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Atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization

January 01, 1970

Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) is an ionization method used in mass spectrometry which utilizes gas-phase ion-molecule reactions at atmospheric pressure (105 Pa),[1][2] commonly coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).[3] APCI is a soft ionization method similar to chemical ionization where primary ions are produced on a solvent spray.[4] The main usage of APCI is for polar and relatively less polar thermally stable compounds with molecular weight less than 1500 Da.[5] The application of APCI with HPLC has gained a large popularity in trace analysis detection such as steroids, pesticides and also in pharmacology for drug metabolites.[6]

Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization chamber cross section

Instrument structure edit

 
APCI source with heated nebulizer LC inlet

A typical APCI source usually consists of three main parts: a sample inlet, a corona discharge needle, and an ion transfer region under intermediate pressure.[5] In the case of the heated nebulizer inlet[7] from an LC, as shown in the figure, the eluate flows at 0.2 to 2.0 mL/min into a pneumatic nebulizer which creates a mist of fine droplets. Droplets are vaporized by impact with the heated walls at 350–500 °C and carried by the nebulizer gas and an auxiliary gas into the ion molecule reaction region between the corona electrode and the exit counter-electrode.[4] A constant current of 2–5 microamps is maintained from the corona needle. Sample ions are produced by ion-molecule reactions (as described below), and pass through a small orifice or tube into the ion transfer region leading to the mass spectrometer.

Various geometries of ion source are possible, depending on application. When used with liquid chromatography, particularly at higher flow rates, the nebulizer is often positioned orthogonal to (or at a similarly steep angle to) the inlet of the mass spectrometer, so that solvent and neutral material does not contaminate the actual inlet of the mass spectrometer.[8]

 
Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) spray chamber from LC-MS; this ion source (spray chamber) would fit onto a mass spectrometer on the side facing the viewer, with the mass spectrometer's inlet at roughly the level of the corona discharge needle

Ionization mechanism edit

Ionization in the gas phase by APCI follows the sequences: sample in solution, sample vapor, and sample ions. The effluent from the HPLC is evaporated completely. The mixture of solvent and sample vapor is then ionized by ion-molecule reaction.[9]

The ionization can either be carried out in positive or negative ionization mode. In the positive mode, the relative proton affinities of the reactant ions and the gaseous analyte molecules allow either proton transfer or adduction of reactant gas ions to produce the ions [M+H]+ of the molecular species.[4] In the negative mode, [M−H]− ions are produced by either proton abstraction, or [M+X]− ions are produced by anion attachment. Most work on the APCI-MS analysis has been in positive mode.

In the positive mode, when the discharge current of corona discharge is 1-5 μA on the nebulized solvent, N2 gas molecules are excited and ionized, which produce N4+*. The evaporated mobile phase of LC acts as the ionization gas and reactant ions. If water is the only solvent in the evaporated mobile phase, the excited nitrogen molecular ions N4+* would react with H2O molecules to produce water cluster ions H+(H2O)n.[10] Then, analyte molecules M are protonated by the water cluster ions. Finally, the ionization products MH+(H2O)m transfer out from the atmospheric-pressure ion source. Declustering (removal of water molecules from the protonated analyte molecule) of MH+(H2O)m takes place at the high vacuum of the mass analyzer.[2] The analyte molecule ions detected by MS are [M+H]+. The chemical reactions of ionization process are shown below.

Primary and secondary reagent ion formation in a nitrogen atmosphere in the presence of water:[11][2]

N2 + e → N2+ + 2e
N2+* + 2N2 → N4+* + N2
N4+ + H2O → H2O+ + 2N2
H2O+ + H2O → H3O+ + OH•
H3O+ + H2O + N2 → H+(H2O)2 + N2
H+(H2O)n-1 + H2O + N2 → H+(H2O)n + N2

Ionization of product ions:[2]

H+(H2O)n + M → MH+(H2O)m + (n-m)H2O

Declustering in the high vacuum of the mass analyzer:[2]

MH+(H2O)m → MH+ + mH2O

If the mobile phase contains solvents with a higher proton affinity than water, proton-transfer reactions take place that lead to protonated the solvent with higher proton affinity. For example, when methanol solvent is present, the cluster solvent ions would be CH3OH2+(H2O)n(CH3OH)m.[2] Fragmentation does not normally occur inside the APCI source. If a fragment ion of a sample is observed, thermal degradation has taken place by the heated nebulizer interface, followed by the ionization of the decomposition products.

In a major distinction from chemical ionization, the electrons needed for the primary ionization are not produced by a heated filament, as a heated filament cannot be used under atmospheric pressure conditions. Instead, the ionization must occur using either corona discharges or β- particle emitters, which are both electron sources capable of handling the presence of corrosive or oxidizing gases.[4]

History edit

The origins of atmospheric pressure chemical ionization sources combined with mass spectrometry can be found in the 1960s in studies of ions in flames[12] and of ion chemistry in corona discharges up to atmospheric pressure.[13] The first application of APCI combined with mass spectrometry for trace chemical analysis was by the Franklin GNO Corporation who in 1971 developed an instrument combining APCI with ion mobility and mass spectrometry.[14] Horning, Carroll and their co-workers in the 1970s at the Baylor College of Medicine (Houston, TX) demonstrated the advantages of APCI for coupling gas chromatography (GC)[15] and liquid chromatography (LC)[16] to a mass spectrometer. High sensitivity and simple mass spectra were shown in these studies.[16] For LC-MS, the LC eluate was vaporized and ionized in a heated metal block. Initially, a 63Ni foil was used as a source of electrons to perform ionization. In 1975, a corona discharge electrode was developed, providing a larger dynamic response range.[17] APCI with the corona discharge electrode became the model for modern commercially available APCI interfaces.[18]

In the late 1970s an APCI mass spectrometer system (the TAGA, for Trace Atmospheric Gas Analyzer), mounted in a van for mobile operation, was introduced by SCIEX,[19][20] providing high sensitivity for monitoring polar organics in ambient air in real time. In 1981 a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer version was produced, allowing real-time direct air monitoring by APCI-MS/MS. A similar platform was used for the SCIEX AROMIC system (part of the CONDOR contraband detection system developed together with British Aerospace) for the detection of drugs, explosives and alcohol in shipping containers at border crossings, by sampling the interior airspace.[21][22]

In the mid-1980s and into the early 1990s, the advantages of performing LC/MS with APCI and with electrospray, both atmospheric pressure ionization techniques, began to capture the attention of the analytical community.[3] Together they have dramatically expanded the role of mass spectrometry in the pharmaceutical industry for both drug development and drug discovery applications. The sensitivity of APCI combined with the specificity of LC-MS and LC-MS/MS often makes it the method of choice for the quantification of drugs and drug metabolites.[23]

Advantages edit

Ionization of the substrate is very efficient as it occurs at atmospheric pressure, and thus has a high collision frequency. Additionally, APCI considerably reduces the thermal decomposition of the analyte because of the rapid desolvation and vaporization of the droplets in the initial stages of the ionization.[4] This combination of factors most typically results in the production of ions of the molecular species with fewer fragmentations than many other ionization methods, making it a soft ionization method.[24]

Another advantage to using APCI over other ionization methods is that it allows for the high flow rates typical of standard bore HPLC (0.2–2.0 mL/min) to be used directly, often without diverting the larger fraction of volume to waste. Additionally, APCI can often be performed in a modified ESI source.[25] The ionization occurs in the gas phase, unlike ESI, where the ionization occurs in the liquid phase. A potential advantage of APCI is that it is possible to use a nonpolar solvent as a mobile phase solution, instead of a polar solvent, because the solvent and molecules of interest are converted to a gaseous state before reaching the corona discharge needle. Because APCI involves a gas-phase chemistry, there is no need to use special conditions such as solvents, conductivity, pH for LC. APCI appears to be more versatile LC/MS interface and more compatible with reversed-phase LC than ESI.[24]

Application edit

APCI is suited for thermal stable samples with low to medium (less than 1500 Da) molecular weight, and medium to high polarity. It is particularly useful for analytes that are not sufficiently polar for electrospray. The application area of APCI is the analysis of drugs, nonpolar lipids, natural compounds, pesticides and various organic compounds, but it is of limited use in the analysis of biopolymers, organometallics, ionic compounds and other labile analytes.[26]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Carroll, D. I.; Dzidic, I.; Stillwell, R. N.; Horning, M. G.; Horning, E. C. (1974). "Subpicogram detection system for gas phase analysis based upon atmospheric pressure ionization (API) mass spectrometry". Analytical Chemistry. 46 (6): 706–710. doi:10.1021/ac60342a009. ISSN 0003-2700.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Niessen, Wilfried (2006). Liquid Chromatography Mass spectrometry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. pp. 249–250. ISBN 978-0585138503.
  3. ^ a b Thomson, Bruce A. (1998-03-01). "Atmospheric pressure ionization and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry—together at last". Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry. 9 (3): 187–193. Bibcode:1998JASMS...9..187T. doi:10.1016/S1044-0305(97)00285-7. ISSN 1044-0305. S2CID 94958269.
  4. ^ a b c d e Edmond de Hoffmann; Vincent Stroobant (22 October 2007). Mass Spectrometry: Principles and Applications. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-51213-5.
  5. ^ a b Dass, Chhabil (2007). Fundamentals of Contemporary Mass Spectrometry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-471-68229-5.
  6. ^ Bruins, A. P. (1991). "Mass spectrometry with ion sources operating at atmospheric pressure". Mass Spectrometry Reviews. 10 (1): 53–77. Bibcode:1991MSRv...10...53B. doi:10.1002/mas.1280100104. ISSN 0277-7037.
  7. ^ Thomson, BA (2007). Gross, Michael; Caprioli, Richard (eds.). Encyclopedia of Mass Spectrometry Vol 6. Elsevier. pp. 366–370. ISBN 9780080438016.
  8. ^ Siuzdak, Gary (1 April 2004). "An Introduction to Mass Spectrometry Ionization: An Excerpt from The Expanding Role of Mass Spectrometry in Biotechnology". Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation. 9 (2): 50–63. doi:10.1016/j.jala.2004.01.004. S2CID 111174681. Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  9. ^ AP, BRUINS (1994-01-01). "ATMOSPHERIC-PRESSURE-IONIZATION MASS-SPECTROMETRY .2. APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY, BIOCHEMISTRY AND GENERAL-CHEMISTRY". TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 13 (2). ISSN 0165-9936.
  10. ^ Gates, Paul. . The University of Bristol, School of Chemistry. Archived from the original on 2013-11-26. Retrieved 2013-12-06..
  11. ^ Byrdwell, William Craig (2001-04-01). "Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry for analysis of lipids". Lipids. 36 (4): 327–346. doi:10.1007/s11745-001-0725-5. ISSN 0024-4201. PMID 11383683. S2CID 4017177.
  12. ^ Knewstubb, PF; Sugden, TM (1960). "Mass-Spectrometric Studies of Ionization in Flames. I. The Spectrometer and its Application to Ionization in Hydrogen Flames". Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A255 (1283): 520–535. Bibcode:1960RSPSA.255..520K. doi:10.1098/rspa.1960.0084. S2CID 94083794.
  13. ^ Shahin, MM (1966). "Mass‐Spectrometric Studies of Corona Discharges in Air at Atmospheric Pressure". J. Chem. Phys. 45 (7): 2600–2605. Bibcode:1966JChPh..45.2600S. doi:10.1063/1.1727980.
  14. ^ Collins, DC; Lee, ML (2002). "Developments in Ion Mobility-Mass Spectrometry". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 372 (1): 66–73. doi:10.1007/s00216-001-1195-5. PMID 11939214. S2CID 29195651. In early 1971, when IMS was referred to as plasma chromatography (PC), the Franklin GNO Corporation developed the first commercial ion mobility spectrometer–mass spectrometer (IMS–MS) and demonstrated its use as a detector for the identification and analysis of trace amounts of oxygenated compounds (i.e. 1-octanol and 1-nonanol).
  15. ^ Horning, E. C.; Horning, M. G.; Carroll, D. I.; Dzidic, I.; Stillwell, R. N. (1973-05-01). "New picogram detection system based on a mass spectrometer with an external ionization source at atmospheric pressure". Analytical Chemistry. 45 (6): 936–943. doi:10.1021/ac60328a035. ISSN 0003-2700.
  16. ^ a b Horning, E. C.; Carroll, D. I.; Dzidic, I.; Haegele, K. D.; Horning, M. G.; Stillwell, R. N. (1974-11-01). "Atmospheric pressure ionization (API) mass spectrometry. Solvent-mediated ionization of samples introduced in solution and in a liquid chromatograph effluent stream". Journal of Chromatographic Science. 12 (11): 725–729. doi:10.1093/chromsci/12.11.725. ISSN 0021-9665. PMID 4424244.
  17. ^ Carroll, D. I.; Dzidic, I.; Stillwell, R. N.; Haegele, K. D.; Horning, E. C. (1975-12-01). "Atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry. Corona discharge ion source for use in a liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometer-computer analytical system". Analytical Chemistry. 47 (14): 2369–2373. doi:10.1021/ac60364a031. ISSN 0003-2700.
  18. ^ Byrdwell, William Craig (2001-04-01). "Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry for analysis of lipids". Lipids. 36 (4): 327–346. doi:10.1007/s11745-001-0725-5. ISSN 0024-4201. PMID 11383683. S2CID 4017177.
  19. ^ Cappiello, Achille (2007). Advances in LC-MS Instrumentation. Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 11–26. ISBN 9780444527738.
  20. ^ Thomson, BA; Davidson, WR; Lovett, AM (1980). "Applications of a Versatile Technique for Trace Analysis: Atmospheric Pressure Negative Chemical Ionization". Environmental Health Perspectives. 36: 77–84. doi:10.1289/ehp.803677. PMC 1637749. PMID 6775945.
  21. ^ Pasilis, Sofie P.; Van Berkel, Gary J. (2010). "Modern Atmospheric Pressure Surface Sampling/Ionization Techniques". In Trantor, George E.; Koppenaal, David W. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry. London: John Lindon. pp. 819–829. ISBN 9780080922171.
  22. ^ Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada (1991). "On-Site Sampling and Detection of Drug Particles" (PDF). publications.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
  23. ^ Taylor, Lester C. E.; Johnson, Robert L.; Raso, Roberto (1995-05-01). "Open access atmospheric pressure chemical ionization Mass spectrometry for routine sample analysis". Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry. 6 (5): 387–393. doi:10.1016/1044-0305(94)00124-1. ISSN 1044-0305. PMID 24214220.
  24. ^ a b Zaikin, Vladimir G.; Halket, John M. (2017). "Derivatization in Mass Spectrometry—8. Soft Ionization Mass Spectrometry of Small Molecules". European Journal of Mass Spectrometry. 12 (2): 79–115. doi:10.1255/ejms.798. ISSN 1469-0667. PMID 16723751. S2CID 34838846.
  25. ^ Holčapek, Michal; Jirásko, Robert; Lísa, Miroslav (2012). "Recent developments in liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and related techniques". Journal of Chromatography A. 1259: 3–15. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2012.08.072. ISSN 0021-9673. PMID 22959775.
  26. ^ Holčapek, Michal; Jirásko, Robert; Lísa, Miroslav (2010-06-18). "Basic rules for the interpretation of atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectra of small molecules". Journal of Chromatography A. Mass Spectrometry: Innovation and Application. Part VI. 1217 (25): 3908–3921. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2010.02.049. PMID 20303090.

January 01, 1970
atmospheric, pressure, chemical, ionization, atmospheric, pressure, chemical, ionization, apci, ionization, method, used, mass, spectrometry, which, utilizes, phase, molecule, reactions, atmospheric, pressure, commonly, coupled, with, high, performance, liquid. Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization APCI is an ionization method used in mass spectrometry which utilizes gas phase ion molecule reactions at atmospheric pressure 105 Pa 1 2 commonly coupled with high performance liquid chromatography HPLC 3 APCI is a soft ionization method similar to chemical ionization where primary ions are produced on a solvent spray 4 The main usage of APCI is for polar and relatively less polar thermally stable compounds with molecular weight less than 1500 Da 5 The application of APCI with HPLC has gained a large popularity in trace analysis detection such as steroids pesticides and also in pharmacology for drug metabolites 6 Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization chamber cross section Contents 1 Instrument structure 2 Ionization mechanism 3 History 4 Advantages 5 Application 6 See also 7 ReferencesInstrument structure edit nbsp APCI source with heated nebulizer LC inlet A typical APCI source usually consists of three main parts a sample inlet a corona discharge needle and an ion transfer region under intermediate pressure 5 In the case of the heated nebulizer inlet 7 from an LC as shown in the figure the eluate flows at 0 2 to 2 0 mL min into a pneumatic nebulizer which creates a mist of fine droplets Droplets are vaporized by impact with the heated walls at 350 500 C and carried by the nebulizer gas and an auxiliary gas into the ion molecule reaction region between the corona electrode and the exit counter electrode 4 A constant current of 2 5 microamps is maintained from the corona needle Sample ions are produced by ion molecule reactions as described below and pass through a small orifice or tube into the ion transfer region leading to the mass spectrometer Various geometries of ion source are possible depending on application When used with liquid chromatography particularly at higher flow rates the nebulizer is often positioned orthogonal to or at a similarly steep angle to the inlet of the mass spectrometer so that solvent and neutral material does not contaminate the actual inlet of the mass spectrometer 8 nbsp Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization APCI spray chamber from LC MS this ion source spray chamber would fit onto a mass spectrometer on the side facing the viewer with the mass spectrometer s inlet at roughly the level of the corona discharge needleIonization mechanism editIonization in the gas phase by APCI follows the sequences sample in solution sample vapor and sample ions The effluent from the HPLC is evaporated completely The mixture of solvent and sample vapor is then ionized by ion molecule reaction 9 The ionization can either be carried out in positive or negative ionization mode In the positive mode the relative proton affinities of the reactant ions and the gaseous analyte molecules allow either proton transfer or adduction of reactant gas ions to produce the ions M H of the molecular species 4 In the negative mode M H ions are produced by either proton abstraction or M X ions are produced by anion attachment Most work on the APCI MS analysis has been in positive mode In the positive mode when the discharge current of corona discharge is 1 5 mA on the nebulized solvent N2 gas molecules are excited and ionized which produce N4 The evaporated mobile phase of LC acts as the ionization gas and reactant ions If water is the only solvent in the evaporated mobile phase the excited nitrogen molecular ions N4 would react with H2O molecules to produce water cluster ions H H2O n 10 Then analyte molecules M are protonated by the water cluster ions Finally the ionization products MH H2O m transfer out from the atmospheric pressure ion source Declustering removal of water molecules from the protonated analyte molecule of MH H2O m takes place at the high vacuum of the mass analyzer 2 The analyte molecule ions detected by MS are M H The chemical reactions of ionization process are shown below Primary and secondary reagent ion formation in a nitrogen atmosphere in the presence of water 11 2 N2 e N2 2e N2 2N2 N4 N2 N4 H2O H2O 2N2 H2O H2O H3O OH H3O H2O N2 H H2O 2 N2 H H2O n 1 H2O N2 H H2O n N2 Ionization of product ions 2 H H2O n M MH H2O m n m H2O Declustering in the high vacuum of the mass analyzer 2 MH H2O m MH mH2O If the mobile phase contains solvents with a higher proton affinity than water proton transfer reactions take place that lead to protonated the solvent with higher proton affinity For example when methanol solvent is present the cluster solvent ions would be CH3OH2 H2O n CH3OH m 2 Fragmentation does not normally occur inside the APCI source If a fragment ion of a sample is observed thermal degradation has taken place by the heated nebulizer interface followed by the ionization of the decomposition products In a major distinction from chemical ionization the electrons needed for the primary ionization are not produced by a heated filament as a heated filament cannot be used under atmospheric pressure conditions Instead the ionization must occur using either corona discharges or b particle emitters which are both electron sources capable of handling the presence of corrosive or oxidizing gases 4 History editThe origins of atmospheric pressure chemical ionization sources combined with mass spectrometry can be found in the 1960s in studies of ions in flames 12 and of ion chemistry in corona discharges up to atmospheric pressure 13 The first application of APCI combined with mass spectrometry for trace chemical analysis was by the Franklin GNO Corporation who in 1971 developed an instrument combining APCI with ion mobility and mass spectrometry 14 Horning Carroll and their co workers in the 1970s at the Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX demonstrated the advantages of APCI for coupling gas chromatography GC 15 and liquid chromatography LC 16 to a mass spectrometer High sensitivity and simple mass spectra were shown in these studies 16 For LC MS the LC eluate was vaporized and ionized in a heated metal block Initially a 63Ni foil was used as a source of electrons to perform ionization In 1975 a corona discharge electrode was developed providing a larger dynamic response range 17 APCI with the corona discharge electrode became the model for modern commercially available APCI interfaces 18 In the late 1970s an APCI mass spectrometer system the TAGA for Trace Atmospheric Gas Analyzer mounted in a van for mobile operation was introduced by SCIEX 19 20 providing high sensitivity for monitoring polar organics in ambient air in real time In 1981 a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer version was produced allowing real time direct air monitoring by APCI MS MS A similar platform was used for the SCIEX AROMIC system part of the CONDOR contraband detection system developed together with British Aerospace for the detection of drugs explosives and alcohol in shipping containers at border crossings by sampling the interior airspace 21 22 In the mid 1980s and into the early 1990s the advantages of performing LC MS with APCI and with electrospray both atmospheric pressure ionization techniques began to capture the attention of the analytical community 3 Together they have dramatically expanded the role of mass spectrometry in the pharmaceutical industry for both drug development and drug discovery applications The sensitivity of APCI combined with the specificity of LC MS and LC MS MS often makes it the method of choice for the quantification of drugs and drug metabolites 23 Advantages editIonization of the substrate is very efficient as it occurs at atmospheric pressure and thus has a high collision frequency Additionally APCI considerably reduces the thermal decomposition of the analyte because of the rapid desolvation and vaporization of the droplets in the initial stages of the ionization 4 This combination of factors most typically results in the production of ions of the molecular species with fewer fragmentations than many other ionization methods making it a soft ionization method 24 Another advantage to using APCI over other ionization methods is that it allows for the high flow rates typical of standard bore HPLC 0 2 2 0 mL min to be used directly often without diverting the larger fraction of volume to waste Additionally APCI can often be performed in a modified ESI source 25 The ionization occurs in the gas phase unlike ESI where the ionization occurs in the liquid phase A potential advantage of APCI is that it is possible to use a nonpolar solvent as a mobile phase solution instead of a polar solvent because the solvent and molecules of interest are converted to a gaseous state before reaching the corona discharge needle Because APCI involves a gas phase chemistry there is no need to use special conditions such as solvents conductivity pH for LC APCI appears to be more versatile LC MS interface and more compatible with reversed phase LC than ESI 24 Application editAPCI is suited for thermal stable samples with low to medium less than 1500 Da molecular weight and medium to high polarity It is particularly useful for analytes that are not sufficiently polar for electrospray The application area of APCI is the analysis of drugs nonpolar lipids natural compounds pesticides and various organic compounds but it is of limited use in the analysis of biopolymers organometallics ionic compounds and other labile analytes 26 See also editChemical ionization Corona discharge Electrospray ionization Secondary electrospray ionizationReferences edit Carroll D I Dzidic I Stillwell R N Horning M G Horning E C 1974 Subpicogram detection system for gas phase analysis based upon atmospheric pressure ionization API mass spectrometry Analytical Chemistry 46 6 706 710 doi 10 1021 ac60342a009 ISSN 0003 2700 a b c d e f Niessen Wilfried 2006 Liquid Chromatography Mass spectrometry Boca Raton FL CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group pp 249 250 ISBN 978 0585138503 a b Thomson Bruce A 1998 03 01 Atmospheric pressure ionization and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry together at last Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 9 3 187 193 Bibcode 1998JASMS 9 187T doi 10 1016 S1044 0305 97 00285 7 ISSN 1044 0305 S2CID 94958269 a b c d e Edmond de Hoffmann Vincent Stroobant 22 October 2007 Mass Spectrometry Principles and Applications Wiley ISBN 978 0 470 51213 5 a b Dass Chhabil 2007 Fundamentals of Contemporary Mass Spectrometry John Wiley amp Sons Inc p 47 ISBN 978 0 471 68229 5 Bruins A P 1991 Mass spectrometry with ion sources operating at atmospheric pressure Mass Spectrometry Reviews 10 1 53 77 Bibcode 1991MSRv 10 53B doi 10 1002 mas 1280100104 ISSN 0277 7037 Thomson BA 2007 Gross Michael Caprioli Richard eds Encyclopedia of Mass Spectrometry Vol 6 Elsevier pp 366 370 ISBN 9780080438016 Siuzdak Gary 1 April 2004 An Introduction to Mass Spectrometry Ionization An Excerpt from The Expanding Role of Mass Spectrometry in Biotechnology Journal of the Association for Laboratory Automation 9 2 50 63 doi 10 1016 j jala 2004 01 004 S2CID 111174681 Retrieved 21 April 2022 AP BRUINS 1994 01 01 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IONIZATION MASS SPECTROMETRY 2 APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY BIOCHEMISTRY AND GENERAL CHEMISTRY TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 13 2 ISSN 0165 9936 Gates Paul Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionisation APCI The University of Bristol School of Chemistry Archived from the original on 2013 11 26 Retrieved 2013 12 06 Byrdwell William Craig 2001 04 01 Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry for analysis of lipids Lipids 36 4 327 346 doi 10 1007 s11745 001 0725 5 ISSN 0024 4201 PMID 11383683 S2CID 4017177 Knewstubb PF Sugden TM 1960 Mass Spectrometric Studies of Ionization in Flames I The Spectrometer and its Application to Ionization in Hydrogen Flames Proc R Soc Lond A255 1283 520 535 Bibcode 1960RSPSA 255 520K doi 10 1098 rspa 1960 0084 S2CID 94083794 Shahin MM 1966 Mass Spectrometric Studies of Corona Discharges in Air at Atmospheric Pressure J Chem Phys 45 7 2600 2605 Bibcode 1966JChPh 45 2600S doi 10 1063 1 1727980 Collins DC Lee ML 2002 Developments in Ion Mobility Mass Spectrometry Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 372 1 66 73 doi 10 1007 s00216 001 1195 5 PMID 11939214 S2CID 29195651 In early 1971 when IMS was referred to as plasma chromatography PC the Franklin GNO Corporation developed the first commercial ion mobility spectrometer mass spectrometer IMS MS and demonstrated its use as a detector for the identification and analysis of trace amounts of oxygenated compounds i e 1 octanol and 1 nonanol Horning E C Horning M G Carroll D I Dzidic I Stillwell R N 1973 05 01 New picogram detection system based on a mass spectrometer with an external ionization source at atmospheric pressure Analytical Chemistry 45 6 936 943 doi 10 1021 ac60328a035 ISSN 0003 2700 a b Horning E C Carroll D I Dzidic I Haegele K D Horning M G Stillwell R N 1974 11 01 Atmospheric pressure ionization API mass spectrometry Solvent mediated ionization of samples introduced in solution and in a liquid chromatograph effluent stream Journal of Chromatographic Science 12 11 725 729 doi 10 1093 chromsci 12 11 725 ISSN 0021 9665 PMID 4424244 Carroll D I Dzidic I Stillwell R N Haegele K D Horning E C 1975 12 01 Atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry Corona discharge ion source for use in a liquid chromatograph mass spectrometer computer analytical system Analytical Chemistry 47 14 2369 2373 doi 10 1021 ac60364a031 ISSN 0003 2700 Byrdwell William Craig 2001 04 01 Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry for analysis of lipids Lipids 36 4 327 346 doi 10 1007 s11745 001 0725 5 ISSN 0024 4201 PMID 11383683 S2CID 4017177 Cappiello Achille 2007 Advances in LC MS Instrumentation Netherlands Elsevier pp 11 26 ISBN 9780444527738 Thomson BA Davidson WR Lovett AM 1980 Applications of a Versatile Technique for Trace Analysis Atmospheric Pressure Negative Chemical Ionization Environmental Health Perspectives 36 77 84 doi 10 1289 ehp 803677 PMC 1637749 PMID 6775945 Pasilis Sofie P Van Berkel Gary J 2010 Modern Atmospheric Pressure Surface Sampling Ionization Techniques In Trantor George E Koppenaal David W eds Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry London John Lindon pp 819 829 ISBN 9780080922171 Government of Canada Public Services and Procurement Canada 1991 On Site Sampling and Detection of Drug Particles PDF publications gc ca Retrieved 2022 04 21 Taylor Lester C E Johnson Robert L Raso Roberto 1995 05 01 Open access atmospheric pressure chemical ionization Mass spectrometry for routine sample analysis Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 6 5 387 393 doi 10 1016 1044 0305 94 00124 1 ISSN 1044 0305 PMID 24214220 a b Zaikin Vladimir G Halket John M 2017 Derivatization in Mass Spectrometry 8 Soft Ionization Mass Spectrometry of Small Molecules European Journal of Mass Spectrometry 12 2 79 115 doi 10 1255 ejms 798 ISSN 1469 0667 PMID 16723751 S2CID 34838846 Holcapek Michal Jirasko Robert Lisa Miroslav 2012 Recent developments in liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and related techniques Journal of Chromatography A 1259 3 15 doi 10 1016 j chroma 2012 08 072 ISSN 0021 9673 PMID 22959775 Holcapek Michal Jirasko Robert Lisa Miroslav 2010 06 18 Basic rules for the interpretation of atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectra of small molecules Journal of Chromatography A Mass Spectrometry Innovation and Application Part VI 1217 25 3908 3921 doi 10 1016 j chroma 2010 02 049 PMID 20303090 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization amp oldid 1189947536, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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