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Balamuthia mandrillaris

April 10, 2024

Balamuthia mandrillaris is a free-living amoeba that causes the rare but deadly neurological condition granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE).[1] B. mandrillaris is a soil-dwelling amoeba and was first discovered in 1986 in the brain of a mandrill that died in the San Diego Wild Animal Park.[2][3]

Balamuthia mandrillaris
Trophozoite (active) form of Balamuthia mandrillaris
A Balamuthia mandrillaris cyst
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Phylum:
Amoebozoa
Class:
Discosea
Order:
Centramoebida
Family:
Balamuthiidae
Genus:
Balamuthia

Visvesvara et al., 1993
Species:
B. mandrillaris
Binomial name
Balamuthia mandrillaris
Visvesvara et al., 1993

B. mandrillaris can infect the body through open wounds or possibly by inhalation.[4] Balamuthia has been isolated from soil.[5][6] It is believed to be distributed throughout the temperate regions of the world. This is supported somewhat by the detection of antibodies to the protist in healthy individuals.

The generic name Balamuthia was given by Govinda Visvesvara, after his mentor, parasitologist William Balamuth, for his contributions to the study of amoebae. Visvesvara isolated and studied the pathogen for the first time in 1993.[7]

Morphology edit

B. mandrillaris is a free-living, heterotrophic amoeba, consisting of a standard complement of organelles surrounded by a three-layered cell wall (thought to be made of cellulose), and with an abnormally large cell nucleus. On average, a Balamuthia trophozoite is about 30 to 120 μm in diameter. The cysts fall around this range, as well.[8]

Life cycle edit

Balamuthia's lifecycle, like the Acanthamoeba, consists of a cystic stage and a non-flagellated trophozoite stage, both of which are infectious, and both of which can be identified in the brain tissue on microscopic examination of brain biopsies performed on infected individuals. The trophozoite is pleomorphic and uninucleated, but binucleated forms are occasionally seen. Cysts are also uninucleated, possessing three walls: an outer thin irregular ectocyst, an inner thick endocyst, and a middle amorphous fibrillar mesocyst.[9]

Pathology edit

B. mandrillaris is larger than human leukocytes, thus making phagocytosis impossible. Instead, the immune system attempts to contain them at the portal of entry (usually an open wound) by mounting a type IV hypersensitivity reaction.[10] Upon introduction, the amoeba may form a skin lesion, or in some cases, may migrate to the brain, causing a condition known as granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE),[11] which is usually fatal. This granulomatous feature is mostly seen in immunocompetent patients; immunocompromised individuals exhibit a "perivascular cuffing".[12] Balamuthia-induced GAE can cause focal paralysis, seizures, and brainstem symptoms such as facial paralysis, difficulty swallowing, and double vision.[13]

Balamuthia may also cause a variety of non-neurological symptoms, including skin lesions, which can progress to GAE. Patients experiencing this particular syndrome may report a skin lesion (often similar to those caused by MRSA), which does not respond well to antibiotics. The lesion is usually localized and very slow to heal, or fails to heal altogether. In some presentations, this infection may be mistaken for certain forms of skin cancer or cutaneous leishmaniasis. Balamuthia lesions are most often painless.[13]

Culturing and identification edit

Biopsies of skin lesions, sinuses, lungs, and the brain can detect of B. mandrillaris infection. The amoeba cannot be cultured on an agar plate coated with E. coli because, unlike Naegleria or Acanthamoeba, Balamuthia mandrillaris does not feed on bacteria. Instead, Balamuthia must be cultured on primate hepatocytes or human brain microvascular endothelial cells.[14] Formalin-fixed paraffinized biopsy specimens may indicate Balamuthia trophozoites in the perivascular space. The cysts can be visualized by calcofluor white, which binds to glycans on the cyst wall. Trophozoites appear circular during infection.[13]

Vero cells have been suggested as a possible cheaper and faster alternative to culture the organism.[15] Several types of animal cells have been used in B. mandrillaris culturing including rat glioma cells, human lung cells, and human brain microvascular endothelial cells.[13] These animal cells are added to a specified axenic growth medium for culturing. At the same time, and xenic culture is also performed to help differentiate between Balamuthia and other amebae.[13]

Treatment edit

See also: Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis § Treatment

Infection seems to be survivable if treated early. Two individuals, a 5-year-old girl and a 64-year-old man, developed GAE. After diagnosis, they were treated with flucytosine, pentamidine, fluconazole, sulfadiazine, a macrolide antibiotic and trifluoperazine. Both patients recovered.[16] In 2018, an unsuccessful attempt at treatment of a Balamuthia infection after nasal lavage with untreated tap water was reported.[17]

Nitroxoline has shown interesting properties in vitro and might be a possible treatment for this infection.[18] A man treated with nitroxoline at UCSF Medical Center in 2021, following a seizure that was identified to have resulted from Balamuthia mandrillaris granulomatous amebic encephalitis, survived and recovered from the disease, indicating that nitroxoline might be a promising medication.[19][20]

Organ transplantation edit

According to a report published in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report in September 2010, two confirmed cases of Balamuthia transmission occurred through organ transplantation in December 2009 in Mississippi.[21] Two kidney recipients, a 31-year-old woman and a 27-year-old man, suffered from post-transplant encephalitis due to Balamuthia. The woman died in February 2010 and the man survived with partial paralysis of his right arm. The CDC was notified by a physician on December 14, 2009, about possible transplant transmission in these two patients. Histopathologic testing of donor and recipient tissues confirmed the transmission. Two other patients who received heart and liver transplants from the same donor, but in different hospitals, were placed on preemptive therapy and remain unaffected. A second cluster of transplant-transmitted Balamuthia in Arizona was reported in the same weekly report. Four recipients were identified, two from Arizona (liver and kidney-pancreas), one from California (kidney), and another from Utah (heart). Recipients from Arizona—a 56-year-old male and a 24-year-old male—both succumbed to GAE within a span of 40 days from transplantation. The other two were placed on preemptive therapy after the first two were reported and remain unaffected.[22]

References edit

  1. ^ Sarica, Feyzi Birol; Tufan, Kadir; Cekinmez, Melih; Erdoğan, Bülent; Altinörs, Mehmet Nur (2009). "A rare but fatal case of granulomatous amebic encephalitis with brain abscess: the first case reported from Turkey". Turkish Neurosurgery. 19 (3): 256–259. PMID 19621290.
  2. ^ Cope, Jennifer R.; Landa, Janet; Nethercut, Hannah; Collier, Sarah A.; Glaser, Carol; Moser, Melanie; Puttagunta, Raghuveer; Yoder, Jonathan S.; Ali, Ibne K.; Roy, Sharon L. (2019-05-17). "The Epidemiology and Clinical Features of Balamuthia mandrillaris Disease in the United States, 1974 – 2016". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 68 (11): 1815–1822. doi:10.1093/cid/ciy813. ISSN 1058-4838. PMC 7453664. PMID 30239654.
  3. ^ Visvesvara, G S; Martinez, A J; Schuster, F L; Leitch, G J; Wallace, S V; Sawyer, T K; Anderson, M (1990-12-28). "Leptomyxid ameba, a new agent of amebic meningoencephalitis in humans and animals". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 28 (12): 2750–2756. doi:10.1128/jcm.28.12.2750-2756.1990. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 268267. PMID 2280005.
  4. ^ "Balamuthia mandrillaris ameba infection". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 14 June 2014.
  5. ^ Frederick L. Schuster; Thelma H. Dunnebacke; Gregory C. Booton; Shigeo Yagi; Candice K. Kohlmeier; Carol Glaser; Duc Vugia; Anna Bakardjiev; Parvin Azimi; Mary Maddux-Gonzalez; A. Julio Martinez; Govinda S. Visvesvara (July 2003). "Environmental Isolation of Balamuthia mandrillaris Associated with a Case of Amebic Encephalitis". J. Clin. Microbiol. 41 (7): 3175–3180. doi:10.1128/JCM.41.7.3175-3180.2003. PMC 165348. PMID 12843060.
  6. ^ Thelma H. Dunnebacke; Frederick L. Schuster; Shigeo Yagi; Gregory C. Booton (September 2004). . Microbiology. 150 (Pt 9): 2837–2842. doi:10.1099/mic.0.27218-0. PMID 15347743. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-27. Retrieved 2017-06-20.
  7. ^ Kaneshiro, E. S.; Marciano-Cabral, F.; Moura, H. (2014). "Govinda S. Visvesvara: A Tribute". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 62 (1): 1–2. doi:10.1111/jeu.12143. PMC 5674982. PMID 25040661.
  8. ^ Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui; Naveed Ahmed Khan (2015). "Balamuthia mandrillaris: Morphology, biology and virulence". Trop. Parasitol. 5 (1): 15–22. doi:10.4103/2229-5070.149888. PMC 4326988. PMID 25709948.
  9. ^ Guerrant RL, Walker DH, Weller PF (2011). Tropical Infectious Diseases:Principles, Pathogens and Practice (3rd ed.). Saunders. ISBN 978-0-7020-3935-5. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  10. ^ Abdul Mannan Baig. Pathogenesis of amoebic encephalitis: Are the amoebas being credited to an 'inside job' done by the host immune response? Acta Trop. 2015 Apr
  11. ^ kfggbhnm Di Gregorio, C; Rivasi F; Mongiardo N; De Rienzo B; Wallace S; Visvesvara GS (December 1992). "Acanthamoeba meningoencephalitis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome". Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 116 (12): 1363–5. PMID 1456885.
  12. ^ Mannan Baig, Abdul (Dec 2014). "Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis: ghost response of an immunocompromised host?". J Med Microbiol. 63 (12): 1763–6. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.081315-0. PMID 25239626. S2CID 28069984.
  13. ^ a b c d e Bhosale, Namrata K.; Parija, Subhash Chandra (2021). "Balamuthia mandrillaris: An opportunistic, free-living ameba – An updated review". Tropical Parasitology. 11 (2): 78–88. doi:10.4103/tp.tp_36_21 (inactive 31 January 2024). ISSN 2229-5070. PMC 8579774. PMID 34765527.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
  14. ^ Martínez AJ, Visvesvara GS (March 2001). "Balamuthia mandrillaris infection". J. Med. Microbiol. 50 (3): 205–7. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-50-3-205. PMID 11232763.
  15. ^ Greninger, Alexander L.; Messacar, Kevin; Dunnebacke, Thelma; Naccache, Samia N.; Federman, Scot; Bouquet, Jerome; Mirsky, David; Nomura, Yosuke; Yagi, Shigeo; Glaser, Carol; Vollmer, Michael; Press, Craig A.; Kleinschmidt-DeMasters, Bette K.; Dominguez, Samuel R.; Chiu, Charles Y. (2015). "Clinical metagenomic identification of Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis and assembly of the draft genome: the continuing case for reference genome sequencing". Genome Medicine. 7 (1): 113. doi:10.1186/s13073-015-0235-2. ISSN 1756-994X. PMC 4665321. PMID 26620704.
  16. ^ Deetz, T. R.; Sawyer, M. H.; Billman, G.; Schuster, F. L.; Visvesvara, G. S. (15 November 2003). "Successful Treatment of Balamuthia Amoebic Encephalitis: Presentation of 2 Cases". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 37 (10): 1304–1312. doi:10.1086/379020. PMID 14583863.
  17. ^ Piper, Keenan H.; Foster, Haidn; Susanto, Daniel; Maree, Cynthia L.; Thornton, Sean D.; Cobbs, Charles S. (December 2018). "Fatal Balamuthia mandrillaris brain infection associated with improper nasal lavage". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 77: 18–22. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2018.09.013. PMID 30243910.
  18. ^ Laurie, Matthew T.; White, Corin V.; Retallack, Hanna; Wu, Wesley; Moser, Matthew S.; Sakanari, Judy A.; Ang, Kenny; Wilson, Christopher; Arkin, Michelle R.; DeRisi, Joseph L.; Bassler, Bonnie (2018). "Functional Assessment of 2,177 U.S. and International Drugs Identifies the Quinoline Nitroxoline as a Potent Amoebicidal Agent against the Pathogen Balamuthia mandrillaris". mBio. 9 (5). doi:10.1128/mBio.02051-18. ISSN 2150-7511. PMC 6212833. PMID 30377287.
  19. ^ Kornei, Katherine (2023). "Repurposed drug battles 'brain-eating' amoeba". Science. doi:10.1126/science.adh0048. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
  20. ^ Spottiswoode, Natasha; Pet, Douglas; Kim, Annie; Gruenberg, Katherine; Shah, Maulik; Ramachandran, Amrutha; Laurie, Matthew T; Zia, Maham; Fouassier, Camille; Boutros, Christine L; Lu, Rufei; Zhang, Yueyuan; Servellita, Venice; Bollen, Andrew; Chiu, Charles Y; Wilson, Michael R; Valdivia, Liza; DeRisi, Joseph L (2023). "Successful Treatment of Balamuthia mandrillaris Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis with Nitroxoline". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 29 (1): 197–201. doi:10.3201/eid2901.221531. PMC 9796214. PMID 36573629.
  21. ^ Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (17 September 2010). "Balamuthia mandrillaris transmitted through organ transplantation --- Mississippi, 2009". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 59 (36): 1165–70. PMID 20847719.
  22. ^ Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (17 September 2010). "Notes from the field: transplant-transmitted Balamuthia mandrillaris --- Arizona, 2010". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 59 (36): 1182. PMID 20847722.
  • Baig, Abdul Mannan. "Can Neurotropic Free-Living Amoeba Serve as a Model to Study SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis?" ACS Chemical Neuroscience., vol. 11, no. 22, 2020, pp. 3697–3700., doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00653.

External links edit

  • Balamuthia | Parasites | CDC for images: Cyst of B. mandrillaris and Trophozoite of B. mandrillaris in culture. Credit: DPDx

April 10, 2024
balamuthia, mandrillaris, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor, a. This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Balamuthia mandrillaris news newspapers books scholar JSTOR April 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Balamuthia mandrillaris is a free living amoeba that causes the rare but deadly neurological condition granulomatous amoebic encephalitis GAE 1 B mandrillaris is a soil dwelling amoeba and was first discovered in 1986 in the brain of a mandrill that died in the San Diego Wild Animal Park 2 3 Balamuthia mandrillarisTrophozoite active form of Balamuthia mandrillarisA Balamuthia mandrillaris cystScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaPhylum AmoebozoaClass DiscoseaOrder CentramoebidaFamily BalamuthiidaeGenus BalamuthiaVisvesvara et al 1993Species B mandrillarisBinomial nameBalamuthia mandrillarisVisvesvara et al 1993B mandrillaris can infect the body through open wounds or possibly by inhalation 4 Balamuthia has been isolated from soil 5 6 It is believed to be distributed throughout the temperate regions of the world This is supported somewhat by the detection of antibodies to the protist in healthy individuals The generic name Balamuthia was given by Govinda Visvesvara after his mentor parasitologist William Balamuth for his contributions to the study of amoebae Visvesvara isolated and studied the pathogen for the first time in 1993 7 Contents 1 Morphology 2 Life cycle 3 Pathology 4 Culturing and identification 5 Treatment 6 Organ transplantation 7 References 8 External linksMorphology editB mandrillaris is a free living heterotrophic amoeba consisting of a standard complement of organelles surrounded by a three layered cell wall thought to be made of cellulose and with an abnormally large cell nucleus On average a Balamuthia trophozoite is about 30 to 120 mm in diameter The cysts fall around this range as well 8 Life cycle editBalamuthia s lifecycle like the Acanthamoeba consists of a cystic stage and a non flagellated trophozoite stage both of which are infectious and both of which can be identified in the brain tissue on microscopic examination of brain biopsies performed on infected individuals The trophozoite is pleomorphic and uninucleated but binucleated forms are occasionally seen Cysts are also uninucleated possessing three walls an outer thin irregular ectocyst an inner thick endocyst and a middle amorphous fibrillar mesocyst 9 Pathology editB mandrillaris is larger than human leukocytes thus making phagocytosis impossible Instead the immune system attempts to contain them at the portal of entry usually an open wound by mounting a type IV hypersensitivity reaction 10 Upon introduction the amoeba may form a skin lesion or in some cases may migrate to the brain causing a condition known as granulomatous amoebic encephalitis GAE 11 which is usually fatal This granulomatous feature is mostly seen in immunocompetent patients immunocompromised individuals exhibit a perivascular cuffing 12 Balamuthia induced GAE can cause focal paralysis seizures and brainstem symptoms such as facial paralysis difficulty swallowing and double vision 13 Balamuthia may also cause a variety of non neurological symptoms including skin lesions which can progress to GAE Patients experiencing this particular syndrome may report a skin lesion often similar to those caused by MRSA which does not respond well to antibiotics The lesion is usually localized and very slow to heal or fails to heal altogether In some presentations this infection may be mistaken for certain forms of skin cancer or cutaneous leishmaniasis Balamuthia lesions are most often painless 13 Culturing and identification editBiopsies of skin lesions sinuses lungs and the brain can detect of B mandrillaris infection The amoeba cannot be cultured on an agar plate coated with E coli because unlike Naegleria or Acanthamoeba Balamuthia mandrillaris does not feed on bacteria Instead Balamuthia must be cultured on primate hepatocytes or human brain microvascular endothelial cells 14 Formalin fixed paraffinized biopsy specimens may indicate Balamuthia trophozoites in the perivascular space The cysts can be visualized by calcofluor white which binds to glycans on the cyst wall Trophozoites appear circular during infection 13 Vero cells have been suggested as a possible cheaper and faster alternative to culture the organism 15 Several types of animal cells have been used in B mandrillaris culturing including rat glioma cells human lung cells and human brain microvascular endothelial cells 13 These animal cells are added to a specified axenic growth medium for culturing At the same time and xenic culture is also performed to help differentiate between Balamuthia and other amebae 13 Treatment editSee also Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis Treatment Infection seems to be survivable if treated early Two individuals a 5 year old girl and a 64 year old man developed GAE After diagnosis they were treated with flucytosine pentamidine fluconazole sulfadiazine a macrolide antibiotic and trifluoperazine Both patients recovered 16 In 2018 an unsuccessful attempt at treatment of a Balamuthia infection after nasal lavage with untreated tap water was reported 17 Nitroxoline has shown interesting properties in vitro and might be a possible treatment for this infection 18 A man treated with nitroxoline at UCSF Medical Center in 2021 following a seizure that was identified to have resulted from Balamuthia mandrillaris granulomatous amebic encephalitis survived and recovered from the disease indicating that nitroxoline might be a promising medication 19 20 Organ transplantation editAccording to a report published in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report in September 2010 two confirmed cases of Balamuthia transmission occurred through organ transplantation in December 2009 in Mississippi 21 Two kidney recipients a 31 year old woman and a 27 year old man suffered from post transplant encephalitis due to Balamuthia The woman died in February 2010 and the man survived with partial paralysis of his right arm The CDC was notified by a physician on December 14 2009 about possible transplant transmission in these two patients Histopathologic testing of donor and recipient tissues confirmed the transmission Two other patients who received heart and liver transplants from the same donor but in different hospitals were placed on preemptive therapy and remain unaffected A second cluster of transplant transmitted Balamuthia in Arizona was reported in the same weekly report Four recipients were identified two from Arizona liver and kidney pancreas one from California kidney and another from Utah heart Recipients from Arizona a 56 year old male and a 24 year old male both succumbed to GAE within a span of 40 days from transplantation The other two were placed on preemptive therapy after the first two were reported and remain unaffected 22 References edit Sarica Feyzi Birol Tufan Kadir Cekinmez Melih Erdogan Bulent Altinors Mehmet Nur 2009 A rare but fatal case of granulomatous amebic encephalitis with brain abscess the first case reported from Turkey Turkish Neurosurgery 19 3 256 259 PMID 19621290 Cope Jennifer R Landa Janet Nethercut Hannah Collier Sarah A Glaser Carol Moser Melanie Puttagunta Raghuveer Yoder Jonathan S Ali Ibne K Roy Sharon L 2019 05 17 The Epidemiology and Clinical Features of Balamuthia mandrillaris Disease in the United States 1974 2016 Clinical Infectious Diseases 68 11 1815 1822 doi 10 1093 cid ciy813 ISSN 1058 4838 PMC 7453664 PMID 30239654 Visvesvara G S Martinez A J Schuster F L Leitch G J Wallace S V Sawyer T K Anderson M 1990 12 28 Leptomyxid ameba a new agent of amebic meningoencephalitis in humans and animals Journal of Clinical Microbiology 28 12 2750 2756 doi 10 1128 jcm 28 12 2750 2756 1990 ISSN 0095 1137 PMC 268267 PMID 2280005 Balamuthia mandrillaris ameba infection Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Retrieved 14 June 2014 Frederick L Schuster Thelma H Dunnebacke Gregory C Booton Shigeo Yagi Candice K Kohlmeier Carol Glaser Duc Vugia Anna Bakardjiev Parvin Azimi Mary Maddux Gonzalez A Julio Martinez Govinda S Visvesvara July 2003 Environmental Isolation of Balamuthia mandrillaris Associated with a Case of Amebic Encephalitis J Clin Microbiol 41 7 3175 3180 doi 10 1128 JCM 41 7 3175 3180 2003 PMC 165348 PMID 12843060 Thelma H Dunnebacke Frederick L Schuster Shigeo Yagi Gregory C Booton September 2004 Balamuthia mandrillaris from soil samples Microbiology 150 Pt 9 2837 2842 doi 10 1099 mic 0 27218 0 PMID 15347743 Archived from the original PDF on 2018 07 27 Retrieved 2017 06 20 Kaneshiro E S Marciano Cabral F Moura H 2014 Govinda S Visvesvara A Tribute The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 62 1 1 2 doi 10 1111 jeu 12143 PMC 5674982 PMID 25040661 Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui Naveed Ahmed Khan 2015 Balamuthia mandrillaris Morphology biology and virulence Trop Parasitol 5 1 15 22 doi 10 4103 2229 5070 149888 PMC 4326988 PMID 25709948 Guerrant RL Walker DH Weller PF 2011 Tropical Infectious Diseases Principles Pathogens and Practice 3rd ed Saunders ISBN 978 0 7020 3935 5 Retrieved 6 September 2016 Abdul Mannan Baig Pathogenesis of amoebic encephalitis Are the amoebas being credited to an inside job done by the host immune response Acta Trop 2015 Apr kfggbhnm Di Gregorio C Rivasi F Mongiardo N De Rienzo B Wallace S Visvesvara GS December 1992 Acanthamoeba meningoencephalitis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Archives of Pathology amp Laboratory Medicine 116 12 1363 5 PMID 1456885 Mannan Baig Abdul Dec 2014 Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis ghost response of an immunocompromised host J Med Microbiol 63 12 1763 6 doi 10 1099 jmm 0 081315 0 PMID 25239626 S2CID 28069984 a b c d e Bhosale Namrata K Parija Subhash Chandra 2021 Balamuthia mandrillaris An opportunistic free living ameba An updated review Tropical Parasitology 11 2 78 88 doi 10 4103 tp tp 36 21 inactive 31 January 2024 ISSN 2229 5070 PMC 8579774 PMID 34765527 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of January 2024 link Martinez AJ Visvesvara GS March 2001 Balamuthia mandrillaris infection J Med Microbiol 50 3 205 7 doi 10 1099 0022 1317 50 3 205 PMID 11232763 Greninger Alexander L Messacar Kevin Dunnebacke Thelma Naccache Samia N Federman Scot Bouquet Jerome Mirsky David Nomura Yosuke Yagi Shigeo Glaser Carol Vollmer Michael Press Craig A Kleinschmidt DeMasters Bette K Dominguez Samuel R Chiu Charles Y 2015 Clinical metagenomic identification of Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis and assembly of the draft genome the continuing case for reference genome sequencing Genome Medicine 7 1 113 doi 10 1186 s13073 015 0235 2 ISSN 1756 994X PMC 4665321 PMID 26620704 Deetz T R Sawyer M H Billman G Schuster F L Visvesvara G S 15 November 2003 Successful Treatment of Balamuthia Amoebic Encephalitis Presentation of 2 Cases Clinical Infectious Diseases 37 10 1304 1312 doi 10 1086 379020 PMID 14583863 Piper Keenan H Foster Haidn Susanto Daniel Maree Cynthia L Thornton Sean D Cobbs Charles S December 2018 Fatal Balamuthia mandrillaris brain infection associated with improper nasal lavage International Journal of Infectious Diseases 77 18 22 doi 10 1016 j ijid 2018 09 013 PMID 30243910 Laurie Matthew T White Corin V Retallack Hanna Wu Wesley Moser Matthew S Sakanari Judy A Ang Kenny Wilson Christopher Arkin Michelle R DeRisi Joseph L Bassler Bonnie 2018 Functional Assessment of 2 177 U S and International Drugs Identifies the Quinoline Nitroxoline as a Potent Amoebicidal Agent against the Pathogen Balamuthia mandrillaris mBio 9 5 doi 10 1128 mBio 02051 18 ISSN 2150 7511 PMC 6212833 PMID 30377287 Kornei Katherine 2023 Repurposed drug battles brain eating amoeba Science doi 10 1126 science adh0048 Retrieved 10 February 2023 Spottiswoode Natasha Pet Douglas Kim Annie Gruenberg Katherine Shah Maulik Ramachandran Amrutha Laurie Matthew T Zia Maham Fouassier Camille Boutros Christine L Lu Rufei Zhang Yueyuan Servellita Venice Bollen Andrew Chiu Charles Y Wilson Michael R Valdivia Liza DeRisi Joseph L 2023 Successful Treatment of Balamuthia mandrillaris Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis with Nitroxoline Emerging Infectious Diseases 29 1 197 201 doi 10 3201 eid2901 221531 PMC 9796214 PMID 36573629 Centers for Disease Control Prevention CDC 17 September 2010 Balamuthia mandrillaris transmitted through organ transplantation Mississippi 2009 Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 59 36 1165 70 PMID 20847719 Centers for Disease Control Prevention CDC 17 September 2010 Notes from the field transplant transmitted Balamuthia mandrillaris Arizona 2010 Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 59 36 1182 PMID 20847722 Baig Abdul Mannan Can Neurotropic Free Living Amoeba Serve as a Model to Study SARS CoV 2 Pathogenesis ACS Chemical Neuroscience vol 11 no 22 2020 pp 3697 3700 doi 10 1021 acschemneuro 0c00653 External links editBalamuthia Parasites CDC for images Cyst of B mandrillaris and Trophozoite of B mandrillaris in culture Credit DPDx Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Balamuthia mandrillaris amp oldid 1201781780, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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