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Taishō Democracy

May 02, 2024

Taishō Democracy was a liberal and democratic trend across the political, economic, and cultural fields in Japan that began roughly after the Russo-Japanese War and continued until the end of the Taishō era (1912–1926). This trend was most evident in the field of politics, famously represented by the Taishō Democracy Movement (大正デモクラシー運動) and the establishment of the Seitō Naikaku System (政党内閣制), a representative democracy in which the party with a majority in parliament organizes the cabinet.[1] The term "Taishō Democracy" has been widely used since the book "The History of Taishō Democracy (大正デモクラシー史, Taishō demokurashii Shi)" written by Shinobu Seizaburō.[2]

Summary edit

Establishment edit

Although there are many theories about when Taishō Democracy began and ended, 1905 is often said to be the starting year of the Democratic era. 1905 was the year when Bloody Sunday happened in Russia, which subsequently led to the Russian Revolution.[3] Bloody Sunday was instigated by loss of faith in the Tsarist government as a result of public discontent with the results of the Russo-Japanese War. In other words, the combination of the burden on the workers and general populace and the remote and costly war against Japan contributed greatly to the public unrest which sparked the 1905 revolution.[4] Meanwhile, a similar combination existed in Japan. During the war and even before the war, Japanese socialists stated that the war would need sacrifice from the people. Heimin Shinbun pointed out on 14 February 1904 that "The people will suffer for a long time from taxation for the war.".[5] Some Christians and women's liberationists expressed similar anti-war attitudes.[6]

The Russo-Japanese war ended in 1905, and the peace treaty was signed. Although Japan won, the general populace was disappointed by the result of the peace treaty.[7] The Japanese people saw the peace treaty, which lacked major Russian territorial cessions and monetary reparations, as foreshadowing more sacrifice without benefits. Public anger toward the government gradually grew, and eventually led to the foundation of the movement against the Russo-Japanese war peace treaty.

Key Events edit

There are many theories about the timing of the Taishō Democracy, but many historians agree that the following events are crucial to Taishō Democracy.

First of all, there was the Russo-Japanese War peace treaty protest movement and the Hibiya incendiary incident that accompanied it.[8] The movement grew across the country and gradually exposed the people's dissatisfaction with their government. Over time, the movement transformed into the Movement to Protect Constitutional Government, thereby igniting the Taishō political crisis (大正政変).[9] This was the first instance of a popular movement trying to replace the cabinet in Japanese history, and the Katsura cabinet collapsed only 53 days after its formation.[10] The rice riots of 1918 (米騒動) and the establishment of the Hara Cabinet are considered to be a major milestone in Taisho democracy.[1] When the rice riots subsided, the universal suffrage movement (普選運動) was in full swing and became a nationwide political movement.[11] The general election law (普通選挙法) was enacted under the subsequent cabinet of Takaaki Kato (加藤高明).[12] In 1932, Rikken Seiyūkai (政友会), Kenseikai (憲政会), and Kakushin Club (革新倶楽部) launched a campaign to overthrow Kiyoura Keigo's cabinet. The campaign grew into what came to be called the Second Constitutional Movement (第二次護憲運動).[13]

Background edit

Minpon Shugi edit

Minpon Shugi is one form of democracy based on monarchical sovereignty that the political scientist Yoshino Sakuzo put forward in "Kensei no hongi o toite sono yushu no bi o nasu no michi o ronzu (憲政の本義を説いて其有終の美を済すの途を論ず)". According to this thesis, Minpon Shugi has two main points. First, it is "the policy in exercising political power of valuing the profit, happiness, and opinions of the people."[14] Second, it demands that "in the final determination of policies, the people's opinions must be valued highly."[15] In short, Minpon Shugi does not fully specify where sovereignty lies, and it can coexist with the monarchical system.[16]

At that time, people criticized Minshu Shugi, the concept of democracy based on popular sovereignty, because people were afraid of Minshu Shugi violating their monarchical system.[17] Yoshino tried to change the concept of democracy based on people's sovereignty (Minshu Shugi), to a concept of democracy based on monarchical sovereignty (Minpon Shugi), in order to fit "democracy" into Japanese society.

After WWI, Minpon Shugi became the ideology of the Taishō Democracy Movement. The Taishō Democracy Movement was led by activists who were inspired by the Minpon Shugi that Yoshino advocated.[18]

National discontent during the war edit

The Russo-Japanese War caused serious damage to Japan's finances. Japan used foreign debt to start the war. It is said that the reason why Japan barely won was that the Russian government held back its main force for fear of revolution. Japanese soldiers were plagued by Russian machine guns and even some who survived were covered all over with wounds. The peace treaty offered by U.S. President Roosevelt achieved "more than expected," said a government-leaning newspaper at the time.[19]

On the other hand, the public reaction was the exact opposite. The people had sacrificed a great deal for the Russo-Japanese War. The government had imposed higher taxes on the citizens to pay for the war, and the peasants had had to pay most of their profits in taxes. The tax also dealt a blow to small and medium-sized businesses, and even during the war, the nation's silk cloth manufacturers' associations, wholesale brokers, union representatives, and the retail trade association came to Tokyo to oppose it. The same kind of opposition arose towards the salt monopoly.[20] Thus, dissatisfaction with the war grew from rural areas across the country to urban areas.

Effects of Taishō Democracy edit

The nation's trend towards universal democracy and independence can be seen as products of Taishō Democracy. These effects can be seen in various fields in that era, for example:

Politics edit

People started to express more of their opinions about the nation's decisions. In other words, people began to think for themselves, beyond what they were told by national leadership, and tried to exert political power to express their opinions. Political movements such as launching party and the movement for universal suffrage are some examples.[21]

Economy edit

The tendency of independence of the capital occurred and people sought to be free from the regulations. In other words, people demanded a limited government. As a result, the power of capitalists or finance experts got stronger than before.[21] Moreover, people began the movement of abolition of tax and claimed a disarmament.[22][23]

Education edit

Education for its own sake, independent of other concerns, was also advocated. University leadership and the press became independent of government, and people gained the ability to express their own opinions, independent from government views.[24] Moreover, the increase in the literacy rate allowed people to read more books and get more information.[25]

Women's Activists edit

The social system of patriarchy still existed in Japan at that time; however, there had been a gradual change to the traditional position of women. Itō Noe, a feminist and editor of the magazine Seitō ("Bluestocking"), complained that women did not have the same rights as men. Itō Noe, along with other women's activists such as Hiratsuka Raichō and Yoshiya Nobuko, tried to make changes to the system of male privilege, and aimed for the independence of women.[26]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b Nihon no kin-gendaishi o dō miru ka. Iwanami Shoten. Iwanami Shinsho Henshūbu., 岩波書店. 岩波新書編集部. Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten. 2010. p. 81. ISBN 978-4-00-431051-8. OCLC 534643529.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  2. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Democrashii shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sha.
  3. ^ 日本大百科全書（ニッポニカ）. "ロシア革命". JapanKnowledge. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
  4. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Democrashii shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sha. p. 3.
  5. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Democrashii shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sha. p. 7.
  6. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Democrashii shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sha. p. 9.
  7. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Democrashii shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sha. p. 15.
  8. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Democrashii Shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sya. p. 39.
  9. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Democrashii Shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sha. p. 232.
  10. ^ 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ). "大正デモクラシー". JapanKnowledge.
  11. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburo (1954). Taisho Demokurashii Shi. Tokyo: Nippon Hyoron Sya. p. 505.
  12. ^ 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ). "普通選挙法". JapanKnowledge.
  13. ^ 国史大辞典. "憲政擁護運動". JapanKnowledge.
  14. ^ De Bary, Wm. Theodore, 1919-2017. Gluck, Carol, 1941- Tiedemann, Arthur E. (2005). Sources of Japanese tradition. Columbia University Press. p. 169. ISBN 0-231-12984-X. OCLC 57750460.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Sources of Japanese tradition. De Bary, Wm. Theodore, 1919-2017., Dykstra, Yoshiko Kurata. (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. 2001–2005. p. 172. ISBN 0-231-12138-5. OCLC 45137685.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  16. ^ Mitani, Taichirō; 三谷太一郎 (15 August 2013). Taishō demokurashī-ron : Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai (Daisanhan ed.). Tōkyō. p. 146. ISBN 978-4-13-030157-2. OCLC 856900297.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. ^ Yoshino, Sakuzō, 1878-1933.; 吉野作造, 1878-1933 (1984). Yoshino Sakuzō. Mitani, Taichirō., 三谷太一郎. (Shohan ed.). Tōkyō: Chūō Kōronsha. p. 119. ISBN 4-12-400438-9. OCLC 26618884.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Mitani, Taichirō; 三谷太一郎 (15 August 2013). Taishō demokurashī-ron : Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai (Daisanhan ed.). Tōkyō. p. 125. ISBN 978-4-13-030157-2. OCLC 856900297.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  19. ^ Shinobu, Seizaburō (1978). 大正デモクラシー史. Tokyo: NIPPON HYORON SHA. p. 14.
  20. ^ Matsuo, Takayoshi (1994). Taishō democracy. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. p. 29. ISBN 978-4006000554.
  21. ^ a b Mitani, Taichirō; 三谷太一郎 (15 August 2013). Taishō demokurashī-ron : Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai (Daisanhan ed.). Tōkyō. p. 1. ISBN 978-4-13-030157-2. OCLC 856900297.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  22. ^ Mitani, Taichirō; 三谷太一郎 (15 August 2013). Taishō demokurashī-ron : Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai (Daisanhan ed.). Tōkyō. p. 12. ISBN 978-4-13-030157-2. OCLC 856900297.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  23. ^ Matsuo, Takayoshi, 1929-2014.; 松尾尊兌, 1929-2014. (1994). Taishō demokurashī. Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten. p. 1. ISBN 4-00-260184-6. OCLC 31151962.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Mitani, Taichirō; 三谷太一郎 (15 August 2013). Taishō demokurashī-ron : Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai (Daisanhan ed.). Tōkyō. p. 2. ISBN 978-4-13-030157-2. OCLC 856900297.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  25. ^ Nihon no kin-gendaishi o dō miru ka. Iwanami Shoten. Iwanami Shinsho Henshūbu., 岩波書店. 岩波新書編集部. Tōkyō: Iwanami Shoten. 2010. p. 84. ISBN 978-4-00-431051-8. OCLC 534643529.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  26. ^ 日本の近現代史をどう見るか (Nihon no kin-gendaishi o dō miru ka; "How to view Japan's modern history"). Tōkyō: 岩波新書 (Iwanami Shinsho). 2010. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-4-00-431051-8. OCLC 534643529.

External links edit

May 02, 2024
taishō, democracy, liberal, democratic, trend, across, political, economic, cultural, fields, japan, that, began, roughly, after, russo, japanese, continued, until, taishō, 1912, 1926, this, trend, most, evident, field, politics, famously, represented, movemen. Taishō Democracy was a liberal and democratic trend across the political economic and cultural fields in Japan that began roughly after the Russo Japanese War and continued until the end of the Taishō era 1912 1926 This trend was most evident in the field of politics famously represented by the Taishō Democracy Movement 大正デモクラシー運動 and the establishment of the Seitō Naikaku System 政党内閣制 a representative democracy in which the party with a majority in parliament organizes the cabinet 1 The term Taishō Democracy has been widely used since the book The History of Taishō Democracy 大正デモクラシー史 Taishō demokurashii Shi written by Shinobu Seizaburō 2 Contents 1 Summary 1 1 Establishment 1 2 Key Events 2 Background 2 1 Minpon Shugi 2 2 National discontent during the war 3 Effects of Taishō Democracy 3 1 Politics 3 2 Economy 3 3 Education 3 4 Women s Activists 4 See also 5 References 6 External linksSummary editEstablishment edit Although there are many theories about when Taishō Democracy began and ended 1905 is often said to be the starting year of the Democratic era 1905 was the year when Bloody Sunday happened in Russia which subsequently led to the Russian Revolution 3 Bloody Sunday was instigated by loss of faith in the Tsarist government as a result of public discontent with the results of the Russo Japanese War In other words the combination of the burden on the workers and general populace and the remote and costly war against Japan contributed greatly to the public unrest which sparked the 1905 revolution 4 Meanwhile a similar combination existed in Japan During the war and even before the war Japanese socialists stated that the war would need sacrifice from the people Heimin Shinbun pointed out on 14 February 1904 that The people will suffer for a long time from taxation for the war 5 Some Christians and women s liberationists expressed similar anti war attitudes 6 The Russo Japanese war ended in 1905 and the peace treaty was signed Although Japan won the general populace was disappointed by the result of the peace treaty 7 The Japanese people saw the peace treaty which lacked major Russian territorial cessions and monetary reparations as foreshadowing more sacrifice without benefits Public anger toward the government gradually grew and eventually led to the foundation of the movement against the Russo Japanese war peace treaty Key Events edit There are many theories about the timing of the Taishō Democracy but many historians agree that the following events are crucial to Taishō Democracy First of all there was the Russo Japanese War peace treaty protest movement and the Hibiya incendiary incident that accompanied it 8 The movement grew across the country and gradually exposed the people s dissatisfaction with their government Over time the movement transformed into the Movement to Protect Constitutional Government thereby igniting the Taishō political crisis 大正政変 9 This was the first instance of a popular movement trying to replace the cabinet in Japanese history and the Katsura cabinet collapsed only 53 days after its formation 10 The rice riots of 1918 米騒動 and the establishment of the Hara Cabinet are considered to be a major milestone in Taisho democracy 1 When the rice riots subsided the universal suffrage movement 普選運動 was in full swing and became a nationwide political movement 11 The general election law 普通選挙法 was enacted under the subsequent cabinet of Takaaki Kato 加藤高明 12 In 1932 Rikken Seiyukai 政友会 Kenseikai 憲政会 and Kakushin Club 革新倶楽部 launched a campaign to overthrow Kiyoura Keigo s cabinet The campaign grew into what came to be called the Second Constitutional Movement 第二次護憲運動 13 Background editMinpon Shugi edit Minpon Shugi is one form of democracy based on monarchical sovereignty that the political scientist Yoshino Sakuzo put forward in Kensei no hongi o toite sono yushu no bi o nasu no michi o ronzu 憲政の本義を説いて其有終の美を済すの途を論ず According to this thesis Minpon Shugi has two main points First it is the policy in exercising political power of valuing the profit happiness and opinions of the people 14 Second it demands that in the final determination of policies the people s opinions must be valued highly 15 In short Minpon Shugi does not fully specify where sovereignty lies and it can coexist with the monarchical system 16 At that time people criticized Minshu Shugi the concept of democracy based on popular sovereignty because people were afraid of Minshu Shugi violating their monarchical system 17 Yoshino tried to change the concept of democracy based on people s sovereignty Minshu Shugi to a concept of democracy based on monarchical sovereignty Minpon Shugi in order to fit democracy into Japanese society After WWI Minpon Shugi became the ideology of the Taishō Democracy Movement The Taishō Democracy Movement was led by activists who were inspired by the Minpon Shugi that Yoshino advocated 18 National discontent during the war edit The Russo Japanese War caused serious damage to Japan s finances Japan used foreign debt to start the war It is said that the reason why Japan barely won was that the Russian government held back its main force for fear of revolution Japanese soldiers were plagued by Russian machine guns and even some who survived were covered all over with wounds The peace treaty offered by U S President Roosevelt achieved more than expected said a government leaning newspaper at the time 19 On the other hand the public reaction was the exact opposite The people had sacrificed a great deal for the Russo Japanese War The government had imposed higher taxes on the citizens to pay for the war and the peasants had had to pay most of their profits in taxes The tax also dealt a blow to small and medium sized businesses and even during the war the nation s silk cloth manufacturers associations wholesale brokers union representatives and the retail trade association came to Tokyo to oppose it The same kind of opposition arose towards the salt monopoly 20 Thus dissatisfaction with the war grew from rural areas across the country to urban areas Effects of Taishō Democracy editThe nation s trend towards universal democracy and independence can be seen as products of Taishō Democracy These effects can be seen in various fields in that era for example Politics edit People started to express more of their opinions about the nation s decisions In other words people began to think for themselves beyond what they were told by national leadership and tried to exert political power to express their opinions Political movements such as launching party and the movement for universal suffrage are some examples 21 Economy edit The tendency of independence of the capital occurred and people sought to be free from the regulations In other words people demanded a limited government As a result the power of capitalists or finance experts got stronger than before 21 Moreover people began the movement of abolition of tax and claimed a disarmament 22 23 Education edit Education for its own sake independent of other concerns was also advocated University leadership and the press became independent of government and people gained the ability to express their own opinions independent from government views 24 Moreover the increase in the literacy rate allowed people to read more books and get more information 25 Women s Activists edit The social system of patriarchy still existed in Japan at that time however there had been a gradual change to the traditional position of women Itō Noe a feminist and editor of the magazine Seitō Bluestocking complained that women did not have the same rights as men Itō Noe along with other women s activists such as Hiratsuka Raichō and Yoshiya Nobuko tried to make changes to the system of male privilege and aimed for the independence of women 26 See also editKeishichi Hirasawa ja 平澤計七 Senji Yamamoto ja 山本宣治 Takiji Kobayashi 小林多喜二 Hiratsuka Raichō 平塚らいてう Itō Noe 伊藤野枝 Yoshiya Nobuko 吉屋信子 Woman s suffrage 女性参政権 Minpon Shugi 民本主義 Universal suffrage Freedom and People s Rights Movement 自由民権運動 Hanshinkan ModernismReferences edit a b Nihon no kin gendaishi o dō miru ka Iwanami Shoten Iwanami Shinsho Henshubu 岩波書店 岩波新書編集部 Tōkyō Iwanami Shoten 2010 p 81 ISBN 978 4 00 431051 8 OCLC 534643529 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Democrashii shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sha 日本大百科全書 ニッポニカ ロシア革命 JapanKnowledge Retrieved 2020 08 01 Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Democrashii shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sha p 3 Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Democrashii shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sha p 7 Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Democrashii shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sha p 9 Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Democrashii shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sha p 15 Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Democrashii Shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sya p 39 Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Democrashii Shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sha p 232 日本大百科全書 ニッポニカ 大正デモクラシー JapanKnowledge Shinobu Seizaburo 1954 Taisho Demokurashii Shi Tokyo Nippon Hyoron Sya p 505 日本大百科全書 ニッポニカ 普通選挙法 JapanKnowledge 国史大辞典 憲政擁護運動 JapanKnowledge De Bary Wm Theodore 1919 2017 Gluck Carol 1941 Tiedemann Arthur E 2005 Sources of Japanese tradition Columbia University Press p 169 ISBN 0 231 12984 X OCLC 57750460 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Sources of Japanese tradition De Bary Wm Theodore 1919 2017 Dykstra Yoshiko Kurata 2nd ed New York Columbia University Press 2001 2005 p 172 ISBN 0 231 12138 5 OCLC 45137685 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Mitani Taichirō 三谷太一郎 15 August 2013 Taishō demokurashi ron Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai Daisanhan ed Tōkyō p 146 ISBN 978 4 13 030157 2 OCLC 856900297 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Yoshino Sakuzō 1878 1933 吉野作造 1878 1933 1984 Yoshino Sakuzō Mitani Taichirō 三谷太一郎 Shohan ed Tōkyō Chuō Kōronsha p 119 ISBN 4 12 400438 9 OCLC 26618884 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Mitani Taichirō 三谷太一郎 15 August 2013 Taishō demokurashi ron Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai Daisanhan ed Tōkyō p 125 ISBN 978 4 13 030157 2 OCLC 856900297 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Shinobu Seizaburō 1978 大正デモクラシー史 Tokyo NIPPON HYORON SHA p 14 Matsuo Takayoshi 1994 Taishō democracy Tokyo Iwanami Shoten p 29 ISBN 978 4006000554 a b Mitani Taichirō 三谷太一郎 15 August 2013 Taishō demokurashi ron Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai Daisanhan ed Tōkyō p 1 ISBN 978 4 13 030157 2 OCLC 856900297 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Mitani Taichirō 三谷太一郎 15 August 2013 Taishō demokurashi ron Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai Daisanhan ed Tōkyō p 12 ISBN 978 4 13 030157 2 OCLC 856900297 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Matsuo Takayoshi 1929 2014 松尾尊兌 1929 2014 1994 Taishō demokurashi Tōkyō Iwanami Shoten p 1 ISBN 4 00 260184 6 OCLC 31151962 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Mitani Taichirō 三谷太一郎 15 August 2013 Taishō demokurashi ron Yoshino Sakuzō no jidai Daisanhan ed Tōkyō p 2 ISBN 978 4 13 030157 2 OCLC 856900297 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Nihon no kin gendaishi o dō miru ka Iwanami Shoten Iwanami Shinsho Henshubu 岩波書店 岩波新書編集部 Tōkyō Iwanami Shoten 2010 p 84 ISBN 978 4 00 431051 8 OCLC 534643529 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link 日本の近現代史をどう見るか Nihon no kin gendaishi o dō miru ka How to view Japan s modern history Tōkyō 岩波新書 Iwanami Shinsho 2010 pp 88 89 ISBN 978 4 00 431051 8 OCLC 534643529 External links edithttps www facinghistory org nanjing atrocities nation building taisho democracy japan 1912 1926 https www japantimes co jp life 2012 07 29 general taisho democracy pays the ultimate price XulryUX7Ryw Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Taishō Democracy amp oldid 1203340831, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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