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Pigmented structural glass

May 01, 2024

Pigmented structural glass, also known generically as structural glass and as vitreous marble, and marketed under the names Carrara glass, Sani Onyx, and Vitrolite, among others, is a high-strength, colored glass. Developed in the United States in 1900, it was widely used around the world in the first half of the 20th century in Art Deco and Streamline Moderne buildings. It also found use as a material for signs, tables, and areas requiring a hygienic surface. Over time, the trademarked name "vitrolite" became a generic term for the glass.

Black Vitrolite panelling on the Daily Express Building in Fleet Street, London.

Overview edit

Pigmented structural glass[a] was developed in 1900 in the United States by the Marrietta Manufacturing Company of Indianapolis, Indiana.[2][3][4] The product was made by combining borax,[5] cryolite, kaolinite, manganese, silica,[4] feldspar,[6][5] and fluorspar.[6][5][b] The fluorides made the glass opaque.[1]

These materials were fused[6] into glass at a temperature of 3,000 °F (1,650 °C)[4][5][8] and then annealed.[4][8] The annealing process took much longer than it did for plate glass, often lasting three to five days.[4] This left the glass very strong, with a compressive strength about 40 percent greater than marble.[9] If the product was to be affixed to another surface (such as the exterior of a building), one side of the slab was grooved before the glass hardened.[10]

The exposed side(s) of the material was flame polished,[4][8] which left the product highly reflective and brilliant.[9] Later manufacturing techniques used fine sand to polish the surface, followed by felt blocks and iron(III) oxide powder.[4]

Originally, only beige, black, and white colors were available. But by the 1930s, new manufacturing methods could make pigmented structure glass translucent, and more than 30 colors were available.[2] In time, even agate- and marble-like color patterns were available.[11] Black structural glass was sometimes silvered, to give it a reflective finish.[2]

Pigmented structural glass could be manufactured in flat panels or curves, and in a wide range of sizes and thicknesses.[2] Small mosaic tiles, affixed to flexible fabric, were another option for fitting the product to curved surfaces.[2] In time, manufacturers learned that pigmented structural glass could be carved, cut, inlaid, laminated, sandblasted, and sculpted to create a wide range of finishes and textures. When translucent, it could be illuminated from within.[3]

Manufacturing history edit

 
Vitrolite tiling at Eglinton station in Toronto.

Pigmented structural glass was originally marketed under the name "Sani Onyx" by Marrietta Manufacturing.[3][4] The company also used the name "Sani Rox",[3] while the term "vitreous marble" was coined by the firm as a general descriptive.[12] By 1906, the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company had developed its own pigmented structural glass, which it called "Carrara glass".[13][c] The same year, the Penn-American Plate Company began making a pigmented structural glass which it called "Novus Sanitary Structural Glass".[13] In 1916, The Vitrolite Company began manufacturing the product under the name "Vitrolite",[13] which eventually became a generic name for pigmented structural glass.[2][d] In time, about eight American firms made pigmented structural glass,[2] although Carrara glass and Vitrolite dominated the market.[2][15] Names used by these and other companies to market the product included "Argentine", "Glastone", "Marbrunite", "Nuralite", and "Opalite".[4] Pigmented structural glass was also manufactured by Pilkington Brothers in the United Kingdom.[2]

Marrietta Manufacturing originally marketed pigmented structural glass as a lining for refrigerators. Industrial consumers quickly found new uses for the product as countertops, dados, bathroom partitions, storefront signs, and tabletops.[2][3] By the early 1920s, it was advertised as an inexpensive alternative to marble or ceramic tile.[6] The Art Deco and Steamline Moderne architectural movements vastly increased the market for pigmented structural glass.[16] Its first important architectural use came in 1912, when it was used for bathroom stall partitions and dados in the Woolworth Building in New York City.[2] By 1929, 5,000,000 square feet (460,000 m2) of pigmented structural glass was being manufactured in the United States.[4] Throughout the 1930s, the product also found a use as cladding for storefronts, entryways, lobbies, and even as ceiling material. It was seen as an inexpensive means of making a dated building look modern.[2][3]

The Great Depression significantly reduced the demand for pigmented structural glass. American production reached only 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m2) in 1933.[17] By the 1950s, changing architectural tastes had vastly reduced the demand for the product.[4] The last two American manufacturers ceased production about 1960: Libbey-Owens-Ford shut down its pigmented structural glass plant in 1958, followed by Pittsburgh Plate Glass in the early 1960s.[4][18][e] Production continued in the United Kingdom until 1968, and in Bavaria, Germany, until the end of the 20th century.[19]

Characteristics edit

Unlike masonry, pigmented structural glass does not craze, swell, or warp. It is highly burn and stain resistant, and is colorfast. Since it is a glass, it is impervious to moisture.[20] It cannot absorb pathogenic bacteria, viruses, pathogenic fungi, or parasites, and is easy to render aseptic.[21][22]

References edit

Notes
  1. ^ Pigmented structural glass is also known as "structural glass". However, the term "structural glass" can encompass a wide range of high-strength glass (such as glass brick), and is not the preferred term for pigmented structural glass.[1]
  2. ^ Fluorspar was eventually replaced by other kinds of fluorides.[7]
  3. ^ "Carrara glass" was named for the white or blue-grey Carrara marble, for which pigmented structural glass was a low-cost alternative.[3]
  4. ^ The Meyercord Company of Chicago, Illinois, and the Opalite Tile Company of Monaca, Pennsylvania, founded a new firm, Meyercord-Carter, in 1908. Meyercord made "vitrolite" signs. These were curved or flat opal glass signs in a metal frame on which a company logo or an advertisement were painted. Meyercord had partnered with Opalite to manufacture vitrolite signs by using clear decals instead of paint. Meyercord-Carter was founded to formalize their partnership. Meyercord-Carter was renamed The Vitrolite Company in 1910.[14] The Vitrolite Company was acquired by Libbey-Owens-Ford in 1935.[15]
  5. ^ One source claims production ceased in the United States in the late 1940s.[2]
Citations
  1. ^ a b Dyson 1995, pp. 169–170.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Pender & Godfraind 2011, p. 432.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Kappos 1987, p. 97.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Dyson 1995, p. 169.
  5. ^ a b c d The Modern Hospital Yearbook 1919, p. 692.
  6. ^ a b c d "Composition, Manufacture and Uses of Vitrolite". Buildings. December 6, 1926. pp. 47–48.
  7. ^ Pender & Godfraind 2011, p. 468.
  8. ^ a b c Sweet's Architectural Catalog 1920, p. 1304.
  9. ^ a b "Why Vitrolite for the Next Bathrooms You Design?". American Architect and Architecture. March 1934. p. 91.
  10. ^ "Vitrolite". The Architects' Journal. April 11, 1946. p. 246.
  11. ^ Kappos 1987, p. 98.
  12. ^ Piazza, Machielse & Austin 2015, p. 110.
  13. ^ a b c Esperdy 2008, p. 106.
  14. ^ Kious & Roussin 2012, p. 21.
  15. ^ a b Esperdy 2008, p. 117.
  16. ^ Esperdy 2008, p. 108, 117-119.
  17. ^ Esperdy 2008, p. 107.
  18. ^ Elk, Sara Jane (1985). Pigmented Structural Glass and the Storefront (MA). University of Pennsylvania. p. 20. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  19. ^ United States Department of the Interior 2004, p. 119.
  20. ^ Kappos 1987, p. 99.
  21. ^ Dyson 1995, p. 170.
  22. ^ Parker & Hauf 1977, p. 309.

Bibliography edit

  • Dyson, Carol J. (1995). "Structural Glass". In Jester, Thomas C. (ed.). Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780070325739.
  • Esperdy, Gabrielle M. (2008). Modernizing Main Street : architecture and consumer culture in the New Deal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226218021.
  • Kappos, Ludwig (1987). Preservation Briefs 1-14: Recognizing and Resolving Common Preservation and Repair Problems Prior to Working on Historic Buildings. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160035487.
  • Kious, Kevin; Roussin, Donald (2012). Breweriana: American Beer Collectibles. Oxford, UK: Shire. ISBN 9780747810445.
  • Parker, Harry; Hauf, Harold Dana (1977). Simplified Mechanics and Strength of Materials. New York: Wiley. ISBN 9780471665625.
  • Pender, Robyn; Godfraind, Sophie (2011). Practical Building Conservation: Glass and Glazing. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754645573.
  • Piazza, Gregory; Machielse, Allan; Austin, Dan (2015). A History of Detroit's Palmer Park. Charleston, S.C.: The History Press. ISBN 9781626197848. OCLC 907885624.
  • United States Department of the Interior (2004). The Preservation of Historic Architecture: The U.S. Government's Official Guidelines for Preserving Historic Homes. Guilford, Conn.: Lyons Press. ISBN 9781592281268.
  • "The Vitrolite Company: Sanitary Structural Slabs". Sweet's Architectural Catalog. 15th Annual Edition. New York: Sweet's Catalogue Service. 1920.
  • "The Vitrolite Co.". The Modern Hospital Yearbook. Chicago: The Modern Hospital Publishing Company. 1919.

May 01, 2024
pigmented, structural, glass, also, known, generically, structural, glass, vitreous, marble, marketed, under, names, carrara, glass, sani, onyx, vitrolite, among, others, high, strength, colored, glass, developed, united, states, 1900, widely, used, around, wo. Pigmented structural glass also known generically as structural glass and as vitreous marble and marketed under the names Carrara glass Sani Onyx and Vitrolite among others is a high strength colored glass Developed in the United States in 1900 it was widely used around the world in the first half of the 20th century in Art Deco and Streamline Moderne buildings It also found use as a material for signs tables and areas requiring a hygienic surface Over time the trademarked name vitrolite became a generic term for the glass Black Vitrolite panelling on the Daily Express Building in Fleet Street London Contents 1 Overview 2 Manufacturing history 3 Characteristics 4 References 5 BibliographyOverview editPigmented structural glass a was developed in 1900 in the United States by the Marrietta Manufacturing Company of Indianapolis Indiana 2 3 4 The product was made by combining borax 5 cryolite kaolinite manganese silica 4 feldspar 6 5 and fluorspar 6 5 b The fluorides made the glass opaque 1 These materials were fused 6 into glass at a temperature of 3 000 F 1 650 C 4 5 8 and then annealed 4 8 The annealing process took much longer than it did for plate glass often lasting three to five days 4 This left the glass very strong with a compressive strength about 40 percent greater than marble 9 If the product was to be affixed to another surface such as the exterior of a building one side of the slab was grooved before the glass hardened 10 The exposed side s of the material was flame polished 4 8 which left the product highly reflective and brilliant 9 Later manufacturing techniques used fine sand to polish the surface followed by felt blocks and iron III oxide powder 4 Originally only beige black and white colors were available But by the 1930s new manufacturing methods could make pigmented structure glass translucent and more than 30 colors were available 2 In time even agate and marble like color patterns were available 11 Black structural glass was sometimes silvered to give it a reflective finish 2 Pigmented structural glass could be manufactured in flat panels or curves and in a wide range of sizes and thicknesses 2 Small mosaic tiles affixed to flexible fabric were another option for fitting the product to curved surfaces 2 In time manufacturers learned that pigmented structural glass could be carved cut inlaid laminated sandblasted and sculpted to create a wide range of finishes and textures When translucent it could be illuminated from within 3 Manufacturing history edit nbsp Vitrolite tiling at Eglinton station in Toronto Pigmented structural glass was originally marketed under the name Sani Onyx by Marrietta Manufacturing 3 4 The company also used the name Sani Rox 3 while the term vitreous marble was coined by the firm as a general descriptive 12 By 1906 the Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company had developed its own pigmented structural glass which it called Carrara glass 13 c The same year the Penn American Plate Company began making a pigmented structural glass which it called Novus Sanitary Structural Glass 13 In 1916 The Vitrolite Company began manufacturing the product under the name Vitrolite 13 which eventually became a generic name for pigmented structural glass 2 d In time about eight American firms made pigmented structural glass 2 although Carrara glass and Vitrolite dominated the market 2 15 Names used by these and other companies to market the product included Argentine Glastone Marbrunite Nuralite and Opalite 4 Pigmented structural glass was also manufactured by Pilkington Brothers in the United Kingdom 2 Marrietta Manufacturing originally marketed pigmented structural glass as a lining for refrigerators Industrial consumers quickly found new uses for the product as countertops dados bathroom partitions storefront signs and tabletops 2 3 By the early 1920s it was advertised as an inexpensive alternative to marble or ceramic tile 6 The Art Deco and Steamline Moderne architectural movements vastly increased the market for pigmented structural glass 16 Its first important architectural use came in 1912 when it was used for bathroom stall partitions and dados in the Woolworth Building in New York City 2 By 1929 5 000 000 square feet 460 000 m2 of pigmented structural glass was being manufactured in the United States 4 Throughout the 1930s the product also found a use as cladding for storefronts entryways lobbies and even as ceiling material It was seen as an inexpensive means of making a dated building look modern 2 3 The Great Depression significantly reduced the demand for pigmented structural glass American production reached only 1 000 000 square feet 93 000 m2 in 1933 17 By the 1950s changing architectural tastes had vastly reduced the demand for the product 4 The last two American manufacturers ceased production about 1960 Libbey Owens Ford shut down its pigmented structural glass plant in 1958 followed by Pittsburgh Plate Glass in the early 1960s 4 18 e Production continued in the United Kingdom until 1968 and in Bavaria Germany until the end of the 20th century 19 Characteristics editUnlike masonry pigmented structural glass does not craze swell or warp It is highly burn and stain resistant and is colorfast Since it is a glass it is impervious to moisture 20 It cannot absorb pathogenic bacteria viruses pathogenic fungi or parasites and is easy to render aseptic 21 22 References editNotes Pigmented structural glass is also known as structural glass However the term structural glass can encompass a wide range of high strength glass such as glass brick and is not the preferred term for pigmented structural glass 1 Fluorspar was eventually replaced by other kinds of fluorides 7 Carrara glass was named for the white or blue grey Carrara marble for which pigmented structural glass was a low cost alternative 3 The Meyercord Company of Chicago Illinois and the Opalite Tile Company of Monaca Pennsylvania founded a new firm Meyercord Carter in 1908 Meyercord made vitrolite signs These were curved or flat opal glass signs in a metal frame on which a company logo or an advertisement were painted Meyercord had partnered with Opalite to manufacture vitrolite signs by using clear decals instead of paint Meyercord Carter was founded to formalize their partnership Meyercord Carter was renamed The Vitrolite Company in 1910 14 The Vitrolite Company was acquired by Libbey Owens Ford in 1935 15 One source claims production ceased in the United States in the late 1940s 2 Citations a b Dyson 1995 pp 169 170 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Pender amp Godfraind 2011 p 432 a b c d e f g Kappos 1987 p 97 a b c d e f g h i j k l Dyson 1995 p 169 a b c d The Modern Hospital Yearbook 1919 p 692 a b c d Composition Manufacture and Uses of Vitrolite Buildings December 6 1926 pp 47 48 Pender amp Godfraind 2011 p 468 a b c Sweet s Architectural Catalog 1920 p 1304 a b Why Vitrolite for the Next Bathrooms You Design American Architect and Architecture March 1934 p 91 Vitrolite The Architects Journal April 11 1946 p 246 Kappos 1987 p 98 Piazza Machielse amp Austin 2015 p 110 a b c Esperdy 2008 p 106 Kious amp Roussin 2012 p 21 a b Esperdy 2008 p 117 Esperdy 2008 p 108 117 119 Esperdy 2008 p 107 Elk Sara Jane 1985 Pigmented Structural Glass and the Storefront MA University of Pennsylvania p 20 Retrieved February 21 2017 United States Department of the Interior 2004 p 119 Kappos 1987 p 99 Dyson 1995 p 170 Parker amp Hauf 1977 p 309 Bibliography editDyson Carol J 1995 Structural Glass In Jester Thomas C ed Twentieth Century Building Materials History and Conservation New York McGraw Hill ISBN 9780070325739 Esperdy Gabrielle M 2008 Modernizing Main Street architecture and consumer culture in the New Deal Chicago University of Chicago Press ISBN 9780226218021 Kappos Ludwig 1987 Preservation Briefs 1 14 Recognizing and Resolving Common Preservation and Repair Problems Prior to Working on Historic Buildings Washington D C U S Government Printing Office ISBN 9780160035487 Kious Kevin Roussin Donald 2012 Breweriana American Beer Collectibles Oxford UK Shire ISBN 9780747810445 Parker Harry Hauf Harold Dana 1977 Simplified Mechanics and Strength of Materials New York Wiley ISBN 9780471665625 Pender Robyn Godfraind Sophie 2011 Practical Building Conservation Glass and Glazing Farnham Surrey England Ashgate ISBN 9780754645573 Piazza Gregory Machielse Allan Austin Dan 2015 A History of Detroit s Palmer Park Charleston S C The History Press ISBN 9781626197848 OCLC 907885624 United States Department of the Interior 2004 The Preservation of Historic Architecture The U S Government s Official Guidelines for Preserving Historic Homes Guilford Conn Lyons Press ISBN 9781592281268 The Vitrolite Company Sanitary Structural Slabs Sweet s Architectural Catalog 15th Annual Edition New York Sweet s Catalogue Service 1920 The Vitrolite Co The Modern Hospital Yearbook Chicago The Modern Hospital Publishing Company 1919 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Pigmented structural glass amp oldid 1117490803, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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