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Underground education

May 12, 2023

Underground education, or clandestine education, refers to various practices of teaching carried out at times and places where such educational activities were deemed illegal.

The Greek "Secret School" ("Krifó scholió"). Oil painting by Nikolaos Gyzis, 1885/86.

Examples of places where widespread clandestine education practices took place included education of Blacks during the slave period in the USA and the Secret Teaching Organization in Poland under the Nazis.

"Lithuanian School 1864-1904", by sculptor Petras Rimša, Kaunas. A mother, by her spinning wheel, is secretly teaching her child to read a banned book in Lithuanian[1]

History

Early modern era

There is a Greek - mostly oral - tradition claiming that secret schools (Krifo scholio) operated during the Ottoman period. There is scant written evidence for this and many historians view it as a national myth. Others believe that the Greek secret school is a legend with a core of truth. According to certain sources, secret schools for Albanians operated in late 19th century by Albanian-speaking communities and Bektashi priests[2][3] or nationalists[4] under Ottoman rule.

During the era of slavery in the United States, the education of enslaved African Americans was discouraged, and eventually made illegal in most of the Southern states. In protest, a number of American activists engaged in illegal underground education of slaves.[5][6]

In the 19th century during partitions of Poland, various forms of the underground education, promoting teaching in Polish language and about the Polish culture, often repressed by the partitioning powers, sprung up on Polish territories. Most famous of these was the Flying University that operated in Warsaw.[7][8][9][10][11] Similarly by the break of the 19th and 20th centuries, in Lithuania, a clandestine school [lt] (slaptoji mokykla) operated almost in every village, because of the Lithuanian press ban (1865 to 1904) in the Russian Empire.[12]

In Ireland during the 18th and 19th century, "Hedge schools" were illegal schools operated by Catholics and Presbyterians; at the time, only Church of Ireland education was permitted.[13]

Due to antisemitic policies in Nazi Germany,[14] some Jewish parents turned to or were forced to use private and sometimes clandestine means to educate their children in the mid-1930s.[15]

World War II

 
Monument to World War II-era underground teachers, Warsaw, Poland.

World War II saw the cultivation of underground education in Poland (Polish: Tajne szkolnictwo, or tajne komplety). Secretly conducted education, usually carried out under the aegis of the Polish Underground State, often through the Secret Teaching Organization, prepared scholars and workers for the postwar reconstruction of Poland and countered German and Soviet threats to eradicate Polish culture.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22] Secret schooling was organized in some Jewish Ghettos during the Nazi regime and the German occupation in Europe, in particular in the Warsaw Ghetto.[23][24][25][26][27]

In the 1930s and 1940s, the authoritarian nationalistic regime of Brazil took anti-immigrant measures, especially against the Japanese. Japanese and other foreign schools, languages and printed material were restricted, and a compulsory assimilation program was instituted. Japanese schools became illegal in 1938. During that period, Japanese immigrants established secret schools and a newspaper in Japanese was printed.[28]

Late 20th century-present

See also: Education_in_Afghanistan § Education_for_female_students

Underground education took place in a number of Soviet Bloc countries, such as Poland[29][30][31] and Czechoslovakia.[32][33]

During the Taliban rule in various parts of Afghanistan (late 20th, early 21st c.), secret schools operated, mostly for women and girls (ex. Golden Needle Sewing School).[34][35]

See also

References

  1. ^ Saulius A. Suziedelis, Historical Dictionary of Lithuania, Scarecrow Press, 2011 p. 326
  2. ^ Somel, Selçuk Akşin (2001). The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire, 1839-1908: Islamization, Autocracy, and Discipline. BRILL. p. 206. ISBN 978-90-04-11903-1.
  3. ^ Clayer, Natalie (1995). "Bektachisme et nationalisme albanais". In Popovic, Alexandre; Veinstein, Gilles (eds.). Bektachiyya: Études sur l'ordre mystique des Bektachis et les groupes relevant de Hadji Bektach. Istanbul: Isis. p. 281.
  4. ^ Rama, Shinasi A. (2019-01-12). Nation Failure, Ethnic Elites, and Balance of Power: The International Administration of Kosova. Springer. p. 95. ISBN 978-3-030-05192-1. the intellectuals organized and sought the right to teach the Albanian language, and nationalist militantism was manifested in the growing sacrifices of the Albanians of all strata that were donating, paying for the private secret schools, funding publications, and so on
  5. ^ Washington, Booker T. (1997). "Education of the Negro". In Sigler, Julius A.; Huston, Anne Marshall (eds.). Education: Ends and Means. University Press of America. pp. 264–269. ISBN 978-0-7618-0452-9.
  6. ^ Gundaker, Grey (2007). "Hidden Education among African Americans during Slavery". Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education. 109 (7): 1591–1612. doi:10.1177/016146810710900707. ISSN 0161-4681. S2CID 141163000.
  7. ^ Tapper, Ted; Palfreyman, David (2005). Understanding Mass Higher Education: Comparative Perspectives on Access. Psychology Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-415-35491-2.
  8. ^ Ascher, Abraham (2004). The Revolution of 1905: A Short History. Stanford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8047-5028-8.
  9. ^ Porter, Brian (2000-02-24). When Nationalism Began to Hate: Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth-Century Poland. Oxford University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-19-535127-9.
  10. ^ Miaso, Józef (1981-06-01). "Education and Social Structures in the Kingdom of Poland in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century". History of Education. 10 (2): 101–109. doi:10.1080/0046760810100202. ISSN 0046-760X.
  11. ^ Jurczyszyn, Marek (2013). "Nauczanie domowe w Królestwie Polskim na przełomie XIX i XX wieku". Pedagogika Rodziny (in Polish). 3 (1): 19–29. ISSN 2082-8411.
  12. ^ Žukauskas, K. (1972-01-08). "On the clandestine teaching in Lithuania". Psichologija. 12: 155–162. doi:10.15388/Psichol.1972.12.9273. ISSN 2345-0061.
  13. ^ Lyons, Tony (October 26, 2016). "'Inciting the lawless and profligate adventure'—the hedge schools of Ireland". History Ireland.
  14. ^ "Law Limits Jews in Public Schools". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  15. ^ Silver, Jacqueline (2015). ...And yet they learned : education of Jewish children in Nazi occupied areas between 1933-1945. North Charleston, South Carolina. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-5377-9635-2. OCLC 964526064. Nazi legal decrees affecting Jewish life from 1933 onward are listed in chronological order and analyzed along with the resultant need for clandestine education for Jewish children
  16. ^ Załęczny, Jolanta (2015). "Działalność oświatowa Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego : tajne nauczanie" (PDF). Niepodległość i Pamięć. 22/1 (49): 187–203.
  17. ^ Macias, Katarzyna (2018-06-27). Edukacja formalna i tajne nauczanie w okupowanej Polsce w okresie II wojny światowej [Formal Education and secret teaching in occupied Poland during the Second World War]. Jagiellonian University.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  18. ^ Nawrocki, Paweł M. (2009). "Tajne nauczanie - w 70-lecie powstania TON". Znak (in Polish) (652): 155–158. ISSN 0044-488X.
  19. ^ Lowe, Roy (1992). Education and the Second World War: Studies in Schooling and Social Change. Psychology Press. pp. 128–138. ISBN 978-0-7507-0054-2.
  20. ^ Chrobaczyński, Jacek (1995). "Źródła i motywy konspiracyjnego szkolnictwa 1939-1945" (PDF). Rocznik Naukowo-Dydaktyczny WSP W Krakowie. XVII (167): 69–87.
  21. ^ (in Polish) Ryszard Czekajowski, Tajna edukacja cywilna w latach wojenno-okupacyjnych Polski 1939-1945
  22. ^ Davydenko, Olena (2013). "Secret vocational education in Poland: organizational and pedagogical aspects (1939-1945)". Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny. 230 (4): 117–132. ISSN 0023-5938.
  23. ^ "Dzieci - tajne nauczanie w getcie warszawskim - Centralna Biblioteka Judaistyczna". cbj.jhi.pl. Retrieved 2023-05-06.
  24. ^ Ignatowicz, Aneta (2009). Tajna oświata i wychowanie w okupowanej Warszawie: Warszawskie Termopile 1939-1945 (in Polish). Bellona. pp. 122–.
  25. ^ Sakowska, Ruta (1965). "O szkolnictwie i tajnym nauczaniu w getcie warszawskim". Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego. 55: 57–84.
  26. ^ Kardos, Susan (2002-04-01). ""Not Bread Alone": Clandestine Schooling and Resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto during the Holocaust". Harvard Educational Review. 72 (1): 33–67. doi:10.17763/haer.72.1.37523430721261lj. ISSN 0017-8055.
  27. ^ Bauer, Yehuda (1992). Tory, Avraham; Gilbert, Martin; Michalowicz, Jerzy (eds.). "Tory, "Surviving the Holocaust: The Kovno Ghetto Diary"". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 82 (3/4): 491–495. doi:10.2307/1454872. ISSN 0021-6682. JSTOR 1454872.
  28. ^ Daniela de Carvalho, Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin. Routledge, 2003. Chapter "From 1930 to 1954". Page number not available.
  29. ^ Stanowski, Krzysztof (1998-07-01). "Teaching Democracy in Postcommunist Countries". Journal of Democracy. 9 (3): 157–165. doi:10.1353/jod.1998.0052. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 153721770.
  30. ^ Buczynska-Garewicz, Hanna (1985-04-01). "The Flying University in Poland, 1978-1980". Harvard Educational Review. 55 (1): 20–34. doi:10.17763/haer.55.1.h4mm84t744557037. ISSN 0017-8055.
  31. ^ Rothstein, Rachel (2015). ""Am I Jewish?" and "What Does it Mean?": The Jewish Flying University and the Creation of a Polish-Jewish Counterculture in Late 1970s Warsaw". Journal of Jewish Identities. 8 (2): 85–111. doi:10.1353/jji.2015.0024. ISSN 1946-2522. S2CID 161864057.
  32. ^ Sugiyama, Anna (2013-01-01). Building Space for Philosophy: Ideas behind the Underground University in Czechoslovakia. Brill. ISBN 978-1-84888-126-6.
  33. ^ Kudláčová, Blanka; Šebová, Nikola (2020-07-03). "Illegal confessional education of children in Slovakia in the period of Socialism (political and religious context)". Paedagogica Historica. 56 (4): 481–502. doi:10.1080/00309230.2019.1589539. ISSN 0030-9230. S2CID 150750433.
  34. ^ Constable, Pamela (2006-09-30). "Afghan girls risk their lives to go to secret school". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
  35. ^ Harding, Luke (2001-07-02). "Inside Afghanistan's secret schools". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-05-07.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Underground education.

May 12, 2023
underground, education, clandestine, education, refers, various, practices, teaching, carried, times, places, where, such, educational, activities, were, deemed, illegal, greek, secret, school, krifó, scholió, painting, nikolaos, gyzis, 1885, examples, places,. Underground education or clandestine education refers to various practices of teaching carried out at times and places where such educational activities were deemed illegal The Greek Secret School Krifo scholio Oil painting by Nikolaos Gyzis 1885 86 Examples of places where widespread clandestine education practices took place included education of Blacks during the slave period in the USA and the Secret Teaching Organization in Poland under the Nazis Lithuanian School 1864 1904 by sculptor Petras Rimsa Kaunas A mother by her spinning wheel is secretly teaching her child to read a banned book in Lithuanian 1 Contents 1 History 1 1 Early modern era 1 2 World War II 1 3 Late 20th century present 2 See also 3 ReferencesHistory EditEarly modern era Edit There is a Greek mostly oral tradition claiming that secret schools Krifo scholio operated during the Ottoman period There is scant written evidence for this and many historians view it as a national myth Others believe that the Greek secret school is a legend with a core of truth According to certain sources secret schools for Albanians operated in late 19th century by Albanian speaking communities and Bektashi priests 2 3 or nationalists 4 under Ottoman rule During the era of slavery in the United States the education of enslaved African Americans was discouraged and eventually made illegal in most of the Southern states In protest a number of American activists engaged in illegal underground education of slaves 5 6 In the 19th century during partitions of Poland various forms of the underground education promoting teaching in Polish language and about the Polish culture often repressed by the partitioning powers sprung up on Polish territories Most famous of these was the Flying University that operated in Warsaw 7 8 9 10 11 Similarly by the break of the 19th and 20th centuries in Lithuania a clandestine school lt slaptoji mokykla operated almost in every village because of the Lithuanian press ban 1865 to 1904 in the Russian Empire 12 In Ireland during the 18th and 19th century Hedge schools were illegal schools operated by Catholics and Presbyterians at the time only Church of Ireland education was permitted 13 Due to antisemitic policies in Nazi Germany 14 some Jewish parents turned to or were forced to use private and sometimes clandestine means to educate their children in the mid 1930s 15 World War II Edit Monument to World War II era underground teachers Warsaw Poland World War II saw the cultivation of underground education in Poland Polish Tajne szkolnictwo or tajne komplety Secretly conducted education usually carried out under the aegis of the Polish Underground State often through the Secret Teaching Organization prepared scholars and workers for the postwar reconstruction of Poland and countered German and Soviet threats to eradicate Polish culture 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Secret schooling was organized in some Jewish Ghettos during the Nazi regime and the German occupation in Europe in particular in the Warsaw Ghetto 23 24 25 26 27 In the 1930s and 1940s the authoritarian nationalistic regime of Brazil took anti immigrant measures especially against the Japanese Japanese and other foreign schools languages and printed material were restricted and a compulsory assimilation program was instituted Japanese schools became illegal in 1938 During that period Japanese immigrants established secret schools and a newspaper in Japanese was printed 28 Late 20th century present Edit See also Education in Afghanistan Education for female students Underground education took place in a number of Soviet Bloc countries such as Poland 29 30 31 and Czechoslovakia 32 33 During the Taliban rule in various parts of Afghanistan late 20th early 21st c secret schools operated mostly for women and girls ex Golden Needle Sewing School 34 35 See also EditJan Hus Educational FoundationReferences Edit Saulius A Suziedelis Historical Dictionary of Lithuania Scarecrow Press 2011 p 326 Somel Selcuk Aksin 2001 The Modernization of Public Education in the Ottoman Empire 1839 1908 Islamization Autocracy and Discipline BRILL p 206 ISBN 978 90 04 11903 1 Clayer Natalie 1995 Bektachisme et nationalisme albanais In Popovic Alexandre Veinstein Gilles eds Bektachiyya Etudes sur l ordre mystique des Bektachis et les groupes relevant de Hadji Bektach Istanbul Isis p 281 Rama Shinasi A 2019 01 12 Nation Failure Ethnic Elites and Balance of Power The International Administration of Kosova Springer p 95 ISBN 978 3 030 05192 1 the intellectuals organized and sought the right to teach the Albanian language and nationalist militantism was manifested in the growing sacrifices of the Albanians of all strata that were donating paying for the private secret schools funding publications and so on Washington Booker T 1997 Education of the Negro In Sigler Julius A Huston Anne Marshall eds Education Ends and Means University Press of America pp 264 269 ISBN 978 0 7618 0452 9 Gundaker Grey 2007 Hidden Education among African Americans during Slavery Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education 109 7 1591 1612 doi 10 1177 016146810710900707 ISSN 0161 4681 S2CID 141163000 Tapper Ted Palfreyman David 2005 Understanding Mass Higher Education Comparative Perspectives on Access Psychology Press p 142 ISBN 978 0 415 35491 2 Ascher Abraham 2004 The Revolution of 1905 A Short History Stanford University Press p 47 ISBN 978 0 8047 5028 8 Porter Brian 2000 02 24 When Nationalism Began to Hate Imagining Modern Politics in Nineteenth Century Poland Oxford University Press p 85 ISBN 978 0 19 535127 9 Miaso Jozef 1981 06 01 Education and Social Structures in the Kingdom of Poland in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century History of Education 10 2 101 109 doi 10 1080 0046760810100202 ISSN 0046 760X Jurczyszyn Marek 2013 Nauczanie domowe w Krolestwie Polskim na przelomie XIX i XX wieku Pedagogika Rodziny in Polish 3 1 19 29 ISSN 2082 8411 Zukauskas K 1972 01 08 On the clandestine teaching in Lithuania Psichologija 12 155 162 doi 10 15388 Psichol 1972 12 9273 ISSN 2345 0061 Lyons Tony October 26 2016 Inciting the lawless and profligate adventure the hedge schools of Ireland History Ireland Law Limits Jews in Public Schools encyclopedia ushmm org Retrieved 2023 05 07 Silver Jacqueline 2015 And yet they learned education of Jewish children in Nazi occupied areas between 1933 1945 North Charleston South Carolina p 8 ISBN 978 1 5377 9635 2 OCLC 964526064 Nazi legal decrees affecting Jewish life from 1933 onward are listed in chronological order and analyzed along with the resultant need for clandestine education for Jewish children Zaleczny Jolanta 2015 Dzialalnosc oswiatowa Polskiego Panstwa Podziemnego tajne nauczanie PDF Niepodleglosc i Pamiec 22 1 49 187 203 Macias Katarzyna 2018 06 27 Edukacja formalna i tajne nauczanie w okupowanej Polsce w okresie II wojny swiatowej Formal Education and secret teaching in occupied Poland during the Second World War Jagiellonian University a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint date and year link Nawrocki Pawel M 2009 Tajne nauczanie w 70 lecie powstania TON Znak in Polish 652 155 158 ISSN 0044 488X Lowe Roy 1992 Education and the Second World War Studies in Schooling and Social Change Psychology Press pp 128 138 ISBN 978 0 7507 0054 2 Chrobaczynski Jacek 1995 Zrodla i motywy konspiracyjnego szkolnictwa 1939 1945 PDF Rocznik Naukowo Dydaktyczny WSP W Krakowie XVII 167 69 87 in Polish Ryszard Czekajowski Tajna edukacja cywilna w latach wojenno okupacyjnych Polski 1939 1945 Davydenko Olena 2013 Secret vocational education in Poland organizational and pedagogical aspects 1939 1945 Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny 230 4 117 132 ISSN 0023 5938 Dzieci tajne nauczanie w getcie warszawskim Centralna Biblioteka Judaistyczna cbj jhi pl Retrieved 2023 05 06 Ignatowicz Aneta 2009 Tajna oswiata i wychowanie w okupowanej Warszawie Warszawskie Termopile 1939 1945 in Polish Bellona pp 122 Sakowska Ruta 1965 O szkolnictwie i tajnym nauczaniu w getcie warszawskim Biuletyn Zydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego 55 57 84 Kardos Susan 2002 04 01 Not Bread Alone Clandestine Schooling and Resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto during the Holocaust Harvard Educational Review 72 1 33 67 doi 10 17763 haer 72 1 37523430721261lj ISSN 0017 8055 Bauer Yehuda 1992 Tory Avraham Gilbert Martin Michalowicz Jerzy eds Tory Surviving the Holocaust The Kovno Ghetto Diary The Jewish Quarterly Review 82 3 4 491 495 doi 10 2307 1454872 ISSN 0021 6682 JSTOR 1454872 Daniela de Carvalho Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil The Nikkeijin Routledge 2003 Chapter From 1930 to 1954 Page number not available Stanowski Krzysztof 1998 07 01 Teaching Democracy in Postcommunist Countries Journal of Democracy 9 3 157 165 doi 10 1353 jod 1998 0052 ISSN 1086 3214 S2CID 153721770 Buczynska Garewicz Hanna 1985 04 01 The Flying University in Poland 1978 1980 Harvard Educational Review 55 1 20 34 doi 10 17763 haer 55 1 h4mm84t744557037 ISSN 0017 8055 Rothstein Rachel 2015 Am I Jewish and What Does it Mean The Jewish Flying University and the Creation of a Polish Jewish Counterculture in Late 1970s Warsaw Journal of Jewish Identities 8 2 85 111 doi 10 1353 jji 2015 0024 ISSN 1946 2522 S2CID 161864057 Sugiyama Anna 2013 01 01 Building Space for Philosophy Ideas behind the Underground University in Czechoslovakia Brill ISBN 978 1 84888 126 6 Kudlacova Blanka Sebova Nikola 2020 07 03 Illegal confessional education of children in Slovakia in the period of Socialism political and religious context Paedagogica Historica 56 4 481 502 doi 10 1080 00309230 2019 1589539 ISSN 0030 9230 S2CID 150750433 Constable Pamela 2006 09 30 Afghan girls risk their lives to go to secret school The Observer ISSN 0029 7712 Retrieved 2023 05 07 Harding Luke 2001 07 02 Inside Afghanistan s secret schools The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 2023 05 07 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Underground education Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Underground education amp oldid 1154420420, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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