Starlingpox
Starlingpox virus is a branch of the Avipoxvirus belonging to the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily and the Poxviridae family, impacting various starling songbird species (Weli and Tryland 2011).[1] The starling variant, Starlingpox virus has been linked to another variant, the Mynahpox virus, supporting theorizations that each variation belongs to a subclade, Sturnindaepox virus (Gyuranecz, et al. 2013).[2] Avian pox viruses are widespread, double-stranded, DNA genome viruses that have been found in cutaneous and diphtheritic forms in over 230 bird species (Jarmin, et al., 2006).[3]
| Starlingpox virus | |
|---|---|
| Virus classification | |
| (unranked): | Virus |
| Realm: | Varidnaviria |
| Kingdom: | Bamfordvirae |
| Phylum: | Nucleocytoviricota |
| Class: | Pokkesviricetes |
| Order: | Chitovirales |
| Family: | Poxviridae |
| Genus: | Avipoxvirus |
| Species: | Starlingpox virus |
Signs and symptoms
The virus presents with "dry", cutaneous, "wart-like" lesions that may cause vision impairments and trouble eating, or "wet", diphtheritic lesions that may disrupt respiration or lead to secondary bacterial or fungal infections (Lawson, et al., 2012).[4] The most well-known symptoms are lesions on the head, concentrated around the eyes and base of the beak (Bateson and Asher, 2010).[5] Infected birds often have crusted or nodular regions on areas of skin without feathers, including the feet (Axelson 2022).[6] Other common symptoms of avipoxviruses include difficulty breathing, conjunctivitis, emaciation, difficulty swallowing, and weakness (Michigan.gov 2022.)[7] Virus particles may aerosolize and be transmitted via inhalation or remain active in dried scabs for years (Wildlife Futures Program, 2021).[8] The prevalence of symptoms depends on the route of exposure (Jarmin, et al, 2006).[9]
Transmission
Transmission occurs through contact with vectors or other infected birds. Several species of arthropods, like the Culex quinquefasciatus and Ades aegypti, act as mechanical vectors for avipoxvirus transmission (Sores van der Meer, et al., 2022).[10] Infected mosquitos are capable of spreading the virus to uninfected birds for more than one month, while infected birds will spread the virus through direct contact with food or water sources and contaminated perches or feeders (Michigan.gov 2022).[7] Virus particles may aerosolize and be transmitted via inhalation or remain active in dried scabs for years (Wildlife Futures Program, 2021).[8] The prevalence of symptoms depends on the route of exposure (Jarmin, et al., 2006).[3]
Diagnosis and treatment
A positive diagnosis of avian pox virus within a population, or for an individual bird, can be challenging to reach because visual observations of pox lesions may be hard to obtain or may not develop at all (Galvin, et al., 2022).[11] Current diagnostic methods that work alongside visual identification include electron microscopy, histopathology examinations, virus isolation, PCR sequencing, and necropsy (Jarmin, et al., 2006).[3] There are no definitive treatments due to species and virus variations, though general supportive measures like mineral supplements, probiotics, and vitamins are used to aid in recovery processes (Corvid Isle, 2021).[12]
Prevention and management
Efforts to control and prevent the spread of avian pox viruses in wild populations involve the elimination of mosquito breeding locations, gathering site disinfection, and domestic bird vaccine distribution (Wildlife Futures Program, 2021[8]). When applicable, domestic poultry owners are advised to avoid sharing farm equipment with others, disinfect equipment as needed, and quarantine any birds that return after leaving the flock for up to 30 days (University of Minnesota Extension, 2022).[13] Additional measures to mitigate the spread among wild populations include so-called "bird-table hygiene recommendations" like providing fresh drinking water each day, rotating garden feeders, and removal of old food, which are thought to disrupt disease transmission in areas where virus concentrations are high (Corvid Isle, 2021).[12]
References
- ^ Weli, Simon C; Tryland, Morten (December 2011). "Avipoxviruses: infection biology and their use as vaccine vectors". Virology Journal. 8 (1): 49. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-49. ISSN 1743-422X. PMC 3042955. PMID 21291547.
- ^ Gyuranecz, Miklós; Foster, Jeffrey T.; Dán, Ádám; Ip, Hon S.; Egstad, Kristina F.; Parker, Patricia G.; Higashiguchi, Jenni M.; Skinner, Michael A.; Höfle, Ursula; Kreizinger, Zsuzsa; Dorrestein, Gerry M.; Solt, Szabolcs; Sós, Endre; Kim, Young Jun; Uhart, Marcela (May 2013). "Worldwide Phylogenetic Relationship of Avian Poxviruses". Journal of Virology. 87 (9): 4938–4951. doi:10.1128/JVI.03183-12. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 3624294. PMID 23408635.
- ^ a b c Jarmin, Susan; Manvell, Ruth; Gough, Richard E.; Laidlaw, Stephen M.; Skinner, Michael A.YR 2006 (2006). "Avipoxvirus phylogenetics: identification of a PCR length polymorphism that discriminates between the two major clades". Journal of General Virology. 87 (8): 2191–2201. doi:10.1099/vir.0.81738-0. ISSN 1465-2099. PMID 16847115.
- ^ Lawson, Becki; Lachish, Shelly; Colvile, Katie M.; Durrant, Chris; Peck, Kirsi M.; Toms, Mike P.; Sheldon, Ben C.; Cunningham, Andrew A. (2012-11-21). "Emergence of a Novel Avian Pox Disease in British Tit Species". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e40176. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...740176L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040176. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3504035. PMID 23185231.
- ^ Bateson, Melissa; Asher, Lucy (2010), "The European Starling", The UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management of Laboratory and Other Research Animals, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 697–705, doi:10.1002/9781444318777.ch45, ISBN 9781444318777, retrieved 2022-11-18
- ^ "Pox Virus Infection in Birds | VCA Animal Hospital". Vca. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
- ^ a b "Avian Pox". www.michigan.gov. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
- ^ a b c "Penn Vet | Fact Sheet Detail". www.vet.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
- ^ Jarmin, Susan; Manvell, Ruth; Gough, Richard E.; Laidlaw, Stephen M.; Skinner, Michael A.YR 2006 (2006). "Avipoxvirus phylogenetics: identification of a PCR length polymorphism that discriminates between the two major clades". Journal of General Virology. 87 (8): 2191–2201. doi:10.1099/vir.0.81738-0. ISSN 1465-2099. PMID 16847115.
- ^ van der Meer, Carolina Soares; Paulino, Patrícia Gonzaga; Jardim, Talys Henrique Assumpção; Senne, Nathália Alves; Araujo, Thamires Rezende; dos Santos Juliano, Daniele; Massard, Carlos Luiz; Peixoto, Maristela Peckle; da Costa Angelo, Isabele; Santos, Huarrisson Azevedo (2022-08-05). "Detection and molecular characterization of Avipoxvirus in Culex spp. (Culicidae) captured in domestic areas in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 13496. Bibcode:2022NatSR..1213496V. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-17745-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 9355968. PMID 35931728.
- ^ Galvin, Aoife N.; Pandit, Pranav S.; English, Simon G.; Quock, Rachel C.; Bandivadekar, Ruta R.; Colwell, Rita R.; Robinson, Barbara W.; Ernest, Holly B.; Brown, Mollie H.; Sehgal, Ravinder N. M.; Tell, Lisa A. (2022). "Evaluation of minimally invasive sampling methods for detecting Avipoxvirus: Hummingbirds as a case example". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 9: 924854. doi:10.3389/fvets.2022.924854. ISSN 2297-1769. PMC 9450938. PMID 36090172.
- ^ a b Rook (2021-03-21). "Treatment of Avian Pox". Corvid Isle. Retrieved 2022-11-18.
- ^ "Avian influenza basics for urban and backyard poultry owners". extension.umn.edu. Retrieved 2022-11-18.