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Airborne transmission

January 31, 2023

Airborne transmission or aerosol transmission is transmission of an infectious disease through small particles suspended in the air.[2] Infectious diseases capable of airborne transmission include many of considerable importance both in human and veterinary medicine. The relevant infectious agent may be viruses, bacteria, or fungi, and they may be spread through breathing, talking, coughing, sneezing, raising of dust, spraying of liquids, flushing toilets, or any activities which generate aerosol particles or droplets. This is the transmission of diseases via transmission of an infectious agent, and does not include diseases caused by air pollution.

Infected people generate larger droplets and aerosols which can infect over longer distances

A poster outlining precautions for airborne transmission in healthcare settings. It is intended to be posted outside rooms of patients with an infection that can spread through airborne transmission.[1]
Video explainer on reducing airborne pathogen transmission indoors

Aerosol transmission has traditionally been considered distinct from transmission by droplets, but this distinction is no longer used.[3][4] Respiratory droplets were thought to rapidly fall to the ground after emission:[5] but smaller droplets and aerosols also contain live infectious agents, and can remain in the air longer and travel farther.[4] Individuals generate aerosols and droplets across a wide range of sizes and concentrations, and the amount produced varies widely by person and activity.[6] Larger droplets greater than 100 μm usually settle within 2 m.[6][5] Smaller particles can carry airborne pathogens for extended periods of time. While the concentration of airborne pathogens is greater within 2m, they can travel farther and concentrate in a room.[4]

The traditional size cutoff of 5 μm between airborne and respiratory droplets has been discarded, as exhaled particles form a continuum of sizes whose fates depend on environmental conditions in addition to their initial sizes. This error has informed hospital based transmission based precautions for decades.[6] Indoor respiratory secretion transfer data suggest that droplets/aerosols in the 20 μm size range initially travel with the air flow from cough jets and air conditioning like aerosols,[7] but fall out gravitationally at a greater distance as "jet riders".[8] As this size range is most efficiently filtered out in the nasal mucosa,[9] the primordial infection site in COVID-19, aerosols/droplets[10] in this size range may contribute to driving the COVID-19 pandemic.

Overview

Airborne diseases can be transmitted from one individual to another through the air. The pathogens transmitted may be any kind of microbe, and they may be spread in aerosols, dust or droplets. The aerosols might be generated from sources of infection such as the bodily secretions of an infected individual, or biological wastes. Infectious aerosols may stay suspended in air currents long enough to travel for considerable distances; sneezes, for example, can easily project infectious droplets for dozens of feet (ten or more meters).[11]

Airborne pathogens or allergens typically enter the body via the nose, throat, sinuses and lungs. Inhalation of these pathogens affects the respiratory system and can then spread to the rest of the body. Sinus congestion, coughing and sore throats are examples of inflammation of the upper respiratory airway. Air pollution plays a significant role in airborne diseases. Pollutants can influence lung function by increasing air way inflammation.[12]

Common infections that spread by airborne transmission include SARS-CoV-2;[13] measles morbillivirus,[14] chickenpox virus;[15] Mycobacterium tuberculosis, influenza virus, enterovirus, norovirus and less commonly other species of coronavirus, adenovirus, and possibly respiratory syncytial virus.[16] Some pathogens which have more than one mode of transmission are also anisotropic, meaning that their different modes of transmission can cause different kinds of diseases, with different levels of severity. Two examples are the bacterias Yersinia pestis (which causes plague) and Francisella tularensis (which causes tularaemia), which both can cause severe pneumonia, if transmitted via the airborne route through inhalation.[17]

Poor ventilation enhances transmission by allowing aerosols to spread undisturbed in an indoor space.[18] Crowded rooms are more likely to contain an infected person. The longer a susceptible person stays in such a space, the greater chance of transmission. Airborne transmission is complex, and hard to demonstrate unequivocally[19] but the Wells-Riley model can be used to make simple estimates of infection probability.[20]

Some airborne diseases can affect non-humans. For example, Newcastle disease is an avian disease that affects many types of domestic poultry worldwide that is airborne.[21]

It has been suggested that airborne transmission should be classified as being either obligate, preferential, or opportunistic, although there is limited research that show the importance of each of these categories.[22] Obligate airborne infections spread only through aerosols; the most common example of this category is tuberculosis. Preferential airborne infections, such as chicken pox, can be obtained through different routes, but mainly by aerosols. Opportunistic airborne infections such as influenza typically transmit through other routes; however, under favourable conditions, aerosol transmission can occur.[23]

Transmission

Environmental factors influence the efficacy of airborne disease transmission; the most evident environmental conditions are temperature and relative humidity.[24][25] The transmission of airborne diseases is affected by all the factors that influence temperature and humidity, in both meteorological (outdoor) and human (indoor) environments. Circumstances influencing the spread of droplets containing infectious particles can include pH, salinity, wind, air pollution, and solar radiation as well as human behavior.[26]

Airborne infections usually land in the respiratory system, with the agent present in aerosols (infectious particles < 5 µm in diameter).[27] This includes dry particles, often the remnant of an evaporated wet particle called nuclei, and wet particles.

  • Relative humidity (RH) plays an important role in the evaporation of droplets and the distance they travel. 30 μm droplets evaporate in seconds.[28] The CDC recommends a minimum of 40% RH indoors[29] to significantly reduce the infectivity of aerosolized virus. An ideal humidity for preventing aerosol respiratory viral transmission at room temperature appears to be between 40% and 60% RH. If the relative humidity goes below 35% RH, infectious virus stays longer in the air.
  • The number of rainy days[30] (more important than total precipitation);[31][32] mean daily sunshine hours;[33] latitude and altitude[31] are relevant when assessing the possibility of spread of airborne disease. Some infrequent or exceptional events influence the dissemination of airborne diseases, including tropical storms, hurricanes, typhoons, or monsoons.[34]
  • Climate affects temperature, winds and relative humidity, the main factors affecting the spread, duration and infectiousness of droplets containing infectious particles.[24] The influenza virus spreads easily in the Northern Hemisphere winter due to climate conditions that favour the infectiousness of the virus.[26]
  • Isolated weather events decrease the concentration of airborne fungal spores; a few days later, number of spores increases exponentially.[35]
  • Socioeconomics has a minor role in airborne disease transmission. In cities, airborne disease spreads more rapidly than in rural areas and urban outskirts. Rural areas generally favor higher airborne fungal dissemination.[36]
  • Proximity to large bodies of water such as rivers and lakes can enhance airborne disease.[34]
  • A direct association between insufficient ventilation rates and increased COVID-19 transmission has been observed. Prior to COVID-19, standards for ventilation systems focused more on supplying sufficient oxygen to a room, rather than disease-related aspects of air quality.[4]
  • Poor maintenance of air conditioning systems has led to outbreaks of Legionella pneumophila.[37]
  • Hospital-acquired airborne diseases are associated with poorly-resourced and maintained medical systems,[38] which make isolation challenging.[citation needed]
  • Air conditioning may reduce transmission by removing contaminated air, but may also contribute to the spread of respiratory secretions inside a room.[7]

Prevention

A layered risk-management approach to slowing the spread of a transmissible disease attempts to minimize risk through multiple layers of interventions. Each intervention has the potential to reduce risk. A layered approach can include interventions by individuals (e.g. mask wearing, hand hygiene), institutions (e.g. surface disinfection, ventilation, and air filtration measures to control the indoor environment), the medical system (e.g. vaccination) and public health at the population level (e.g. testing, quarantine, and contact tracing).[4]

Preventive techniques can include disease-specific immunization as well as nonpharmaceutical interventions such as wearing a respirator and limiting time spent in the presence of infected individuals.[39] Wearing a face mask can lower the risk of airborne transmission to the extent that it limits the transfer of airborne particles between individuals.[40] The type of mask that is effective against airborne transmission is dependent on the size of the particles. While fluid-resistant surgical masks prevent large droplet inhalation, smaller particles which form aerosols require a higher level of protection with filtration masks rated at N95 (US) or FFP3 (EU) required.[41] Use of FFP3 masks by staff managing patients with COVID-19 reduced acquisition of COVID-19 by staff members.[42]

Engineering solutions which aim to control or eliminate exposure to a hazard are higher on the hierarchy of control than personal protective equipment (PPE). At the level of physically based engineering interventions, effective ventilation and high frequency air changes, or air filtration through high efficiency particulate filters, reduce detectable levels of virus and other bioaerosols, improving conditions for everyone in an area.[4][43] Portable air filters, such as those tested in Conway Morris A et al. present a readily deployable solution when existing ventilation is inadequate, for instance in repurposed COVID-19 hospital facilities.[43]

The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises the public about vaccination and following careful hygiene and sanitation protocols for airborne disease prevention.[44] Many public health specialists recommend physical distancing (also known as social distancing) to reduce transmission.[45]

A 2011 study concluded that vuvuzelas (a type of air horn popular e.g. with fans at football games) presented a particularly high risk of airborne transmission, as they were spreading a much higher number of aerosol particles than e.g., the act of shouting.[46]

Exposure does not guarantee infection. The generation of aerosols, adequate transport of aerosols through the air, inhalation by a susceptible host, and deposition in the respiratory tract are all important factors contributing to the over-all risk for infection. Furthermore, the infective ability of the virus must be maintained throughout all these stages.[47] In addition the risk for infection is also dependent on host immune system competency plus the quantity of infectious particles ingested.[39]Antibiotics may be used in dealing with airborne bacterial primary infections, such as pneumonic plague.[48]

See also

References

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January 31, 2023
airborne, transmission, aerosol, transmission, transmission, infectious, disease, through, small, particles, suspended, infectious, diseases, capable, airborne, transmission, include, many, considerable, importance, both, human, veterinary, medicine, relevant,. Airborne transmission or aerosol transmission is transmission of an infectious disease through small particles suspended in the air 2 Infectious diseases capable of airborne transmission include many of considerable importance both in human and veterinary medicine The relevant infectious agent may be viruses bacteria or fungi and they may be spread through breathing talking coughing sneezing raising of dust spraying of liquids flushing toilets or any activities which generate aerosol particles or droplets This is the transmission of diseases via transmission of an infectious agent and does not include diseases caused by air pollution Infected people generate larger droplets and aerosols which can infect over longer distances A poster outlining precautions for airborne transmission in healthcare settings It is intended to be posted outside rooms of patients with an infection that can spread through airborne transmission 1 source source source source source source source source source source source source source source Video explainer on reducing airborne pathogen transmission indoors Aerosol transmission has traditionally been considered distinct from transmission by droplets but this distinction is no longer used 3 4 Respiratory droplets were thought to rapidly fall to the ground after emission 5 but smaller droplets and aerosols also contain live infectious agents and can remain in the air longer and travel farther 4 Individuals generate aerosols and droplets across a wide range of sizes and concentrations and the amount produced varies widely by person and activity 6 Larger droplets greater than 100 mm usually settle within 2 m 6 5 Smaller particles can carry airborne pathogens for extended periods of time While the concentration of airborne pathogens is greater within 2m they can travel farther and concentrate in a room 4 The traditional size cutoff of 5 mm between airborne and respiratory droplets has been discarded as exhaled particles form a continuum of sizes whose fates depend on environmental conditions in addition to their initial sizes This error has informed hospital based transmission based precautions for decades 6 Indoor respiratory secretion transfer data suggest that droplets aerosols in the 20 mm size range initially travel with the air flow from cough jets and air conditioning like aerosols 7 but fall out gravitationally at a greater distance as jet riders 8 As this size range is most efficiently filtered out in the nasal mucosa 9 the primordial infection site in COVID 19 aerosols droplets 10 in this size range may contribute to driving the COVID 19 pandemic Contents 1 Overview 2 Transmission 3 Prevention 4 See also 5 ReferencesOverview EditAirborne diseases can be transmitted from one individual to another through the air The pathogens transmitted may be any kind of microbe and they may be spread in aerosols dust or droplets The aerosols might be generated from sources of infection such as the bodily secretions of an infected individual or biological wastes Infectious aerosols may stay suspended in air currents long enough to travel for considerable distances sneezes for example can easily project infectious droplets for dozens of feet ten or more meters 11 Airborne pathogens or allergens typically enter the body via the nose throat sinuses and lungs Inhalation of these pathogens affects the respiratory system and can then spread to the rest of the body Sinus congestion coughing and sore throats are examples of inflammation of the upper respiratory airway Air pollution plays a significant role in airborne diseases Pollutants can influence lung function by increasing air way inflammation 12 Common infections that spread by airborne transmission include SARS CoV 2 13 measles morbillivirus 14 chickenpox virus 15 Mycobacterium tuberculosis influenza virus enterovirus norovirus and less commonly other species of coronavirus adenovirus and possibly respiratory syncytial virus 16 Some pathogens which have more than one mode of transmission are also anisotropic meaning that their different modes of transmission can cause different kinds of diseases with different levels of severity Two examples are the bacterias Yersinia pestis which causes plague and Francisella tularensis which causes tularaemia which both can cause severe pneumonia if transmitted via the airborne route through inhalation 17 Poor ventilation enhances transmission by allowing aerosols to spread undisturbed in an indoor space 18 Crowded rooms are more likely to contain an infected person The longer a susceptible person stays in such a space the greater chance of transmission Airborne transmission is complex and hard to demonstrate unequivocally 19 but the Wells Riley model can be used to make simple estimates of infection probability 20 Some airborne diseases can affect non humans For example Newcastle disease is an avian disease that affects many types of domestic poultry worldwide that is airborne 21 It has been suggested that airborne transmission should be classified as being either obligate preferential or opportunistic although there is limited research that show the importance of each of these categories 22 Obligate airborne infections spread only through aerosols the most common example of this category is tuberculosis Preferential airborne infections such as chicken pox can be obtained through different routes but mainly by aerosols Opportunistic airborne infections such as influenza typically transmit through other routes however under favourable conditions aerosol transmission can occur 23 Transmission EditEnvironmental factors influence the efficacy of airborne disease transmission the most evident environmental conditions are temperature and relative humidity 24 25 The transmission of airborne diseases is affected by all the factors that influence temperature and humidity in both meteorological outdoor and human indoor environments Circumstances influencing the spread of droplets containing infectious particles can include pH salinity wind air pollution and solar radiation as well as human behavior 26 Airborne infections usually land in the respiratory system with the agent present in aerosols infectious particles lt 5 µm in diameter 27 This includes dry particles often the remnant of an evaporated wet particle called nuclei and wet particles Relative humidity RH plays an important role in the evaporation of droplets and the distance they travel 30 mm droplets evaporate in seconds 28 The CDC recommends a minimum of 40 RH indoors 29 to significantly reduce the infectivity of aerosolized virus An ideal humidity for preventing aerosol respiratory viral transmission at room temperature appears to be between 40 and 60 RH If the relative humidity goes below 35 RH infectious virus stays longer in the air The number of rainy days 30 more important than total precipitation 31 32 mean daily sunshine hours 33 latitude and altitude 31 are relevant when assessing the possibility of spread of airborne disease Some infrequent or exceptional events influence the dissemination of airborne diseases including tropical storms hurricanes typhoons or monsoons 34 Climate affects temperature winds and relative humidity the main factors affecting the spread duration and infectiousness of droplets containing infectious particles 24 The influenza virus spreads easily in the Northern Hemisphere winter due to climate conditions that favour the infectiousness of the virus 26 Isolated weather events decrease the concentration of airborne fungal spores a few days later number of spores increases exponentially 35 Socioeconomics has a minor role in airborne disease transmission In cities airborne disease spreads more rapidly than in rural areas and urban outskirts Rural areas generally favor higher airborne fungal dissemination 36 Proximity to large bodies of water such as rivers and lakes can enhance airborne disease 34 A direct association between insufficient ventilation rates and increased COVID 19 transmission has been observed Prior to COVID 19 standards for ventilation systems focused more on supplying sufficient oxygen to a room rather than disease related aspects of air quality 4 Poor maintenance of air conditioning systems has led to outbreaks of Legionella pneumophila 37 Hospital acquired airborne diseases are associated with poorly resourced and maintained medical systems 38 which make isolation challenging citation needed Air conditioning may reduce transmission by removing contaminated air but may also contribute to the spread of respiratory secretions inside a room 7 Prevention EditA layered risk management approach to slowing the spread of a transmissible disease attempts to minimize risk through multiple layers of interventions Each intervention has the potential to reduce risk A layered approach can include interventions by individuals e g mask wearing hand hygiene institutions e g surface disinfection ventilation and air filtration measures to control the indoor environment the medical system e g vaccination and public health at the population level e g testing quarantine and contact tracing 4 Preventive techniques can include disease specific immunization as well as nonpharmaceutical interventions such as wearing a respirator and limiting time spent in the presence of infected individuals 39 Wearing a face mask can lower the risk of airborne transmission to the extent that it limits the transfer of airborne particles between individuals 40 The type of mask that is effective against airborne transmission is dependent on the size of the particles While fluid resistant surgical masks prevent large droplet inhalation smaller particles which form aerosols require a higher level of protection with filtration masks rated at N95 US or FFP3 EU required 41 Use of FFP3 masks by staff managing patients with COVID 19 reduced acquisition of COVID 19 by staff members 42 Engineering solutions which aim to control or eliminate exposure to a hazard are higher on the hierarchy of control than personal protective equipment PPE At the level of physically based engineering interventions effective ventilation and high frequency air changes or air filtration through high efficiency particulate filters reduce detectable levels of virus and other bioaerosols improving conditions for everyone in an area 4 43 Portable air filters such as those tested in Conway Morris A et al present a readily deployable solution when existing ventilation is inadequate for instance in repurposed COVID 19 hospital facilities 43 The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC advises the public about vaccination and following careful hygiene and sanitation protocols for airborne disease prevention 44 Many public health specialists recommend physical distancing also known as social distancing to reduce transmission 45 A 2011 study concluded that vuvuzelas a type of air horn popular e g with fans at football games presented a particularly high risk of airborne transmission as they were spreading a much higher number of aerosol particles than e g the act of shouting 46 Exposure does not guarantee infection The generation of aerosols adequate transport of aerosols through the air inhalation by a susceptible host and deposition in the respiratory tract are all important factors contributing to the over all risk for infection Furthermore the infective ability of the virus must be maintained throughout all these stages 47 In addition the risk for infection is also dependent on host immune system competency plus the quantity of infectious particles ingested 39 Antibiotics may be used in dealing with airborne bacterial primary infections such as pneumonic plague 48 See also EditAeroplankton Basic reproduction number Miasma theory Vector epidemiology Waterborne diseases ZoonosisReferences Edit Transmission Based Precautions U S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 7 January 2016 Retrieved 31 March 2020 Siegel JD Rhinehart E Jackson M Chiarello L Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee 2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Healthcare Settings PDF CDC p 19 Retrieved 7 February 2019 Airborne transmission occurs by dissemination of either airborne droplet nuclei or small particles in the respirable size range containing infectious agents that remain infective over time and distance Tang JW Marr LC Li Y Dancer SJ April 2021 Covid 19 has redefined airborne transmission BMJ 373 n913 doi 10 1136 bmj n913 PMID 33853842 S2CID 233235666 a b c d e f McNeill VF June 2022 Airborne Transmission of SARS CoV 2 Evidence and Implications for Engineering Controls Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering 13 1 123 140 doi 10 1146 annurev chembioeng 092220 111631 PMID 35300517 S2CID 247520571 a b Zhang N Chen W Chan PT Yen HL Tang JW Li Y July 2020 Close contact behavior in indoor environment and transmission of respiratory infection Indoor Air 30 4 645 661 doi 10 1111 ina 12673 PMID 32259319 S2CID 215408351 a b c Staudt A Saunders J Pavlin J Shelton Davenport M et al Environmental Health Matters Initiative National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine 22 October 2020 Shelton Davenport M Pavlin J Saunders J Staudt A eds Airborne Transmission of SARS CoV 2 Proceedings of a Workshop in Brief Washington D C National Academies Press doi 10 17226 25958 ISBN 978 0 309 68408 8 PMID 33119244 S2CID 236828761 a b Hunziker P October 2021 Minimising exposure to respiratory droplets jet riders and aerosols in air conditioned hospital rooms by a Shield and Sink strategy BMJ Open 11 10 e047772 doi 10 1136 bmjopen 2020 047772 PMC 8520596 PMID 34642190 S2CID 229291099 Hunziker P October 2021 Minimising exposure to respiratory droplets jet riders and aerosols in air conditioned hospital rooms by a Shield and Sink strategy BMJ Open 11 10 e047772 doi 10 1101 2020 12 08 20233056 PMC 8520596 PMID 34642190 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Coronavirus Disease 2019 COVID 19 Surge Units Clinical Infectious Diseases 75 1 e97 e101 doi 10 1093 cid ciab933 PMC 8689842 PMID 34718446 Redirect Vaccines VPD VAC VPD menu page 7 February 2019 Glass RJ Glass LM Beyeler WE Min HJ November 2006 Targeted social distancing design for pandemic influenza Emerging Infectious Diseases 12 11 1671 1681 doi 10 3201 eid1211 060255 PMC 3372334 PMID 17283616 Lai KM Bottomley C McNerney R 23 May 2011 Propagation of respiratory aerosols by the vuvuzela PLOS ONE 6 5 e20086 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 620086L doi 10 1371 journal pone 0020086 PMC 3100331 PMID 21629778 Wang CC Prather KA Sznitman J Jimenez JL Lakdawala SS Tufekci Z Marr LC August 2021 Airborne transmission of respiratory viruses Science 373 6558 eabd9149 doi 10 1126 science abd9149 PMC 8721651 PMID 34446582 Ziady LE Small N 2006 Prevent and Control Infection Application Made Easy Juta and Company Ltd pp 119 120 ISBN 9780702167904 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Airborne 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