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Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus

May 20, 2023

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is a mosquito-borne viral pathogen that causes Venezuelan equine encephalitis or encephalomyelitis (VEE). VEE can affect all equine species, such as horses, donkeys, and zebras. After infection, equines may suddenly die or show progressive central nervous system disorders. Humans also can contract this disease. Healthy adults who become infected by the virus may experience flu-like symptoms, such as high fevers and headaches. People with weakened immune systems and the young and the elderly can become severely ill or die from this disease.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
Virus classification
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Kitrinoviricota
Class: Alsuviricetes
Order: Martellivirales
Family: Togaviridae
Genus: Alphavirus
Species:
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
SpecialtyInfectious disease

The virus that causes VEE is transmitted primarily by mosquitoes that bite an infected animal and then bite and feed on another animal or human. The speed with which the disease spreads depends on the subtype of the VEE virus and the density of mosquito populations. Enzootic subtypes of VEE are diseases endemic to certain areas. Generally these serotypes do not spread to other localities. Enzootic subtypes are associated with the rodent-mosquito transmission cycle. These forms of the virus can cause human illness but generally do not affect equine health.

Epizootic subtypes, on the other hand, can spread rapidly through large populations. These forms of the virus are highly pathogenic to equines and can also affect human health. Equines, rather than rodents, are the primary animal species that carry and spread the disease. Infected equines develop an enormous quantity of virus in their circulatory system. When a blood-feeding insect feeds on such animals, it picks up this virus and transmits it to other animals or humans. Although other animals, such as cattle, swine, and dogs, can become infected, they generally do not show signs of the disease or contribute to its spread.

The virion is spherical and approximately 70 nm in diameter. It has a lipid membrane with glycoprotein surface proteins spread around the outside. Surrounding the nuclear material is a nucleocapsid that has an icosahedral symmetry of T = 4, and is approximately 40 nm in diameter.

Viral subtypes

Serology testing performed on this virus has shown the presence of six different subtypes (classified I to VI).[1] These have been given names, including Mucambo, Tonate, and Pixuna subtypes. There are seven different variants in subtype I, and three of these variants, A, B, and C are the epizootic strains.[citation needed]

The Mucambo virus (subtype III) appears to have evolved ~1807 AD (95% credible interval: 1559–1944).[2] In Venezuela the Mucambo subtype was identified in 1975 by Jose Esparza and J. Sánchez using cultured mosquito cells.[3]

Epidemiology

In the Americas, there have been 21 reported outbreaks of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus.[4] Outbreaks of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus occurred in Central American and South American countries. This virus was isolated in 1938, and outbreaks have been reported in many different countries since then. Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, and the United States are just some of the countries that have reported outbreaks.[5] Outbreaks of VEE generally occur after periods of heavy precipitation that cause mosquito populations to thrive.[4]

Between December 1992 and January 1993, the Venezuelan state of Trujillo experienced an outbreak of this virus. Overall, 28 cases of the disease were reported along with 12 deaths. June 1993 saw a bigger outbreak in the Venezuelan state of Zulia, as 55 humans died as well as 66 equine deaths.[6]

A much larger outbreak in Venezuela and Colombia occurred in 1995. On May 23, 1995, equine encephalitis-like cases were reported in the northwest portion of the country. Eventually, the outbreak spread more towards the north as well as to the south. The outbreak caused about 11,390 febrile cases in humans as well as 16 deaths. About 500 equine cases were reported with 475 deaths.[7][1]

An outbreak of this disease occurred in Colombia on September 1995. This outbreak resulted in 14,156 human cases that were attributable to Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus with 26 human deaths.[8] A possible explanation for the serious outbreaks was the particularly heavy rain that had fallen. This could have caused increased numbers of mosquitoes that could serve as vectors for the disease. A more likely explanation is that deforestation caused a change in mosquito species. Culex taenopius mosquitos, which prefer rodents, were replaced by Aedes taeniorhynchus mosquitoes, which are more likely to bite humans and large equines.[citation needed]

Though the majority of VEE outbreaks occur in Central and South America, the virus has potential to outbreak again in the United States. It has been shown the invasive mosquito species Aedes albopictus is a viable carrier of VEEV.[8]

Vaccine

There is an inactivated vaccine containing the C-84 strain for VEEV that is used to immunize horses. Another vaccine, containing the TC-83 strain, is only used on humans in military and laboratory positions that risk contracting the virus. The human vaccine can result in side effects and does not fully immunize the patient. The TC-83 strain was generated by passing the virus 83 times through a guinea pig heart cell culture; C-84 is a derivative of TC-83.[9]

Society and culture

In April 2009, the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases at Fort Detrick reported that samples of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus were discovered missing during an inventory of a group of samples left by a departed researcher. The report stated the samples were likely among those destroyed when a freezer malfunctioned.[10]

Biological weapon

During the Cold War, both the United States biological weapons program and the Soviet biological weapons program researched and weaponized VEE.[11] In his book Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World, author Stephen Handelman details the weaponization of VEE and other biologicals including plague, anthrax, and smallpox, by Dr. Ken Alibek in the Cold War Soviet weapons programs.[citation needed]

References

  1. ^ a b Vlak, Just M. (July 2007). "Gernot H. Bergold (1911–2003)". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 95 (3): 231–232. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2007.03.015.
  2. ^ Auguste, Albert J.; Volk, Sara M.; Arrigo, Nicole C.; Martinez, Raymond; Ramkissoon, Vernie; Adams, A. Paige; Thompson, Nadin N.; Adesiyun, Abiodun A.; Chadee, Dave D.; Foster, Jerome E.; Travassos Da Rosa, Amelia P.A.; Tesh, Robert B.; Weaver, Scott C.; Carrington, Christine V.F. (September 2009). "Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of Mucambo virus (Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex subtype IIIA) in Trinidad". Virology. 392 (1): 123–130. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2009.06.038. PMC 2804100. PMID 19631956.
  3. ^ Esparza, J.; Sánchez, A. (June 1975). "Multiplication of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (Mucambo) virus in cultured mosquito cells". Archives of Virology. 49 (2–3): 273–280. doi:10.1007/BF01317545. PMID 813617. S2CID 20202029.
  4. ^ a b Weaver, Scott C.; Ferro, Cristina; Barrera, Roberto; Boshell, Jorge; Navarro, Juan-Carlos (7 January 2004). "Venezuelan equine encephalitis". Annual Review of Entomology. 49 (1): 141–174. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123422. PMID 14651460.
  5. ^ Osorio, Jorge E.; Yuill, Thomas M. (2017). "Venzuelan Equine Encephalitis". In Beran, George W. (ed.). Handbook of zoonoses. Vol. Section B Viral Zoonoses. CRC Press. ISBN 9781351441797.[page needed]
  6. ^ Rico-Hesse, R; Weaver, S C; de Siger, J; Medina, G; Salas, R A (6 June 1995). "Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 92 (12): 5278–5281. Bibcode:1995PNAS...92.5278R. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.12.5278. PMC 41677. PMID 7777497.
  7. ^ Acha, Pedro N.; Szyfres, Boris (2001). Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Man and Animals: Chlamydioses, rickettsioses, and viroses. Pan American Health Org. ISBN 978-92-75-11580-0.[page needed]
  8. ^ a b Beaman, Joseph R.; Turell, Michael J. (1 January 1991). "Transmission of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus by Strains of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) Collected in North and South America". Journal of Medical Entomology. 28 (1): 161–164. doi:10.1093/jmedent/28.1.161. PMID 2033608.
  9. ^ "Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus".
  10. ^ Shaughnessy, Larry (22 April 2009). "Army: 3 vials of virus samples missing from Maryland facility". CNN.
  11. ^ Croddy, Eric (2002). "The Post-World War II Era and the Korean War". Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-387-95076-1.

Notes

  • APHIS. 1996.
  • "PAHO: Equine Encephalitis in the Event of a Disaster". Retrieved 2007-03-17.
  • "PAHO Epidemiological Bulletin: Outbreak of Venezuelan Equine Encephalities". Retrieved 2007-03-17.
  • . Archived from the original on 2006-08-28. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
  • "Army: 3 vials of virus samples missing from Maryland facility". CNN. 2009-04-22. Retrieved 2009-04-23.

External links

May 20, 2023
venezuelan, equine, encephalitis, virus, mosquito, borne, viral, pathogen, that, causes, venezuelan, equine, encephalitis, encephalomyelitis, affect, equine, species, such, horses, donkeys, zebras, after, infection, equines, suddenly, show, progressive, centra. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is a mosquito borne viral pathogen that causes Venezuelan equine encephalitis or encephalomyelitis VEE VEE can affect all equine species such as horses donkeys and zebras After infection equines may suddenly die or show progressive central nervous system disorders Humans also can contract this disease Healthy adults who become infected by the virus may experience flu like symptoms such as high fevers and headaches People with weakened immune systems and the young and the elderly can become severely ill or die from this disease Venezuelan equine encephalitis virusVirus classification unranked VirusRealm RiboviriaKingdom OrthornaviraePhylum KitrinoviricotaClass AlsuviricetesOrder MartelliviralesFamily TogaviridaeGenus AlphavirusSpecies Venezuelan equine encephalitis virusVenezuelan equine encephalitis virusSpecialtyInfectious diseaseThe virus that causes VEE is transmitted primarily by mosquitoes that bite an infected animal and then bite and feed on another animal or human The speed with which the disease spreads depends on the subtype of the VEE virus and the density of mosquito populations Enzootic subtypes of VEE are diseases endemic to certain areas Generally these serotypes do not spread to other localities Enzootic subtypes are associated with the rodent mosquito transmission cycle These forms of the virus can cause human illness but generally do not affect equine health Epizootic subtypes on the other hand can spread rapidly through large populations These forms of the virus are highly pathogenic to equines and can also affect human health Equines rather than rodents are the primary animal species that carry and spread the disease Infected equines develop an enormous quantity of virus in their circulatory system When a blood feeding insect feeds on such animals it picks up this virus and transmits it to other animals or humans Although other animals such as cattle swine and dogs can become infected they generally do not show signs of the disease or contribute to its spread The virion is spherical and approximately 70 nm in diameter It has a lipid membrane with glycoprotein surface proteins spread around the outside Surrounding the nuclear material is a nucleocapsid that has an icosahedral symmetry of T 4 and is approximately 40 nm in diameter Contents 1 Viral subtypes 2 Epidemiology 3 Vaccine 4 Society and culture 4 1 Biological weapon 5 References 6 Notes 7 External linksViral subtypes EditSerology testing performed on this virus has shown the presence of six different subtypes classified I to VI 1 These have been given names including Mucambo Tonate and Pixuna subtypes There are seven different variants in subtype I and three of these variants A B and C are the epizootic strains citation needed The Mucambo virus subtype III appears to have evolved 1807 AD 95 credible interval 1559 1944 2 In Venezuela the Mucambo subtype was identified in 1975 by Jose Esparza and J Sanchez using cultured mosquito cells 3 Epidemiology EditIn the Americas there have been 21 reported outbreaks of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus 4 Outbreaks of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus occurred in Central American and South American countries This virus was isolated in 1938 and outbreaks have been reported in many different countries since then Mexico Colombia Venezuela and the United States are just some of the countries that have reported outbreaks 5 Outbreaks of VEE generally occur after periods of heavy precipitation that cause mosquito populations to thrive 4 Between December 1992 and January 1993 the Venezuelan state of Trujillo experienced an outbreak of this virus Overall 28 cases of the disease were reported along with 12 deaths June 1993 saw a bigger outbreak in the Venezuelan state of Zulia as 55 humans died as well as 66 equine deaths 6 A much larger outbreak in Venezuela and Colombia occurred in 1995 On May 23 1995 equine encephalitis like cases were reported in the northwest portion of the country Eventually the outbreak spread more towards the north as well as to the south The outbreak caused about 11 390 febrile cases in humans as well as 16 deaths About 500 equine cases were reported with 475 deaths 7 1 An outbreak of this disease occurred in Colombia on September 1995 This outbreak resulted in 14 156 human cases that were attributable to Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus with 26 human deaths 8 A possible explanation for the serious outbreaks was the particularly heavy rain that had fallen This could have caused increased numbers of mosquitoes that could serve as vectors for the disease A more likely explanation is that deforestation caused a change in mosquito species Culex taenopius mosquitos which prefer rodents were replaced by Aedes taeniorhynchus mosquitoes which are more likely to bite humans and large equines citation needed Though the majority of VEE outbreaks occur in Central and South America the virus has potential to outbreak again in the United States It has been shown the invasive mosquito species Aedes albopictus is a viable carrier of VEEV 8 Vaccine EditThere is an inactivated vaccine containing the C 84 strain for VEEV that is used to immunize horses Another vaccine containing the TC 83 strain is only used on humans in military and laboratory positions that risk contracting the virus The human vaccine can result in side effects and does not fully immunize the patient The TC 83 strain was generated by passing the virus 83 times through a guinea pig heart cell culture C 84 is a derivative of TC 83 9 Society and culture EditIn April 2009 the U S Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases at Fort Detrick reported that samples of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus were discovered missing during an inventory of a group of samples left by a departed researcher The report stated the samples were likely among those destroyed when a freezer malfunctioned 10 Biological weapon Edit During the Cold War both the United States biological weapons program and the Soviet biological weapons program researched and weaponized VEE 11 In his book Biohazard The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World author Stephen Handelman details the weaponization of VEE and other biologicals including plague anthrax and smallpox by Dr Ken Alibek in the Cold War Soviet weapons programs citation needed References Edit a b Vlak Just M July 2007 Gernot H Bergold 1911 2003 Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 95 3 231 232 doi 10 1016 j jip 2007 03 015 Auguste Albert J Volk Sara M Arrigo Nicole C Martinez Raymond Ramkissoon Vernie Adams A Paige Thompson Nadin N Adesiyun Abiodun A Chadee Dave D Foster Jerome E Travassos Da Rosa Amelia P A Tesh Robert B Weaver Scott C Carrington Christine V F September 2009 Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of Mucambo virus Venezuelan equine encephalitis complex subtype IIIA in Trinidad Virology 392 1 123 130 doi 10 1016 j virol 2009 06 038 PMC 2804100 PMID 19631956 Esparza J Sanchez A June 1975 Multiplication of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Mucambo virus in cultured mosquito cells Archives of Virology 49 2 3 273 280 doi 10 1007 BF01317545 PMID 813617 S2CID 20202029 a b Weaver Scott C Ferro Cristina Barrera Roberto Boshell Jorge Navarro Juan Carlos 7 January 2004 Venezuelan equine encephalitis Annual Review of Entomology 49 1 141 174 doi 10 1146 annurev ento 49 061802 123422 PMID 14651460 Osorio Jorge E Yuill Thomas M 2017 Venzuelan Equine Encephalitis In Beran George W ed Handbook of zoonoses Vol Section B Viral Zoonoses CRC Press ISBN 9781351441797 page needed Rico Hesse R Weaver S C de Siger J Medina G Salas R A 6 June 1995 Emergence of a new epidemic epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 92 12 5278 5281 Bibcode 1995PNAS 92 5278R doi 10 1073 pnas 92 12 5278 PMC 41677 PMID 7777497 Acha Pedro N Szyfres Boris 2001 Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Man and Animals Chlamydioses rickettsioses and viroses Pan American Health Org ISBN 978 92 75 11580 0 page needed a b Beaman Joseph R Turell Michael J 1 January 1991 Transmission of Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis Virus by Strains of Aedes albopictus Diptera Culicidae Collected in North and South America Journal of Medical Entomology 28 1 161 164 doi 10 1093 jmedent 28 1 161 PMID 2033608 Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus Shaughnessy Larry 22 April 2009 Army 3 vials of virus samples missing from Maryland facility CNN Croddy Eric 2002 The Post World War II Era and the Korean War Chemical and Biological Warfare A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen Springer Science amp Business Media pp 30 31 ISBN 978 0 387 95076 1 Notes EditAPHIS 1996 Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis PAHO Equine Encephalitis in the Event of a Disaster Retrieved 2007 03 17 PAHO Epidemiological Bulletin Outbreak of Venezuelan Equine Encephalities Retrieved 2007 03 17 PATHINFO Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Archived from the original on 2006 08 28 Retrieved 2007 03 17 Army 3 vials of virus samples missing from Maryland facility CNN 2009 04 22 Retrieved 2009 04 23 External links EditDisease card on World Organisation for Animal Health Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus amp oldid 1146037352, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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