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Solenocyte

August 29, 2023

In biology, solenocytes are elongated, flagellated cells commonly found in lower invertebrates, such as flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes), as well as in chordates (sub-phylum Cephalochordata) and several other animal species.[1] In terms of function, solenocytes play a significant role in the excretory systems of their host organism(s).[2] For example, the lancelets, also referred to as amphioxus (genus Branchiostoma), utilize solenocytic protonephridia to perform excretion.[3] In addition to excretion, these cells contribute to ion regulation and osmoregulation.[4] With this in mind, solenocytes form subtypes of protonephridium and are often compared to another specialized excretory cell type, i.e., flame cells.[1] Solenocytes have flagella, while flame cells are generally ciliated.[5]

Cellular Structure & Configuration

 
Figure 1. This image illustrates the basic cellular structure of a solenocyte cluster extending off of a side branch of protonephridium (A and B). The solenocyte cell body is circular in nature and resides at the top of each tubule, while the flagella pass through the length of the intracellular tubule lumen.

Solenocytes are mesoderm-derived and morphologically diverse cells containing a cytoplasmic cap or enclosed cell body with a nucleus residing in its core.[4] A long tubule is attached to the cell body, and within its intracellular lumen lies either one or two long flagella.[6] The continuously moving vibratile flagella extend from a protein structure, referred to as the basal body, found at the base of the flagellar structure. Extending through the length of the tubule, the flagella are able to protrude into the protonephridium lumen rather designedly (see Figure 1).[4]

The tubule wall structure is composed of thin, pillar-like rods perforated by tiny openings. These pore spaces are likely the site of interstitial fluid filtration.[6]

A nephridium contains approximately 500 solenocytes, each of which is roughly 50 microns in length (this measure includes the nucleated cell body and tubule).[7] The excretory organ of Amphioxus (genus Branchiostoma) belcheri contains clusters of solenocytes (the majority of which are situated along the ligamentum denticulatum coelomic surface). These clusters are composed at patterned intervals, generating groups amongst the renal tubules of B. belcheri, which in a way, resemble mesothelial cells surrounding the human body's internal organs.[3] Additional studies indicate a resemblance to vertebrate podocytes, as vascular fluid within the ligamentum denticulatum may travel into the coelom through the narrow network of solenocyte gaps or foot processes.[8]

Function & Mechanistic Aspects

 
Figure 2. The transmission electron micrograph (TEM) depicts the 9+2 array of microtubules of two eukaryotic flagella in cross-sections (upper panel).

In regards to function, flagella play a significant role in the excretory nature of solenocytes. These motile appendages extend from the solenocyte membrane and utilize the support of an axial filament (or axoneme), basal body, as well as numerous microtubules.[9] That said, the stability of the flagellum is crucial to its motility. The basal body, composed of nine triplet microtubules, functions to anchor the flagella in place (acting as a modified centriole). Situated at the center of each flagellum is the highly conserved axoneme, which contains nine doublet microtubules encircling a pair of singlet microtubules (generating a 9+2 pattern).[10][11] Thousands of walking dynein motors are attached to the axoneme doublets, resulting in the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which fuels flagellar motility.[11] More specifically, the dyneins anchor onto one doublet within the outer microtubule ring, and as they "walk" towards an adjacent doublet, the entire flagellar structure is able to bend and beat (see Figure 2).[12] In sum, flagellar motility enables solenocytes to waft excretory materials and coelomic fluid down the intracellular tubule lumen.[8]

In several lower invertebrates, solenocyte clusters project directly into coelomic canals, where they are submerged in coelomic fluid.[13] This fluid contains a variety of materials, including salts, proteins, and corpuscles (e.g., leucocytes, phagocytes, eleocytes, mucocytes, etc.). In that respect, solenocytes play a major role in osmoregulation, ion regulation, and homeostasis through the movement of coelomic fluid.[14]

Branchiostoma nephridia also have tiny blood vessels, and the protonephridia function to absorb nitrogenous waste from coelomic fluid, as well as the blood sinuses via diffusion.[13]

Implications of Research

 
Figure 3. This diagram outlines the fundamental anatomy of the lancelet, also called amphioxus (Branchiostoma).

In addition to a greater understanding of excretory organs within other invertebrates, further research on solenocyte composition and function can advance current knowledge on renal function, human health, and even certain genetic diseases within the vertebrate world. The cephalochordate amphioxus (see Figure 3) can vastly contribute to this research as the closest extant invertebrate relative to vertebrates.[8][15][16]

Hatschek’s Nephridium

Compared to paired series of protonephridia, Hatschek's nephridium is a large unpaired excretory structure found within Branchiostoma virginiae. The nephridium, along with its collection tubule, is located to the left of the notochord and beside the left anterior aorta.[15] Hatschek's nephridium is like a protonephridium with a single, bent branch consisting of numerous solenocytes. The anterior end of this structure sits directly in front of Hatschek's pit, while the posterior end (at the rear of the velum) opens into the endodermal pharynx. Flagellated filtration cells called cyrtopodocytes occupy the length of the collection tubule. These filtration cells closely resemble solenocyte structure and function.[15]

Renal Function

Research suggests that coelomic myoepithelial cells in amphioxus (Branchiostoma) may have significance in renal function.[8] Located along the coelom, myoepithelial cells have both thick (18-25 nm in diameter) and thin (5-7 nm in diameter) microfilaments. That said, these microfilaments appear to be more abundant in myoepithelial cells that are in close proximity to solenocytes attached to the ligamentum denticulatum coelomic surface.[8] The beating of solenocyte flagella to propel coelomic fluid throughout excretory tubules leads to the idea that myoepithelial cells near solenocyte clusters can impact renal function by regulating fluid motility within the coelomic cavity.[8]

Human Health & Genetic Diseases

Within the vertebrate lineage, significant genome duplications took place after the divergence of Branchiostoma, thus, making it a superb model for gaining insight into vertebrate biological mechanisms.[16] Branchiostoma is especially pertinent for investigating human health and genetic disease. Along with signaling pathways, numerous homologs of vertebrate organs share cellular, developmental, and physiological parameters with their vertebrate equivalents.[16] On that premise, solenocyte function within Branchiostoma could provide insight into metabolic diseases, such as renal cell carcinoma (RCC).[17]

References

  1. ^ a b "Solenocytes are the main excretory structures". Vendantu. 2023.
  2. ^ "Solenocyte | anatomy | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  3. ^ a b Nakao, Taisuke (1965-02-01). "The excretory organ of Amphioxus (Branchiostoma) belcheri". Journal of Ultrastructure Research. 12 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/S0022-5320(65)80002-8. ISSN 0022-5320. PMID 14289428.
  4. ^ a b c "What is the function of Solenocytes?". byjus.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  5. ^ "Flame Cell - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-04-11.
  6. ^ a b Wilson, R. A.; Webster, Lesley A. (1974). "PROTONEPHRIDIA". Biological Reviews. 49 (2): 127–160. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1974.tb01572.x. ISSN 1464-7931. PMID 4604982. S2CID 221531583.
  7. ^ "Protonephridium Or metanephridium?". byjus.com. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Tyson, Greta; Bulger, Ruth (1978). "Coelomic Myoepithelial Cells of Amphioxus and Their Possible Significance in Renal Function". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 97 (3): 397–402. doi:10.2307/3225994. JSTOR 3225994 – via JSTOR.
  9. ^ Nørrevang, Arne (1963). "Fine Structure of the Solenocyte Tree in Priapulus caudatus Lamarck". Nature. 198 (4881): 700–701. Bibcode:1963Natur.198..700N. doi:10.1038/198700a0. ISSN 1476-4687.
  10. ^ Croft, Jacob; Zabeo, Davide; Subramanian, Radhika; Höög, Johanna (2018). "Composition, structure and function of the eukaryotic flagellum distal tip". Essays in Biochemistry. 62 (6): 815–828. doi:10.1042/EBC20180032. PMC 6281473. PMID 30464008.
  11. ^ a b Chen, Daniel; Heymann, Michael; Fraden, Seth; Nicastro, Daniela; Dogic, Zvonimir (2015). "ATP Consumption of Eukaryotic Flagella Measured at a Single-Cell Level". Biophysical Journal. 109 (12): 2562–2573. arXiv:1511.01820. Bibcode:2015BpJ...109.2562C. doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2015.11.003. PMC 4699893. PMID 26682814.
  12. ^ "Motor proteins and muscles | Organismal Biology". organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu. Retrieved 2023-04-17.
  13. ^ a b "Excretory Organs of Branchiostoma (With Diagram) | Chordata | Zoology". Zoology Notes. 2017-07-03. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  14. ^ "Coelomic fluid | zoology | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  15. ^ a b c Ruppert, Edward E. (1996-01-01). "Morphology of Hatschek's Nephridium in Larval and Juvenile Stages of Branchiostoma Virginiae (cephalochordata)". Israel Journal of Zoology. 42 (sup1): S161–S182. doi:10.1080/00212210.1996.10688879 (inactive 1 August 2023). ISSN 0021-2210.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2023 (link)
  16. ^ a b c Gibson-Brown, Jeremy J.; Osoegawa, Kazutoyo; McPherson, John D.; Waterston, Robert H.; de Jong, Pieter J.; Rokhsar, Daniel S.; Holland, Linda Z. (2003-12-15). "A proposal to sequence the amphioxus genome submitted to the joint genome institute of the US department of energy". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 300B (1): 5–22. doi:10.1002/jez.b.42. ISSN 0022-104X. PMID 14984031.
  17. ^ Chakraborty, Samik; Balan, Murugabaskar; Sabarwal, Akash; Choueiri, Toni K.; Pal, Soumitro (2021-08-01). "Metabolic reprogramming in renal cancer: Events of a metabolic disease". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Reviews on Cancer. 1876 (1): 188559. doi:10.1016/j.bbcan.2021.188559. ISSN 0304-419X. PMC 8349779. PMID 33965513.

August 29, 2023
solenocyte, biology, solenocytes, elongated, flagellated, cells, commonly, found, lower, invertebrates, such, flatworms, phylum, platyhelminthes, well, chordates, phylum, cephalochordata, several, other, animal, species, terms, function, solenocytes, play, sig. In biology solenocytes are elongated flagellated cells commonly found in lower invertebrates such as flatworms phylum Platyhelminthes as well as in chordates sub phylum Cephalochordata and several other animal species 1 In terms of function solenocytes play a significant role in the excretory systems of their host organism s 2 For example the lancelets also referred to as amphioxus genus Branchiostoma utilize solenocytic protonephridia to perform excretion 3 In addition to excretion these cells contribute to ion regulation and osmoregulation 4 With this in mind solenocytes form subtypes of protonephridium and are often compared to another specialized excretory cell type i e flame cells 1 Solenocytes have flagella while flame cells are generally ciliated 5 Contents 1 Cellular Structure amp Configuration 2 Function amp Mechanistic Aspects 3 Implications of Research 3 1 Hatschek s Nephridium 3 2 Renal Function 3 3 Human Health amp Genetic Diseases 4 ReferencesCellular Structure amp Configuration Edit Figure 1 This image illustrates the basic cellular structure of a solenocyte cluster extending off of a side branch of protonephridium A and B The solenocyte cell body is circular in nature and resides at the top of each tubule while the flagella pass through the length of the intracellular tubule lumen Solenocytes are mesoderm derived and morphologically diverse cells containing a cytoplasmic cap or enclosed cell body with a nucleus residing in its core 4 A long tubule is attached to the cell body and within its intracellular lumen lies either one or two long flagella 6 The continuously moving vibratile flagella extend from a protein structure referred to as the basal body found at the base of the flagellar structure Extending through the length of the tubule the flagella are able to protrude into the protonephridium lumen rather designedly see Figure 1 4 The tubule wall structure is composed of thin pillar like rods perforated by tiny openings These pore spaces are likely the site of interstitial fluid filtration 6 A nephridium contains approximately 500 solenocytes each of which is roughly 50 microns in length this measure includes the nucleated cell body and tubule 7 The excretory organ of Amphioxus genus Branchiostoma belcheri contains clusters of solenocytes the majority of which are situated along the ligamentum denticulatum coelomic surface These clusters are composed at patterned intervals generating groups amongst the renal tubules of B belcheri which in a way resemble mesothelial cells surrounding the human body s internal organs 3 Additional studies indicate a resemblance to vertebrate podocytes as vascular fluid within the ligamentum denticulatum may travel into the coelom through the narrow network of solenocyte gaps or foot processes 8 Function amp Mechanistic Aspects Edit Figure 2 The transmission electron micrograph TEM depicts the 9 2 array of microtubules of two eukaryotic flagella in cross sections upper panel In regards to function flagella play a significant role in the excretory nature of solenocytes These motile appendages extend from the solenocyte membrane and utilize the support of an axial filament or axoneme basal body as well as numerous microtubules 9 That said the stability of the flagellum is crucial to its motility The basal body composed of nine triplet microtubules functions to anchor the flagella in place acting as a modified centriole Situated at the center of each flagellum is the highly conserved axoneme which contains nine doublet microtubules encircling a pair of singlet microtubules generating a 9 2 pattern 10 11 Thousands of walking dynein motors are attached to the axoneme doublets resulting in the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate ATP which fuels flagellar motility 11 More specifically the dyneins anchor onto one doublet within the outer microtubule ring and as they walk towards an adjacent doublet the entire flagellar structure is able to bend and beat see Figure 2 12 In sum flagellar motility enables solenocytes to waft excretory materials and coelomic fluid down the intracellular tubule lumen 8 In several lower invertebrates solenocyte clusters project directly into coelomic canals where they are submerged in coelomic fluid 13 This fluid contains a variety of materials including salts proteins and corpuscles e g leucocytes phagocytes eleocytes mucocytes etc In that respect solenocytes play a major role in osmoregulation ion regulation and homeostasis through the movement of coelomic fluid 14 Branchiostoma nephridia also have tiny blood vessels and the protonephridia function to absorb nitrogenous waste from coelomic fluid as well as the blood sinuses via diffusion 13 Implications of Research Edit Figure 3 This diagram outlines the fundamental anatomy of the lancelet also called amphioxus Branchiostoma In addition to a greater understanding of excretory organs within other invertebrates further research on solenocyte composition and function can advance current knowledge on renal function human health and even certain genetic diseases within the vertebrate world The cephalochordate amphioxus see Figure 3 can vastly contribute to this research as the closest extant invertebrate relative to vertebrates 8 15 16 Hatschek s Nephridium Edit Compared to paired series of protonephridia Hatschek s nephridium is a large unpaired excretory structure found within Branchiostoma virginiae The nephridium along with its collection tubule is located to the left of the notochord and beside the left anterior aorta 15 Hatschek s nephridium is like a protonephridium with a single bent branch consisting of numerous solenocytes The anterior end of this structure sits directly in front of Hatschek s pit while the posterior end at the rear of the velum opens into the endodermal pharynx Flagellated filtration cells called cyrtopodocytes occupy the length of the collection tubule These filtration cells closely resemble solenocyte structure and function 15 Renal Function Edit Research suggests that coelomic myoepithelial cells in amphioxus Branchiostoma may have significance in renal function 8 Located along the coelom myoepithelial cells have both thick 18 25 nm in diameter and thin 5 7 nm in diameter microfilaments That said these microfilaments appear to be more abundant in myoepithelial cells that are in close proximity to solenocytes attached to the ligamentum denticulatum coelomic surface 8 The beating of solenocyte flagella to propel coelomic fluid throughout excretory tubules leads to the idea that myoepithelial cells near solenocyte clusters can impact renal function by regulating fluid motility within the coelomic cavity 8 Human Health amp Genetic Diseases Edit Within the vertebrate lineage significant genome duplications took place after the divergence of Branchiostoma thus making it a superb model for gaining insight into vertebrate biological mechanisms 16 Branchiostoma is especially pertinent for investigating human health and genetic disease Along with signaling pathways numerous homologs of vertebrate organs share cellular developmental and physiological parameters with their vertebrate equivalents 16 On that premise solenocyte function within Branchiostoma could provide insight into metabolic diseases such as renal cell carcinoma RCC 17 References Edit a b Solenocytes are the main excretory structures Vendantu 2023 Solenocyte anatomy Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 04 11 a b Nakao Taisuke 1965 02 01 The excretory organ of Amphioxus Branchiostoma belcheri Journal of Ultrastructure Research 12 1 1 12 doi 10 1016 S0022 5320 65 80002 8 ISSN 0022 5320 PMID 14289428 a b c What is the function of Solenocytes byjus com Retrieved 2023 04 12 Flame Cell an overview ScienceDirect Topics www sciencedirect com Retrieved 2023 04 11 a b Wilson R A Webster Lesley A 1974 PROTONEPHRIDIA Biological Reviews 49 2 127 160 doi 10 1111 j 1469 185X 1974 tb01572 x ISSN 1464 7931 PMID 4604982 S2CID 221531583 Protonephridium Or metanephridium byjus com Retrieved 2023 04 17 a b c d e f Tyson Greta Bulger Ruth 1978 Coelomic Myoepithelial Cells of Amphioxus and Their Possible Significance in Renal Function Transactions of the American Microscopical Society 97 3 397 402 doi 10 2307 3225994 JSTOR 3225994 via JSTOR Norrevang Arne 1963 Fine Structure of the Solenocyte Tree in Priapulus caudatus Lamarck Nature 198 4881 700 701 Bibcode 1963Natur 198 700N doi 10 1038 198700a0 ISSN 1476 4687 Croft Jacob Zabeo Davide Subramanian Radhika Hoog Johanna 2018 Composition structure and function of the eukaryotic flagellum distal tip Essays in Biochemistry 62 6 815 828 doi 10 1042 EBC20180032 PMC 6281473 PMID 30464008 a b Chen Daniel Heymann Michael Fraden Seth Nicastro Daniela Dogic Zvonimir 2015 ATP Consumption of Eukaryotic Flagella Measured at a Single Cell Level Biophysical Journal 109 12 2562 2573 arXiv 1511 01820 Bibcode 2015BpJ 109 2562C doi 10 1016 j bpj 2015 11 003 PMC 4699893 PMID 26682814 Motor proteins and muscles Organismal Biology organismalbio biosci gatech edu Retrieved 2023 04 17 a b Excretory Organs of Branchiostoma With Diagram Chordata Zoology Zoology Notes 2017 07 03 Retrieved 2023 04 18 Coelomic fluid zoology Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 04 18 a b c Ruppert Edward E 1996 01 01 Morphology of Hatschek s Nephridium in Larval and Juvenile Stages of Branchiostoma Virginiae cephalochordata Israel Journal of Zoology 42 sup1 S161 S182 doi 10 1080 00212210 1996 10688879 inactive 1 August 2023 ISSN 0021 2210 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of August 2023 link a b c Gibson Brown Jeremy J Osoegawa Kazutoyo McPherson John D Waterston Robert H de Jong Pieter J Rokhsar Daniel S Holland Linda Z 2003 12 15 A proposal to sequence the amphioxus genome submitted to the joint genome institute of the US department of energy Journal of Experimental Zoology 300B 1 5 22 doi 10 1002 jez b 42 ISSN 0022 104X PMID 14984031 Chakraborty Samik Balan Murugabaskar Sabarwal Akash Choueiri Toni K Pal Soumitro 2021 08 01 Metabolic reprogramming in renal cancer Events of a metabolic disease Biochimica et Biophysica Acta BBA Reviews on Cancer 1876 1 188559 doi 10 1016 j bbcan 2021 188559 ISSN 0304 419X PMC 8349779 PMID 33965513 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Solenocyte amp oldid 1171135790, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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