Cajas Madriaga Daniel Rudolph Anny Reinoso Rodrigo Torres Cristian Silva Mario Becerra Jose August 2014 Variation of sterols and fatty acids as an adaptive response to changes in temperature salinity and pH of a marine fungus Epicoccum nigrum isolated from the Patagonian Fjords Revista de Biologia Marina y Oceanografia 49 2 293 305 doi 10 4067 S0718 19572014000200009 Debrecen edited by Mahendra Rai University of 2010 Progress in mycology Dordrecht Springer ISBN 978 90 481 3712 1 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a first1 has generic name help CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c d e Miller edited by Brian Flannigan Robert A Samson J David 2011 Microorganisms in home and indoor work environments diversity health impacts investigation and control 2nd ed Boca Raton FL CRC Press ISBN 978 1 4200 9334 6 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a first1 has generic name help CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c Cole Edited by Garry Kendrick Edited by Bryce 1981 Biology of conidial fungi New York u a Acad Press ISBN 978 0 12 179501 6 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a first1 has generic name help a b Singh Jagjit ed 1994 Building Mycology Management of Decay and Health in Buildings 1st ed Hoboken Taylor amp Francis Ltd ISBN 978 0 203 97473 5 PUSZ Wojciech PLASKOWSKA Elzbieta YILDIRIM Ismet WEBER Ryszard 2015 Fungi occurring on the plants of the genus Amaranthus L Turkish Journal of Botany 39 147 161 doi 10 3906 bot 1403 106 Wilman Karolina Stepien Lukasz Fabianska Izabela Kachlicki Piotr 29 January 2014 Plant Pathogenic Fungi in Seeds of Different Pea Cultivars in Poland Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 65 3 329 338 doi 10 2478 10004 1254 65 2014 2480 PMID 25205690 Gribanovski Sassu Olga Foppen Fredrik H January 1967 The carotenoids of the fungus Epicoccum nigrum link Phytochemistry 6 6 907 909 Bibcode 1967PChem 6 907G doi 10 1016 S0031 9422 00 86041 0 Radic Natasa Strukelj Borut November 2012 Endophytic fungi The treasure chest of antibacterial substances Phytomedicine 19 14 1270 1284 doi 10 1016 j phymed 2012 09 007 PMID 23079233 Sun Hai Hong Mao Wen Jun Jiao Jie Ying Xu Jia Chao Li Hong Yan Chen Yin Qi Xiao Hui Chen Yan Li Xu Jian Zhao Chun Qi Hou Yu Jiao Yang Yu Pin 29 January 2011 Structural Characterization of Extracellular Polysaccharides Produced by the Marine Fungus Epicoccum nigrum JJY 40 and Their Antioxidant Activities Marine Biotechnology 13 5 1048 1055 doi 10 1007 s10126 011 9368 5 PMID 21279405 S2CID 5103926 a b Bell Phillip J L Karuso Peterq 2003 Epicocconone A Novel Fluorescent Compound from the Fungus Epicoccum nigrum Journal of the American Chemical Society 125 31 9304 9305 doi 10 1021 ja035496 PMID 12889954 Queissada Daniel Delgado Silva Flavio Teixeira da Penido Juliana Sundfeld Siqueira Carolina Dell Aquila Paiva Tereza Cristina Brazil de 2013 Epicoccum nigrum and Cladosporium sp for the treatment of oily effluent in an air lift reactor Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 44 2 607 612 doi 10 1590 S1517 83822013000200041 PMC 3833166 PMID 24294260 a b c Mapari Sameer A S Meyer Anne S Thrane Ulf 16 July 2008 Evaluation of Epicoccum nigrum for growth morphology and production of natural colorants in liquid media and on a solid rice medium Biotechnology Letters 30 12 2183 2190 doi 10 1007 S10529 008 9798 y PMID 18629439 S2CID 25396842 Favaro Leia Cecilia de Lima Sebastianes Fernanda Luiza de Souza Araujo Welington Luiz Liles Mark R 4 June 2012 Epicoccum nigrum P16 a Sugarcane Endophyte Produces Antifungal Compounds and Induces Root Growth PLOS ONE 7 6 e36826 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July 2000 Respiratory fungal allergy Microbes and Infection 2 9 1101 1110 doi 10 1016 S1286 4579 00 01264 8 PMID 10967290 Hogan Mary Beth 1 September 1996 Basement Shower Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis Secondary to lt italic gt Epicoccum nigrum lt italic gt Chest 110 3 854 856 doi 10 1378 chest 110 3 854 PMID 8797443 Suraiya S Azira N July 2010 PP 067 Intramuscular Epicoccum nigrum infection in an immunocompromised patient A case report International Journal of Infectious Diseases 14 S45 S46 doi 10 1016 S1201 9712 10 60135 X a b Epicoccum nigrum Link 1816 Species Fungorum a b Favaro Leia Cecilia de Lima de Melo Fernando Lucas Aguilar Vildoso Carlos Ivan Araujo Welington Luiz Litvintseva Anastasia P 11 August 2011 Polyphasic Analysis of Intraspecific Diversity in Epicoccum nigrum Warrants Reclassification into Separate Species PLOS ONE 6 8 e14828 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 614828F doi 10 1371 journal pone 0014828 PMC 3154903 PMID 21853017 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title 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