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Theodor Bilharz

January 01, 1970

"Bilharz" redirects here. For the lunar crater, see Bilharz (crater). For the eponymous disease, see Bilharzia.

Theodor Maximilian Bilharz (23 March 1825 – 9 May 1862) was a German physician who made pioneering discoveries in the field of parasitology. His contributions led to the foundation of tropical medicine.[1] He is best remembered as the discoverer of the blood fluke Schistosoma haematobium, the causative parasite of bloody urine (haematuria) known since ancient times in Egypt. The parasite, as the cause of bladder cancer, is declared by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as Group 1 carcinogen. The infection is known by an eponymous term bilharzia or bilharziasis, as well as by schistosomiasis.

Theodor Bilharz
Born(1825-03-23)23 March 1825
Sigmaringen, Germany
Died9 May 1862(1862-05-09) (aged 37)
Cairo, Egypt
Resting placeOld Cairo
30°01′N 31°14′E / 30.017°N 31.233°E / 30.017; 31.233
CitizenshipGerman
Alma materUniversity of Tübingen
Known forDiscovery of bilharzia and Schistosoma haematobium
Scientific career
FieldsMedicine; Parasitology
InstitutionsUniversity of Freiburg
Qasr El Eyni Hospital
Author abbrev. (zoology)Bilharz

Bilharz was born and educated in Sigmaringen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Germany. After graduating in natural science and philosophy from the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität in 1845, he earned a medical degree from the University of Tübingen in 1849. In 1850, he followed his former teacher Wilhelm Griesinger to Egypt to work at the Qasr El Eyni Hospital in Cairo. He became the first autopsy performer there. From autopsies of children, he observed a variety of helminth parasites and discovered the tapeworm Hymenolepis nana and the flatworm Heterophyes heterophyes in 1851. Early in that year he found a male worm from a dead soldier. As a novel worm with two mouth-like suckers, he named it Distomum haematobium, the description of which was published by his mentor Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold in 1852. He further discovered that it was the eggs and not the flukes that caused the disease. He also unknowingly discovered another related blood fluke, later identified as Schistosoma mansoni, the most prevalent human helminth.[2]

While he was professor of anatomy at the Qasr El Eyni Medical School (now part of the University of Cairo), he contracted typhoid fever or typhus at Massawa during an expedition organised by Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He died of it at age 37. The United Arab Republic established Theodor Bilharz Research Institute in his honour in 1962.

Early life and education edit

Theodor Bilharz was born in Sigmaringen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Germany. His father Josef Antony Bilharz (1788–1877), a councilor of the exchequer, was an advisor to the Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern.[3] His mother Elisa Fehr (1800–1889) was from a Swiss family of Zollikhofer. He was the eldest of nine children, four of who died at infancy.[4] He studied at the local school in Sigmaringen and completed his secondary education (Fürstlich Sigmaringer Gymnasium) in 1843 with the highest score. He developed keen interest in geology, biology and poetry. His surviving poem Die Trane des Seraphs (The Travels of the Seraphs) was composed during his school days. He scored the highest in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in his class. At age 14, he wrote a drama and translated an ancient comic epic Battle of the Frogs and Mice (Batrachomyomachia). He soon developed a passion in natural science mainly from the library and specimens he inherited from his great uncle Kaspar Zollikofer von Altenklingen, a reputed Swiss biologist.[5]

In the winter semester of 1843, Bilharz entered the Albert-Ludwigs-Universität (University of Freiburg) in Freiburg im Breisgau and took up natural science and philosophy.[6] After completing the degree in 1845, he followed his anatomy teacher Friedrich Arnold to the University of Tübingen where he enrolled in medicine. In 1846, he won the medical faculty's prize competition for his dissertation on topic "The microscopic characters of the blood of invertebrate animals."[4] With the prize money he bought a compound microscope (Oberhaus microscope) that he used throughout his career.[5] He also became closely associated with Wilhelm Griesinger, a neurologist and psychiatrist who was working as an internist at Tübingen at the time.[7]

Bilharz passed the state exam in 1849 to obtain a license as medical doctor.[6] There are sources which state that he graduated in 1848,[8] and he was awarded the medical degree without having to appear the examination because of his excellent performance throughout the course.[3] These information may not be reliable as better biographical sources say he passed the exam in 1849.[4][9] As he graduated, he immediately got an appointment as an assistant to Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold at the University of Freiburg. Von Siebold became his major influence in parasitology and later discoveries. Bilharz initially planned to work in South America hoping to achieve good research in parasitology as he described: "The path to become a professor maybe shorter via America than via Tübingen." The next year, a recently appointed professor of anatomy at Freiburg, Georg Ludwig Kobelt recruited him as his prosector.[3]

Career and achievements edit

In 1850, Wilhelm Griesinger, then at the University of Kiel, was appointed by Abbas I of Egypt, Wāli (governor or viceroy) of Egypt and Sudan, to head medical services in Egypt. He responded to the Wāli that he would accept the appointment only if his former student Theodor Bilharz was appointed as his assistant.[10] Bilharz was still waiting for his medical certificate,[4] and recounted that he could not sleep the night he received the official appointment out of excitement.[3] Griesinger was to hold three positions such as Director of both Qasr El Eyni Hospital and its medical school (later part of the University of Cairo), President of the Sanitary Council and personal physician to the Wāli.[11] Von Siebold wrote of his recommendation to Bilharz’s father saying, "I can't help it to speak out the wish that the stay of your good Theodor may be a credit to him and to science... I won't believe anything else than that a longer stay in wonderful Egypt would be excellently used by your son. God may save his health."[3]

Griesinger and Bilharz left on 25 May and reached Alexandria on 18 June.[3] Bilharz held the position of senior consultant for the department of internal medicine, and also enlisted in the military where he was given the rank of lieutenant colonel (Kaimakam).[5] As an authorised autopsy performer, it was an ideal assignment for Bilharz because autopsy was generally opposed by religious and traditional establishments at the time.[12] Bilharz thereby became the first person to legally perform autopsies in Egypt as the first chief of surgery.[8] While in charge of autopsy between 1850 and 1852, he performed more than 400 operations.[12]

In 1852, Griesinger left Egypt and Bilharz became professor of medicine in his place. The next year, Bilharz was appointed as chief surgeon of internal diseases. When Abbas I died in 1854, his successor Mohamed Sa'id Pasha, a Francophone and a Francophile, dismissed all Germans from official services.[4] Bilharz was replaced by Antoine Clot (known in Egypt as Clot Bey) from Marseilles. The German consul however managed to persuade the viceroy to reinstate Bilharz because of his scientific contributions. In 1856, Clot allowed Bilharz to become professor of anatomy.[8] But he exchanged it with the position of professor of descriptive anatomy the same year. He also took charge as medico-legal adviser to the Egyptian government.[4]

Helminthology edit

 
Dwarf tapeworm (Hymenolepis nana) adults.
 
Heterophyes heterophyes adult fluke. OS – oral sucker, PH – pharynx, IN – intestine, AC – ventral sucker or acetabulum, UT – uterus.

Bilharz in his first year in Egypt found and reported different human parasites including Ancylostoma duodenale, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, pinworm (Oxyuris), pork tapeworm (Taenia solium), dog tapeworm (Echinococcus granulosus), hookworms (Ancylostoma and Necator) and guinea-worm (Dracunculus medinensis). His first major discovery was that of the tapeworm Hymenolepis nana that he recovered from the small intestine of an Egyptian boy in Cairo in 1851.[13] Von Siebold gave the original name as Taenia nana in 1852.[14] In 1851, Bilharz also discovered a novel intestinal flatworm from an infected child in Cairo. Von Siebold named it Distoma heterophyes in 1852.[15] English biologist Thomas Spencer Cobbold created a better generic name Heterophyes in 1866; thus, the parasite became Heterophyes heterophyes. Bilharz's specimen became the first known helminth in the family Heterophyidae.[16]

Discovery of bilharzia and Schistosoma haematobium edit

Ancient Egyptians had recorded urinary disease which can be attributed to S. haematobium infection. 16th-century BCE medical papyri mention the disease as aaa that indicates symptoms of urinary bilharzia.[17] Mummies of 5,000 years old have been found to contain the parasite eggs.[18] The French army physician Adrien-Jacques Renoult reported the disease as haematurea (bloody urine) in 1808.[19][20] Napoleon's army in the late 18th century called Egypt as "the land of menstruating men."[21][22] This is because of the high prevalence of the disease that severely affected the French army. The cause of the disease was never known.[23]

In 1851, during an autopsy, Bilharz discovered an obvious worm from the portal vein connecting the urinary tract of a dead soldier. It was the first time anyone had seen a parasitic worm that lived inside a blood vessel. Not really knowing what kind of worm it was, he wrote to his former zoology professor von Siebold at Breslau on 1 May 1851:[23]

As helminths in general and those who attack humans in particular are concerned, I think Egypt is the best country to study them. Nematodes in particular populate the intestines of the indigenous population in unimaginable quantities. It is not unusual to encounter 100 individuals of Strongylus duodenalis [Ancylostoma duodenale], 20–40 Ascaris, 10–20 Trichocephalus [Trichuris trichiura] and close to 1000 Oxyuris. My attention soon turned to the liver and associated structures; in the blood from v. portae I found a number of long, white worms that with the naked eye appeared to be nematodes. A look in the microscope revealed an excellent Distomum with flat body and a twisted tail. These are a few leaves of a saga as wonderful as the best of Thousand and One Nights – if I succeeded in putting it all together.[12]

He also added an identification puzzle:

[It] had a flat body and a spiral tail at least ten times as long as the body... The tail was a continuation of the flat body of the worm itself, rolled sideways towards the stomach surface in a half canal; the forked blind end of the intestinal canal extended into it very plainly. What then is this animal? In spite of its long tail, it probably cannot be called a cercaria [a fork-tailed larva of trematodes], which is completely different, histologically and morphologically.[24]

As unique among flukes, the schistosomes have two bodies – a female which is like a roundworm and a male which is curled-up fluke – that are combined permanently (a condition called in copula) to make up individual adult worms.[25] Bilharz had discovered a male fluke. He knew it has similarities to other flukes, especially the two mouth-like suckers (now called oral sucker or acetabulum and ventral sucker), for which he immediately used the name Distomum, a Greek for two mouthed.[26] But the rolled-up body made him think that it was a roundworm. At the end of May, he found a female specimen from another corpse that was all wrapped up by the same kind of worm he had discovered. It occurred to him that the worm was an extraordinary fluke, exclaiming, "Something more wonderful, a trematode with divided sex."[27] All previously known parasitic flukes were hermaphrodites with both male and female reproductive organs in the same individual, a condition called gonochorism.[28] Describing his observation in a letter to von Siebold on 18 August, he wrote:

You can imagine my surprise when I saw a trematode [fluke] protruding from the frontal opening of the groove and moving back and forth; it was similar in shape as the first, only much finer and more delicate... [The female] was completely enclosed in the groove-shaped half canal of the male posterior, similar to a sword in a scabbard.[23]

 
Anterior portion of a blood fluke (Schistosoma). The two mouth-like structures are the oral and ventral suckers of a male. The female is like a roundworm protruding below the ventral sucker of male.

Bilharz was able to find the male fluke rolled itself up to form a canal in which the female resided, and he named the canal as gynaecophoric canal.[29]

By March 1852, Bilharz also found many eggs from the bladders of the fluke-infected individuals, indicating that those were of the parasites. He could not establish what the eggs did to cause the disease and suspected them as the cause of kidney stone (nephrolithiasis) and other kidney problems. Griesinger had thought that the fluke caused dysentery, but Bilharz found that it was responsible for urinary tract diseases including haematuria as well.[17] He made the first vivid diagrammatic description of the worms and the eggs on 1 December 1881 in a letter to von Siebold. In it he gave the full scientific name Distomum haematobium; the specific name referring to the unique habitat of the fluke in the blood vessels.[27] Von Siebold reported the discovery in Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, the journal he edited, in 1852.[30] Bilharz then published in the following volume of the same journal the complete description of the parasite structure and the disease it caused.[31][32] He referred to the disease as "endemic haematuria of warm climates" and the "dysenterische Veränderung des Dickdarms" (dysenteric pathology of the colon).[33] Bilharz then in early 1852 discovered the embryo (now called miracidia; singular, miracidium) developed from the egg in water, and recorded:

[The miracidium] had a long, cylindrical cone-shaped form which was thicker anteriorly and more rounded posteriorly, with a proboscis-like protuberance anteriorly. It was covered completely with rather long cilia.[34]

 
Schistosoma haematobium egg can be identified by its terminal spine.
 
Schistosoma mansoni egg is characterised by a lateral spine.

Although he could not make observation on the further development of the miracidia, his discovery revealed half of the life cycle of the parasite.[17] By then, he established that the disease (its pathology) was caused by the eggs and not the worms themselves.[35] He reported his observations in the journal Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift in 1856.[36][10]

However, the generic name was not a good choice. A closely related name Distoma had been introduced by French zoologist Marie Jules César Savigny in 1816 for other animals, the tunicates.[37] Adding to the confusion, Distoma and Distomum had been interchangeably used to describe different species of flukes.[38][39] Even Distomum haematobium was sometimes written as Distoma haematobium.[40] In 1856, Heinrich Meckel von Hemsbach critically argued that the usage of such names was inappropriate as it was a misnomer for the flukes since these animals do not have two mouths. Writing in his book Mikrogeologie: Ueber die Concremente im thierischen Organismus (Microgeology: About the Accumulations in the Animal Organism), he remarked: "The genus name Distoma should not be used, but be replaced with Billharzia [double l is the original printing mistake]."[41] The parasite thereby became Bilharzia haematobium, and with it von Hemsbach introduced the name of the disease as bilharzia. Not knowing von Hemsbach's publication which had limited circulation at the time, David Friedrich Weinland proposed the name Schistosoma (a Greek term for "split body" reflecting the separation of male and female in an individual) in 1858.[40] After a century of debate and confusion on the name, in 1954, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) officially declared Schistosoma haematobium as valid on the ground of priority rule.[42] However, if true priority was to be followed, Bilharzia haematobium should have been adopted.[23][43]

The disease had been known as bilharzia (or bilharziasis), after the discoverer, the term that is broadly used for all types of infections with different Schistosoma species.[44][45] In 1949, the World Health Organization adopted the name bilharzia for medical terminology. When ICZN validated the name Schistosoma haematobium in 1954, it specifically recommended that the disease be called bilharziasis.[43] Following the valid scientific name, schistosomiasis became widely used,[45] and the name urinary schistosomiasis is also commonly used to differentiate it from other schistosome infections.[46][47]`

Towards the end of the 19th century, Cobbold noted as "without question, [S. haematobium is] the most dangerous [of human] parasite[s]."[48] German anatomist, Gustav Fritsch called it "schlimmerer feind der menschheit" ("the worse enemy of humankind").[49] A series of observations following the initial discovery by a British Surgeon Reginald Harrison in 1889 that S. haematobium causes bladder cancer,[50] the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) declared the fluke as Group 1 carcinogen in 2009.[51] It became the first fully proven carcinogenic organism,[23] and is classified among the neglected tropical diseases.[33]

Discovery of Schistosoma mansoni edit

When Bilharz found parasite eggs from infected individuals in March 1852, he noted unique characteristic of schistosome eggs, as each egg has a spine, which he called "pointed appendage."[34] He observed the spiny eggs in the bladder as well as in the intestine. He wrote to von Siebold that some of the eggs were different in having terminal spines while some had lateral spines.[52] Bilharz also noted that the adult flukes were different in anatomy and number eggs they produced.[53] His drawings depicted which were later identified as those of S. mansoni adults.[6]

Until 1902, it was generally believed that S. haematobium produced both lateral and terminal-spine eggs. But a British physician Patrick Manson showed that the lateral-spine eggs were produced only by schistosomes in the intestine. The intestinal flukes were established to be a new species, which Louis Westenra Sambon named Schistosomum mansoni in 1907 in honour of Manson.[54][55]

Electric organs of fish edit

After the discovery of bilharzia, Bilharz researched on the electric organs of the Egyptian electric fish popularly known as thunderfish. Electric fishes had been well known in Egyptian history and commonly depicted in ancient hieroglyphics.[56][57] For this historical importance, Bilharz considered his research on electric organs more valuable than bilharzia,[3] and published them as preliminary note in 1853 and as a full monograph in 1858.[4] He discovered and made detailed description of the nervous system of electric fishes responsible for producing electric fields.[58][59]

Later life and death edit

 
Bilharz's grave in Old Cairo at the German Cemetery.

Bilharz returned to Germany in 1858 to visit his hometown and former universities, and giving lectures at Vienna.[3] He made a brief trip to upper Egypt in the winter of 1859 around the Red Sea, where he noticed a good research opportunity.[4] He spent seven months there with his brother, Richard Alexander Alfons, who had just completed his medical degree at the University of Vienna.[60] In 1861, he was transferred to the department of infectious disease (syphilis and skin infections). Ernest II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, requested him to work as personal physician to the Duchess[6] on an expedition around the Red Sea.[61] With research in mind, Bilharz accompanied the Duchess in early 1862. While staying at Massawa he contracted typhoid fever or typhus (reports are contradictory) and became seriously ill.[3] When he returned to Egypt, he was in terminal condition and died on 6 May 1862, at the age of 37.[61]

British parasitologist and biographer, Harry Arnold Baylis wrote of Bilharz's death: "No one, probably, had ever been more universally or more sincerely mourned in the European colony in Cairo."[4] Richard Alexander Alfons also lamented that "The plan [for his career], to further medical research by natural scientific methods, had failed."[62]

Bilharz's works and grave remained largely forgotten until the first International Congress of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene held in Cairo in 1928.[63] The meeting revealed the importance of bilharzia and his name became at the forefront of medicine,[64] his grave was rediscovered by a search party soon after the conference.[3] His is in Old Cairo next to that of Hans Eisele (1912–1967), a Nazi concentration camp doctor, who was convicted by the US military court for crime against humanity.[3][6]

Legacy edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theodor Bilharz.

References edit

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  36. ^ Bilharz, Theodor (1856). "Distomum haematobium und sein Verhältniss zu gewissen pathologischen Veränderungen der menschlichen Harnorgane" [Distomum haematobium and its relation to certain pathological changes of the human urinary organs]. Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift (in German). 6: 49–65.
  37. ^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1997). "Opinion 1865 Eudistoma Caullery, 1909 (Tunicata): given precedence over Paessleria Michaelsen, 1907". Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature. Vol. 54. pp. 70–71.
  38. ^ Johnston, George (1838). "Miscellanea zoologica". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 1 (6): 431–437. doi:10.1080/00222933809496626. ISSN 0374-5481.
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  40. ^ a b Weinland, David Friedrich (1858). Human Cestoides: An Essay on the Tapeworms of Man. Cambridge (UK): Metcalf and Company. p. 87.
  41. ^ Meckel von Hemsbach, Heinrich (2018) [1856]. Mikrogeologie: Ueber die Concremente im thierischen Organismus (Reprint 2018 ed.). Berlin: De Gruyter. p. 114. ISBN 978-3-11-171606-0. OCLC 1029825577.
  42. ^ Hemming, Francis (1954). Opinions and Declarations Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (Volume 4 Part 16). Vol. 4. London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature. pp. 177–200.
  43. ^ a b Farley, John (2003). Ibid. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780521530606.
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Further reading edit

January 01, 1970
theodor, bilharz, bilharz, redirects, here, lunar, crater, bilharz, crater, eponymous, disease, bilharzia, theodor, maximilian, bilharz, march, 1825, 1862, german, physician, made, pioneering, discoveries, field, parasitology, contributions, foundation, tropic. Bilharz redirects here For the lunar crater see Bilharz crater For the eponymous disease see Bilharzia Theodor Maximilian Bilharz 23 March 1825 9 May 1862 was a German physician who made pioneering discoveries in the field of parasitology His contributions led to the foundation of tropical medicine 1 He is best remembered as the discoverer of the blood fluke Schistosoma haematobium the causative parasite of bloody urine haematuria known since ancient times in Egypt The parasite as the cause of bladder cancer is declared by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as Group 1 carcinogen The infection is known by an eponymous term bilharzia or bilharziasis as well as by schistosomiasis Theodor BilharzBorn 1825 03 23 23 March 1825Sigmaringen GermanyDied9 May 1862 1862 05 09 aged 37 Cairo EgyptResting placeOld Cairo30 01 N 31 14 E 30 017 N 31 233 E 30 017 31 233CitizenshipGermanAlma materUniversity of TubingenKnown forDiscovery of bilharzia and Schistosoma haematobiumScientific careerFieldsMedicine ParasitologyInstitutionsUniversity of FreiburgQasr El Eyni HospitalAuthor abbrev zoology Bilharz Bilharz was born and educated in Sigmaringen Hohenzollern Sigmaringen Germany After graduating in natural science and philosophy from the Albert Ludwigs Universitat in 1845 he earned a medical degree from the University of Tubingen in 1849 In 1850 he followed his former teacher Wilhelm Griesinger to Egypt to work at the Qasr El Eyni Hospital in Cairo He became the first autopsy performer there From autopsies of children he observed a variety of helminth parasites and discovered the tapeworm Hymenolepis nana and the flatworm Heterophyes heterophyes in 1851 Early in that year he found a male worm from a dead soldier As a novel worm with two mouth like suckers he named it Distomum haematobium the description of which was published by his mentor Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold in 1852 He further discovered that it was the eggs and not the flukes that caused the disease He also unknowingly discovered another related blood fluke later identified as Schistosoma mansoni the most prevalent human helminth 2 While he was professor of anatomy at the Qasr El Eyni Medical School now part of the University of Cairo he contracted typhoid fever or typhus at Massawa during an expedition organised by Ernest II Duke of Saxe Coburg and Gotha He died of it at age 37 The United Arab Republic established Theodor Bilharz Research Institute in his honour in 1962 Contents 1 Early life and education 2 Career and achievements 2 1 Helminthology 2 1 1 Discovery of bilharzia and Schistosoma haematobium 2 1 2 Discovery of Schistosoma mansoni 2 2 Electric organs of fish 3 Later life and death 4 Legacy 5 References 6 Further readingEarly life and education editTheodor Bilharz was born in Sigmaringen Hohenzollern Sigmaringen Germany His father Josef Antony Bilharz 1788 1877 a councilor of the exchequer was an advisor to the Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern 3 His mother Elisa Fehr 1800 1889 was from a Swiss family of Zollikhofer He was the eldest of nine children four of who died at infancy 4 He studied at the local school in Sigmaringen and completed his secondary education Furstlich Sigmaringer Gymnasium in 1843 with the highest score He developed keen interest in geology biology and poetry His surviving poem Die Trane des Seraphs The Travels of the Seraphs was composed during his school days He scored the highest in Latin Greek and Hebrew in his class At age 14 he wrote a drama and translated an ancient comic epic Battle of the Frogs and Mice Batrachomyomachia He soon developed a passion in natural science mainly from the library and specimens he inherited from his great uncle Kaspar Zollikofer von Altenklingen a reputed Swiss biologist 5 In the winter semester of 1843 Bilharz entered the Albert Ludwigs Universitat University of Freiburg in Freiburg im Breisgau and took up natural science and philosophy 6 After completing the degree in 1845 he followed his anatomy teacher Friedrich Arnold to the University of Tubingen where he enrolled in medicine In 1846 he won the medical faculty s prize competition for his dissertation on topic The microscopic characters of the blood of invertebrate animals 4 With the prize money he bought a compound microscope Oberhaus microscope that he used throughout his career 5 He also became closely associated with Wilhelm Griesinger a neurologist and psychiatrist who was working as an internist at Tubingen at the time 7 Bilharz passed the state exam in 1849 to obtain a license as medical doctor 6 There are sources which state that he graduated in 1848 8 and he was awarded the medical degree without having to appear the examination because of his excellent performance throughout the course 3 These information may not be reliable as better biographical sources say he passed the exam in 1849 4 9 As he graduated he immediately got an appointment as an assistant to Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold at the University of Freiburg Von Siebold became his major influence in parasitology and later discoveries Bilharz initially planned to work in South America hoping to achieve good research in parasitology as he described The path to become a professor maybe shorter via America than via Tubingen The next year a recently appointed professor of anatomy at Freiburg Georg Ludwig Kobelt recruited him as his prosector 3 Career and achievements editIn 1850 Wilhelm Griesinger then at the University of Kiel was appointed by Abbas I of Egypt Wali governor or viceroy of Egypt and Sudan to head medical services in Egypt He responded to the Wali that he would accept the appointment only if his former student Theodor Bilharz was appointed as his assistant 10 Bilharz was still waiting for his medical certificate 4 and recounted that he could not sleep the night he received the official appointment out of excitement 3 Griesinger was to hold three positions such as Director of both Qasr El Eyni Hospital and its medical school later part of the University of Cairo President of the Sanitary Council and personal physician to the Wali 11 Von Siebold wrote of his recommendation to Bilharz s father saying I can t help it to speak out the wish that the stay of your good Theodor may be a credit to him and to science I won t believe anything else than that a longer stay in wonderful Egypt would be excellently used by your son God may save his health 3 Griesinger and Bilharz left on 25 May and reached Alexandria on 18 June 3 Bilharz held the position of senior consultant for the department of internal medicine and also enlisted in the military where he was given the rank of lieutenant colonel Kaimakam 5 As an authorised autopsy performer it was an ideal assignment for Bilharz because autopsy was generally opposed by religious and traditional establishments at the time 12 Bilharz thereby became the first person to legally perform autopsies in Egypt as the first chief of surgery 8 While in charge of autopsy between 1850 and 1852 he performed more than 400 operations 12 In 1852 Griesinger left Egypt and Bilharz became professor of medicine in his place The next year Bilharz was appointed as chief surgeon of internal diseases When Abbas I died in 1854 his successor Mohamed Sa id Pasha a Francophone and a Francophile dismissed all Germans from official services 4 Bilharz was replaced by Antoine Clot known in Egypt as Clot Bey from Marseilles The German consul however managed to persuade the viceroy to reinstate Bilharz because of his scientific contributions In 1856 Clot allowed Bilharz to become professor of anatomy 8 But he exchanged it with the position of professor of descriptive anatomy the same year He also took charge as medico legal adviser to the Egyptian government 4 Helminthology edit nbsp Dwarf tapeworm Hymenolepis nana adults nbsp Heterophyes heterophyes adult fluke OS oral sucker PH pharynx IN intestine AC ventral sucker or acetabulum UT uterus Bilharz in his first year in Egypt found and reported different human parasites including Ancylostoma duodenale Ascaris lumbricoides Trichuris trichiura pinworm Oxyuris pork tapeworm Taenia solium dog tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus hookworms Ancylostoma and Necator and guinea worm Dracunculus medinensis His first major discovery was that of the tapeworm Hymenolepis nana that he recovered from the small intestine of an Egyptian boy in Cairo in 1851 13 Von Siebold gave the original name as Taenia nana in 1852 14 In 1851 Bilharz also discovered a novel intestinal flatworm from an infected child in Cairo Von Siebold named it Distoma heterophyes in 1852 15 English biologist Thomas Spencer Cobbold created a better generic name Heterophyes in 1866 thus the parasite became Heterophyes heterophyes Bilharz s specimen became the first known helminth in the family Heterophyidae 16 Discovery of bilharzia and Schistosoma haematobium edit Ancient Egyptians had recorded urinary disease which can be attributed to S haematobium infection 16th century BCE medical papyri mention the disease as aaa that indicates symptoms of urinary bilharzia 17 Mummies of 5 000 years old have been found to contain the parasite eggs 18 The French army physician Adrien Jacques Renoult reported the disease as haematurea bloody urine in 1808 19 20 Napoleon s army in the late 18th century called Egypt as the land of menstruating men 21 22 This is because of the high prevalence of the disease that severely affected the French army The cause of the disease was never known 23 In 1851 during an autopsy Bilharz discovered an obvious worm from the portal vein connecting the urinary tract of a dead soldier It was the first time anyone had seen a parasitic worm that lived inside a blood vessel Not really knowing what kind of worm it was he wrote to his former zoology professor von Siebold at Breslau on 1 May 1851 23 As helminths in general and those who attack humans in particular are concerned I think Egypt is the best country to study them Nematodes in particular populate the intestines of the indigenous population in unimaginable quantities It is not unusual to encounter 100 individuals of Strongylus duodenalis Ancylostoma duodenale 20 40 Ascaris 10 20 Trichocephalus Trichuris trichiura and close to 1000 Oxyuris My attention soon turned to the liver and associated structures in the blood from v portae I found a number of long white worms that with the naked eye appeared to be nematodes A look in the microscope revealed an excellent Distomum with flat body and a twisted tail These are a few leaves of a saga as wonderful as the best of Thousand and One Nights if I succeeded in putting it all together 12 He also added an identification puzzle It had a flat body and a spiral tail at least ten times as long as the body The tail was a continuation of the flat body of the worm itself rolled sideways towards the stomach surface in a half canal the forked blind end of the intestinal canal extended into it very plainly What then is this animal In spite of its long tail it probably cannot be called a cercaria a fork tailed larva of trematodes which is completely different histologically and morphologically 24 As unique among flukes the schistosomes have two bodies a female which is like a roundworm and a male which is curled up fluke that are combined permanently a condition called in copula to make up individual adult worms 25 Bilharz had discovered a male fluke He knew it has similarities to other flukes especially the two mouth like suckers now called oral sucker or acetabulum and ventral sucker for which he immediately used the name Distomum a Greek for two mouthed 26 But the rolled up body made him think that it was a roundworm At the end of May he found a female specimen from another corpse that was all wrapped up by the same kind of worm he had discovered It occurred to him that the worm was an extraordinary fluke exclaiming Something more wonderful a trematode with divided sex 27 All previously known parasitic flukes were hermaphrodites with both male and female reproductive organs in the same individual a condition called gonochorism 28 Describing his observation in a letter to von Siebold on 18 August he wrote You can imagine my surprise when I saw a trematode fluke protruding from the frontal opening of the groove and moving back and forth it was similar in shape as the first only much finer and more delicate The female was completely enclosed in the groove shaped half canal of the male posterior similar to a sword in a scabbard 23 nbsp Anterior portion of a blood fluke Schistosoma The two mouth like structures are the oral and ventral suckers of a male The female is like a roundworm protruding below the ventral sucker of male Bilharz was able to find the male fluke rolled itself up to form a canal in which the female resided and he named the canal as gynaecophoric canal 29 By March 1852 Bilharz also found many eggs from the bladders of the fluke infected individuals indicating that those were of the parasites He could not establish what the eggs did to cause the disease and suspected them as the cause of kidney stone nephrolithiasis and other kidney problems Griesinger had thought that the fluke caused dysentery but Bilharz found that it was responsible for urinary tract diseases including haematuria as well 17 He made the first vivid diagrammatic description of the worms and the eggs on 1 December 1881 in a letter to von Siebold In it he gave the full scientific name Distomum haematobium the specific name referring to the unique habitat of the fluke in the blood vessels 27 Von Siebold reported the discovery in Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie the journal he edited in 1852 30 Bilharz then published in the following volume of the same journal the complete description of the parasite structure and the disease it caused 31 32 He referred to the disease as endemic haematuria of warm climates and the dysenterische Veranderung des Dickdarms dysenteric pathology of the colon 33 Bilharz then in early 1852 discovered the embryo now called miracidia singular miracidium developed from the egg in water and recorded The miracidium had a long cylindrical cone shaped form which was thicker anteriorly and more rounded posteriorly with a proboscis like protuberance anteriorly It was covered completely with rather long cilia 34 nbsp Schistosoma haematobium egg can be identified by its terminal spine nbsp Schistosoma mansoni egg is characterised by a lateral spine Although he could not make observation on the further development of the miracidia his discovery revealed half of the life cycle of the parasite 17 By then he established that the disease its pathology was caused by the eggs and not the worms themselves 35 He reported his observations in the journal Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift in 1856 36 10 However the generic name was not a good choice A closely related name Distoma had been introduced by French zoologist Marie Jules Cesar Savigny in 1816 for other animals the tunicates 37 Adding to the confusion Distoma and Distomum had been interchangeably used to describe different species of flukes 38 39 Even Distomum haematobium was sometimes written as Distoma haematobium 40 In 1856 Heinrich Meckel von Hemsbach critically argued that the usage of such names was inappropriate as it was a misnomer for the flukes since these animals do not have two mouths Writing in his book Mikrogeologie Ueber die Concremente im thierischen Organismus Microgeology About the Accumulations in the Animal Organism he remarked The genus name Distoma should not be used but be replaced with Billharzia double l is the original printing mistake 41 The parasite thereby became Bilharzia haematobium and with it von Hemsbach introduced the name of the disease as bilharzia Not knowing von Hemsbach s publication which had limited circulation at the time David Friedrich Weinland proposed the name Schistosoma a Greek term for split body reflecting the separation of male and female in an individual in 1858 40 After a century of debate and confusion on the name in 1954 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ICZN officially declared Schistosoma haematobium as valid on the ground of priority rule 42 However if true priority was to be followed Bilharzia haematobium should have been adopted 23 43 The disease had been known as bilharzia or bilharziasis after the discoverer the term that is broadly used for all types of infections with different Schistosoma species 44 45 In 1949 the World Health Organization adopted the name bilharzia for medical terminology When ICZN validated the name Schistosoma haematobium in 1954 it specifically recommended that the disease be called bilharziasis 43 Following the valid scientific name schistosomiasis became widely used 45 and the name urinary schistosomiasis is also commonly used to differentiate it from other schistosome infections 46 47 Towards the end of the 19th century Cobbold noted as without question S haematobium is the most dangerous of human parasite s 48 German anatomist Gustav Fritsch called it schlimmerer feind der menschheit the worse enemy of humankind 49 A series of observations following the initial discovery by a British Surgeon Reginald Harrison in 1889 that S haematobium causes bladder cancer 50 the WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC declared the fluke as Group 1 carcinogen in 2009 51 It became the first fully proven carcinogenic organism 23 and is classified among the neglected tropical diseases 33 Discovery of Schistosoma mansoni edit When Bilharz found parasite eggs from infected individuals in March 1852 he noted unique characteristic of schistosome eggs as each egg has a spine which he called pointed appendage 34 He observed the spiny eggs in the bladder as well as in the intestine He wrote to von Siebold that some of the eggs were different in having terminal spines while some had lateral spines 52 Bilharz also noted that the adult flukes were different in anatomy and number eggs they produced 53 His drawings depicted which were later identified as those of S mansoni adults 6 Until 1902 it was generally believed that S haematobium produced both lateral and terminal spine eggs But a British physician Patrick Manson showed that the lateral spine eggs were produced only by schistosomes in the intestine The intestinal flukes were established to be a new species which Louis Westenra Sambon named Schistosomum mansoni in 1907 in honour of Manson 54 55 Electric organs of fish edit After the discovery of bilharzia Bilharz researched on the electric organs of the Egyptian electric fish popularly known as thunderfish Electric fishes had been well known in Egyptian history and commonly depicted in ancient hieroglyphics 56 57 For this historical importance Bilharz considered his research on electric organs more valuable than bilharzia 3 and published them as preliminary note in 1853 and as a full monograph in 1858 4 He discovered and made detailed description of the nervous system of electric fishes responsible for producing electric fields 58 59 Later life and death edit nbsp Bilharz s grave in Old Cairo at the German Cemetery Bilharz returned to Germany in 1858 to visit his hometown and former universities and giving lectures at Vienna 3 He made a brief trip to upper Egypt in the winter of 1859 around the Red Sea where he noticed a good research opportunity 4 He spent seven months there with his brother Richard Alexander Alfons who had just completed his medical degree at the University of Vienna 60 In 1861 he was transferred to the department of infectious disease syphilis and skin infections Ernest II Duke of Saxe Coburg and Gotha requested him to work as personal physician to the Duchess 6 on an expedition around the Red Sea 61 With research in mind Bilharz accompanied the Duchess in early 1862 While staying at Massawa he contracted typhoid fever or typhus reports are contradictory and became seriously ill 3 When he returned to Egypt he was in terminal condition and died on 6 May 1862 at the age of 37 61 British parasitologist and biographer Harry Arnold Baylis wrote of Bilharz s death No one probably had ever been more universally or more sincerely mourned in the European colony in Cairo 4 Richard Alexander Alfons also lamented that The plan for his career to further medical research by natural scientific methods had failed 62 Bilharz s works and grave remained largely forgotten until the first International Congress of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene held in Cairo in 1928 63 The meeting revealed the importance of bilharzia and his name became at the forefront of medicine 64 his grave was rediscovered by a search party soon after the conference 3 His is in Old Cairo next to that of Hans Eisele 1912 1967 a Nazi concentration camp doctor who was convicted by the US military court for crime against humanity 3 6 Legacy edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theodor Bilharz Bilharzia or bilharziasis is another term for schistosomiasis and is still used in technical publications 65 66 as well as by official organizations like the World Health Organization and Centre for Disease Control and Prevention 67 68 The Theodor Bilharz Research Institute was established by the United Arab Republic in 1962 at Giza 69 The crater Bilharz on the Moon was named after him 70 References edit Schadewaldt H 1962 Theodor BILHARZ 1825 1862 one of the founders of German tropical medicine research Munchener Medizinische Wochenschrift 104 1730 1734 ISSN 0027 2973 PMID 13976588 Chitsulo L Engels D Montresor A Savioli L 2000 The global status of schistosomiasis and its control Acta Tropica 77 1 41 51 doi 10 1016 s0001 706x 00 00122 4 PMC 5633072 PMID 10996119 a b c d e f g h i j k El Dib Nadia 2019 Theodor Bilharz and a life trip to Egypt Parasitologists United Journal 12 1 3 7 doi 10 21608 puj 2019 10929 1036 S2CID 187867556 a b c d e f g h i Baylis H A 1924 Biographical Notes on Bilharz Looss and Luhe Parasitology 16 3 332 340 doi 10 1017 S0031182000020205 ISSN 0031 1820 S2CID 84398225 a b c Menzler Trott Eckart 2016 Logic s Lost Genius American Mathematical Society p 9 ISBN 978 1 4704 2812 9 a b c d e Tan SY Ahana A Theodor Bioharz 1825 1862 discoverer of schistosomiasis PDF Medicine in Stamps Singapore Med J Retrieved 3 December 2015 Farley John 1991 Bilharzia A History of Imperial Tropical Medicine Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 48 ISBN 0 521 40086 4 OCLC 22119786 a b c Haas L F 1997 Theodor Bilharz 1825 62 Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery amp Psychiatry 63 6 718 doi 10 1136 jnnp 63 6 718 ISSN 0022 3050 PMC 2169847 PMID 9416802 Weiss Johannes 2015 Von Schwaben nach Agypten Theodor Bilharz From Swabia to Egypt Theodor Bilharz Zeitschrift fur Gastroenterologie in German 53 3 178 doi 10 1055 s 0034 1397610 ISSN 0044 2771 S2CID 75454939 a b Bergquist Robert Kloos Helmut Adugna Aynalem 2017 Jamieson Barrie G M ed Schistosoma Biology Pathology and Control PDF Boca Raton FL CRC Press pp 8 33 doi 10 1201 9781315368900 7 ISBN 978 1 4987 4426 3 OCLC 969446445 El Dib Nadia A 2015 Kasr Al Ainy the story of a palace that became a medical school Kasr al Ainy Medical Journal 21 1 1 doi 10 4103 1687 4625 155653 ISSN 2356 8097 S2CID 219182033 a b c Bergquist Robert Kloos Helmut Adugna Aynalem 2017 Jamieson Barrie G M ed Schistosoma Biology Pathology and Control PDF Boca Raton FL CRC Press pp 8 33 doi 10 1201 9781315368900 7 ISBN 978 1 4987 4426 3 OCLC 969446445 Soares Magalhaes Ricardo J Fancony Claudia Gamboa Dina Langa Antonio J Sousa Figueiredo Jose Carlos Clements Archie C A Vaz Nery Susana 2013 Extending helminth control beyond STH and schistosomiasis the case of human hymenolepiasis PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7 10 e2321 doi 10 1371 journal pntd 0002321 ISSN 1935 2735 PMC 3812097 PMID 24205412 Fan P C 2005 Infectivity and development of the human strain of Hymenolepis nana in ICR mice The 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part played by electric fish in the early history of bioelectricity and electrotherapy Bulletin of the History of Medicine 20 2 112 137 ISSN 0007 5140 JSTOR 44441034 PMID 20277440 Goodsir John 1855 On the Electrical Apparatus in Torpedo Gymnotus Malapterurus and Raia Edinburgh Medical Journal 1 3 277 282 ISSN 0367 1038 PMC 5315104 PMID 29645878 Johnels Alf G 1956 On the Origin of the Electric Organ in Malapterurus Electricus Journal of Cell Science s3 97 39 455 463 doi 10 1242 jcs s3 97 39 455 ISSN 1477 9137 Menzler Trott Eckart 2016 Ibid American Mathematical Soc p 5 ISBN 9781470428129 a b Kean B H Mott Kenneth E Russell Adair J 1978 Tropical Medicine and Parasitology Classic Investigations Ithaca Cornell University Press p 474 ISBN 978 0 8014 0992 9 Menzler Trott Eckart 2016 Ibid American Mathematical Soc p 6 ISBN 9781470428129 Records of the Faculty of Medicine of the Egyptian University Congress Volume Containing Papers Read by Members of the Staff at the Celebration of the Centenary of the School of Medicine and the Congress of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Held in Cairo December 1928 Cairo Government Press 1932 p 320 El Halawani A A 1963 Theodor Bilharz The history of bilharziasis research with particular reference to Egypt Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Bilharziasis Vol 1 Cairo Ministry of Science Research pp 69 71 Keita Bakary Sayon Sogodogo Tiemoko Goita Drissa Diawara Ousmane Doucoure Djibril Traore Madou Sangare Sidy Keita Mamadou Sayon Thera Manifa Dao Sounkalo 2021 Vulva bilharzia in a 10 year old girl living in Kirane Mali a case report The Pan African Medical Journal 39 2 doi 10 11604 pamj 2021 39 2 28693 ISSN 1937 8688 PMC 8197048 PMID 34178230 Zhou Yibiao Chen Yue Jiang Qingwu 2021 History of Human Schistosomiasis bilharziasis in China From Discovery to Elimination Acta Parasitologica 66 3 760 769 doi 10 1007 s11686 021 00357 9 ISSN 1896 1851 PMID 33713275 S2CID 232217953 Schistosomiasis Bilharzia www who int Retrieved 2022 01 26 CDC Schistosomiasis www cdc gov 2021 01 13 Retrieved 2022 01 26 Medical News British Medical Journal 1 5290 1492 1494 1962 05 26 ISSN 0007 1447 PMC 1958585 Bilharz Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature International Astronomical Union IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature WGPSN Further reading editSchadewaldt Hans 1970 1980 Bilharz Theodor Dictionary of Scientific Biography Vol 2 New York Charles Scribner s Sons pp 127 128 ISBN 978 0 684 10114 9 Bilharz Theodor Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology 71 2001 doi 10 1007 3 540 29835 5 2067 ISBN 978 3 540 66829 9 Ebstein Erich 1920 Theodor Bilharz Arzte Briefe aus Vier Jahrhunderten in German Springer Berlin Heidelberg pp 162 164 doi 10 1007 978 3 642 91494 2 46 ISBN 978 3 642 89637 8 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Theodor Bilharz amp oldid 1219055067, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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