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Conscription and sexism

August 22, 2023

Conscription, sometimes called "the draft", is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Men have been subjected to military drafts in most cases. Currently only two countries conscript women and men on the same formal conditions: Norway and Sweden.[1]

Soviet conscripts, Moscow, 1941

Some feminists[2][3][4][5][6] and opponents of discrimination against men[7][8]: 102  have criticized military conscription, or compulsory military service, as sexist. They regard it as discriminatory to compel men, but not women, into military service. They say conscription of men normalizes male violence, conscripts are indoctrinated into sexism and violence against men, and military training socializes conscripts into patriarchal gender roles.[9][10]

While not all feminists are anti-militarists, opposition to war and militarism has been a strong current within the women's movement. Prominent suffragists like Quaker Alice Paul, and Barbara Deming, a feminist activist and thinker of the 1960s and 1970s, were ardent pacifists. Moreover, feminist critique has often regarded the military as a "hierarchical, male-dominated institution promoting destructive forms of power."[11] Feminists have been organizers and participants in resistance to female conscription.[12][13][14][15]

History

Historically, men have been subjected to conscription in the most cases,[8]: 255 [16][17][18][19] and only in the late 20th century did this begin to change, though most countries still require only men to serve in the military. The integration of women into militaries, and especially into combat forces, did not begin on a large scale until late in the 20th century. In his book The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys (2012), philosopher David Benatar states that the theoretical arguments are immaterial to those who are pressed into service: "Some women are excluded from combat, but many more women are exempt. While some men are excluded from combat (because they fail the relevant tests), many more are pressured or forced into combat." According to Benatar, "[t]he prevailing assumption is that where conscription is necessary, it is only men who should be conscripted and, similarly, that only males should be forced into combat". This, he believes, "is a sexist assumption".[8]: 102 

Current practice

 
Israeli female soldiers

As of now, ten countries conscript both men and women, of which only Norway (since 2013) and Sweden (since 2011 in legislation, since 2018 in practice) conscript both sexes on the same formal conditions.[1] Norway was also the first NATO country to introduce obligatory military service for women as an act of gender equality.[20][21] Other countries conscript women into their armed forces, but with some difference in e.g. service exemptions and length of service; these countries include Israel (where women are about 40% of conscripts drafted every year[22]), Myanmar, Eritrea, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Peru and Tunisia.[23] Other countries—such as Finland, Turkey, Lithuania, Singapore, and South Korea—still use a system of conscription which requires military service from only men, although women are permitted to serve voluntarily. Most European countries have no enforced conscription for either gender. The Netherlands, where conscription is not abolished but suspended for peacetime, introduced in 2018 a law extending mandatory military service to women.[24] Czech Republic and Bulgaria also do not have active conscription anymore, but in case of returning it back, all citizens, men and women, are eligible for military draft.

In Singapore, conscription of women has recently been a subject of debate. In 2022, Defence Minister Ng Eng Hen claimed that the societal cost will outweigh the benefits, and women will have delayed their entry in the workforce. In the same speech, he affirmed his stand that there is no need to conscript women.[25]

Men in Switzerland are required by law to perform military service and any man deemed unfit or exempted from service must pay 3% of their annual income as military exemption tax, at a minimum of 400CHF ($420).[26] This gender selective draft has previously been challenged in the country,[23] but the case was rejected by the Federal Supreme Court on the grounds that the specific law requiring service takes precedence over the general law forbidding sex discrimination.[27][28] Chantal Galladé, former president of the Swiss Defence Committee calls the conscription of men a discrimination against both men and women, cementing the stereotypical gender roles of men and women.[29]

The practice of conscription has been criticized by various men's rights groups, such as the National Coalition for Men, which claims that "no gender oppression is comparable".[30] These groups have been joined on occasion by certain feminist activists. Beginning in the 1970s, "liberal feminists" have argued in favor of extending conscription to women, taking the position that women cannot have the same rights as men if they do not have the same responsibilities, and that exempting women from conscription perpetuates stereotypes of women as weak and helpless. Radical and pacifist feminists have disagreed, however, contending that "by integrating into existing power structures including military forces and the war system without changing them, women merely prop up a male-dominated world instead of transforming it".[31] There were disagreements between liberal advocates for women's equality and radical and pacifist feminists both in 1980 and again in 2016 on whether women should be included in draft registration or draft registration should be opposed for women and men.[11]

Anthropologist Ayse Gül Altinay has commented that "given equal suffrage rights, there is no other citizenship practice that differentiates as radically between men and women as compulsory male conscription"[32]: 34  and continues elsewhere, stating that "any attempt to de-gender nationalism and citizenship needs to incorporate a discussion of universal male conscription".[32]: 58  She goes on to quote feminist writer Cynthia Enloe, who argues that "there is a reason that so many states in the world have implemented military conscription laws for young men: most of those men would not join the state's military if it were left up to them to choose".[32]: 31–32 

Selective service

See also: Men's rights movement § Military conscription
 
Congressman Alexander Pirnie (R-NY) drawing the first capsule for the Selective Service draft, December 1, 1969

In the United States, most male US citizens and residents must register with the Selective Service System within 30 days of their 18th birthday.[33] Those who fail to register may be punished by up to five years in prison and a fine of up to $250,000, although no non-registrants have been prosecuted since January 1986.[34] They may also be ineligible for federal student financial aid, federal job training and federal employment, and for certain states, state employment and even driver's licenses.[35] As of 2014, transgender women are required to register for selective service, but may file for an exemption in the event they are drafted.[36] Transgender men are not required to register but may face difficulties in receiving benefits which require registration.[37] Currently, women are exempted from the Selective Service System as only males are required to register; this cannot be changed without Congress amending the law, although combat roles for women have been allowed since January 23, 2013, which certain political analysts have said may get rid of the female exemption of registration.[38]

Legal issues in the US

The selective service in the US had been previously challenged in court in Rostker v. Goldberg in 1981, Elgin v. Department of Treasury in 2012, and in National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System in 2019. All have argued in small or large part on the grounds of equal protection and due process on the basis of gender.[39] Professor Stephanie M. Wildman of Santa Clara Law called the decision to uphold the constitutionality of male conscription in Rostker v. Goldberg "chilling to any advocate of full societal participation".[40] In the ensuing congressional debate, Senator Mark Hatfield argued that:

The paternalistic attitude inherent in exclusion of women from past draft registration requirements not only relieved women of the burden of military service, it also deprived them of one of the hallmarks of citizenship. Until women and men share both the rights and the obligations of citizenship, they will not be equal.[41]

On February 22, 2019, Judge Grey H. Miller of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Texas, USA, deciding on National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System, declared[42] the current male-only Selective Service registration requirement unconstitutional.[43] That ruling was reversed by the Fifth Circuit. In June 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the decision by the Court of Appeals.

References

  1. ^ a b Persson, Alma; Sundevall, Fia (2019-03-22). "Conscripting women: gender, soldiering, and military service in Sweden 1965–2018". Women's History Review. 28 (7): 1039–1056. doi:10.1080/09612025.2019.1596542. ISSN 0961-2025.
  2. ^ Stephen, Lynn (1981). "Making the Draft a Women's Issue". Women: A Journal of Liberation. 8 (1). Retrieved 28 March 2016.
  3. ^ Lindsey, Karen (1982). "Women and the Draft". In McAllister, Pam (ed.). Reweaving the Web of Life: Feminism and Nonviolence. New Society Publishers. ISBN 0865710163.
  4. ^ Levertov, Denise (1982). "A Speech: For Antidraft Rally, D.C. March 22, 1980". Candles in Babylon. New Directions Press. ISBN 9780811208314.
  5. ^ "CODEPINK Opposes Compulsory Draft Registration for All Genders". Codepink.org. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  6. ^ Sun, Rivera. "Women's Draft? Sign Me Up To Abolish War". Codepink.org. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  7. ^ Berlatsky, Noah (May 29, 2013). "When Men Experience Sexism". The Atlantic. from the original on January 5, 2015. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
  8. ^ a b c Benatar, David (May 15, 2012). The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-67451-2. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
  9. ^ Michalowski, Helen (May 1982). "Five feminist principles and the draft". Resistance News (8): 2.
  10. ^ Neudel, Marian Henriquez (July 1983). "Feminism and the Draft". Resistance News (13): 7.
  11. ^ a b Schaeffer-Duffy, Claire (June 28, 2016). "Feminists weigh in on draft registration for women". Retrieved 29 June 2016.
  12. ^ "No to female conscription – International Alliance of Women". 24 May 2015. Retrieved 2020-05-17.
  13. ^ "Letters from draft-age women about why they wouldn't register for the draft". Resistance News. No. 2. 1 March 1980. p. 6.
  14. ^ "Gestation: Women and Draft Resistance". Resistance News. No. 11. November 1982.
  15. ^ "Women and the resistance movement". Resistance News. No. 21. 8 June 1986.
  16. ^ Goldstein, Joshua S. (2003). "War and Gender: Men's War Roles – Boyhood and Coming of Age". In Ember, Carol R.; Ember, Melvin Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures. Volume 1. Springer. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-306-47770-6. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
  17. ^ Kronsell, Anica (June 29, 2006). "Methods for studying silence: The 'silence' of Swedish conscription". In Ackerly, Brooke A.; Stern, Maria; True, Jacqui Feminist Methodologies for International Relations. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-139-45873-3. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
  18. ^ Selmeski, Brian R. (2007). Multicultural Citizens, Monocultural Men: Indigineity, Masculinity, and Conscription in Ecuador. Syracuse University. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-549-40315-9. Retrieved April 25, 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  19. ^ Joenniemi, Pertti (2006). The Changing Face of European Conscription. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 142–149. ISBN 978-0-754-64410-1. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
  20. ^ Koranyi, Balazs; Fouche, Gwladys (June 14, 2014). Char, Pravin (ed.). "Norway becomes first NATO country to draft women into military". Reuters. Oslo, Norway. from the original on January 28, 2015. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
  21. ^ . Norwegian Armed Forces. October 27, 2014. Archived from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  22. ^ Women's Service in the Israel Defense Forces
  23. ^ a b "INDEPTH: FEMALE SOLDIERS – Women in the military — international". CBC News. May 30, 2006. from the original on April 4, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  24. ^ 100,000 Dutch girls will receive letter of conscription this week — including Princess Amalia
  25. ^ "Should women do National Service now? Societal cost will 'far outweigh' benefits, says Ng Eng Hen". CNA. Retrieved 2023-01-23.
  26. ^ "RS 661.1 Ordonnance du 30 août 1995 sur la taxe d'exemption de l'obligation de servir (OTEO)". www.admin.ch. Retrieved 2020-06-13.
  27. ^ Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland (January 21, 2010). "Judgment of 21 January 2010" (in German). from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  28. ^ "General conscription does not discriminate against men according to federal court". Humanrights.ch (in German). Menschenrechte Schweiz (MERS). March 28, 2013. from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  29. ^ Bondolfi, Sibilla (March 15, 2013). "Abolition of conscription: Compulsory military service for men only is 'untenable'" (in German). from the original on December 6, 2013. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
  30. ^ "Selective Service (military conscription)". National Coalition for Men. 17 November 2011. from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  31. ^ Goldstein, Joshua S. (July 17, 2003). War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-0-521-00180-9.
  32. ^ a b c Altinay, Ayse Gül (December 10, 2004). The Myth of the Military-Nation: Militarism, Gender, and Education in Turkey. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-403-97936-0.
  33. ^ . Selective Service System. Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs. February 12, 2015. Archived from the original on April 28, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  34. ^ Hasbrouck, Edward. "Prosecutions of Draft Registration Resisters". Resisters.info. National Resistance Committee. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
  35. ^ . Selective Service System. Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs. December 21, 2010. Archived from the original on April 15, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  36. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions: Question #35". Selective Service System. Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs. April 9, 2015. from the original on March 30, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015. How does the Military Selective Service Act apply to individuals who have had a sex change? Individuals who are born female and have a sex change are not required to register. U.S. citizens or immigrants who are born male and have a sex change are still required to register. In the event of a resumption of the draft, males who have had a sex change can file a claim for an exemption from military service if they receive an order to report for examination or induction.
  37. ^ "Selective Service and Transgender People". National Center for Transgender Equality. May 27, 2005. from the original on March 16, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  38. ^ "Women and the Draft: Women Aren't Required to Register". Selective Service System. February 25, 2014. from the original on March 27, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  39. ^ Angelluci, Marc E. (April 13, 2013). "National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System" (PDF). National Coalition for Men. United States Government. (PDF) from the original on March 21, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  40. ^ Wildman, Stephanie M. (January 1, 1984). "The Legitimation of Sex Discrimination: A Critical Response to Supreme Court Jurisprudence". Santa Clara Law Digital Commons. Santa Clara University School of Law. p. 294. from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
  41. ^ MacDwyer, Sara (September 9, 2010). "Rostker v. Goldberg: The Uneven Development of the Equal Protection Doctrine in Military Affairs". Golden Gate University Law Review. Women's Law Forum. 12 (3). from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015. Once the combat issue is put in proper perspective and the evidence of women's recognized ability to perform military functions is assessed, it becomes apparent that an exclusion of women from a draft registration requirement would be the product of the archaic notion that women must remain 'as the center of home and family.' One court apparently recognized as much about the Congress which enacted the prior draft law. In upholding that law's exclusion of women, the court stated: 'In providing for involuntary service for men and voluntary service for women, Congress followed the teachings of history that if a nation is to survive, men must provide the first line of defense while women keep the home fires burning.' At one time judicially accepted, such romantically paternalistic underpinnings of sex-based classifications are intolerable under current equal protection doctrine. Overbroad generalizations concerning one sex or the other no longer can [sic] used to substitute for a functional, gender-neutral means of distinguishing between the physically unfit and the able bodied. The paternalistic attitude inherent in exclusion of women from past draft registration requirements not only relieved women of the burden of military service, it also deprived them of one of the hallmarks of citizenship. Until women and men share both the rights and the obligations of citizenship, they will not be equal.
  42. ^ "Final Judgment, National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System, Civil Action H-16-3362" (PDF). Hasbrouck.org. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  43. ^ Hasbrouck, Edward. "Federal court declares current military draft registration requirement unconstitutional". Hasbrouck.org. Retrieved 24 November 2019.

August 22, 2023
conscription, sexism, conscription, sometimes, called, draft, compulsory, enlistment, people, national, service, most, often, military, service, have, been, subjected, military, drafts, most, cases, currently, only, countries, conscript, women, same, formal, c. Conscription sometimes called the draft is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service most often a military service Men have been subjected to military drafts in most cases Currently only two countries conscript women and men on the same formal conditions Norway and Sweden 1 Soviet conscripts Moscow 1941Some feminists 2 3 4 5 6 and opponents of discrimination against men 7 8 102 have criticized military conscription or compulsory military service as sexist They regard it as discriminatory to compel men but not women into military service They say conscription of men normalizes male violence conscripts are indoctrinated into sexism and violence against men and military training socializes conscripts into patriarchal gender roles 9 10 While not all feminists are anti militarists opposition to war and militarism has been a strong current within the women s movement Prominent suffragists like Quaker Alice Paul and Barbara Deming a feminist activist and thinker of the 1960s and 1970s were ardent pacifists Moreover feminist critique has often regarded the military as a hierarchical male dominated institution promoting destructive forms of power 11 Feminists have been organizers and participants in resistance to female conscription 12 13 14 15 Contents 1 History 2 Current practice 3 Selective service 3 1 Legal issues in the US 4 ReferencesHistory EditHistorically men have been subjected to conscription in the most cases 8 255 16 17 18 19 and only in the late 20th century did this begin to change though most countries still require only men to serve in the military The integration of women into militaries and especially into combat forces did not begin on a large scale until late in the 20th century In his book The Second Sexism Discrimination Against Men and Boys 2012 philosopher David Benatar states that the theoretical arguments are immaterial to those who are pressed into service Some women are excluded from combat but many more women are exempt While some men are excluded from combat because they fail the relevant tests many more are pressured or forced into combat According to Benatar t he prevailing assumption is that where conscription is necessary it is only men who should be conscripted and similarly that only males should be forced into combat This he believes is a sexist assumption 8 102 Current practice Edit Israeli female soldiersAs of now ten countries conscript both men and women of which only Norway since 2013 and Sweden since 2011 in legislation since 2018 in practice conscript both sexes on the same formal conditions 1 Norway was also the first NATO country to introduce obligatory military service for women as an act of gender equality 20 21 Other countries conscript women into their armed forces but with some difference in e g service exemptions and length of service these countries include Israel where women are about 40 of conscripts drafted every year 22 Myanmar Eritrea Libya Malaysia North Korea Peru and Tunisia 23 Other countries such as Finland Turkey Lithuania Singapore and South Korea still use a system of conscription which requires military service from only men although women are permitted to serve voluntarily Most European countries have no enforced conscription for either gender The Netherlands where conscription is not abolished but suspended for peacetime introduced in 2018 a law extending mandatory military service to women 24 Czech Republic and Bulgaria also do not have active conscription anymore but in case of returning it back all citizens men and women are eligible for military draft In Singapore conscription of women has recently been a subject of debate In 2022 Defence Minister Ng Eng Hen claimed that the societal cost will outweigh the benefits and women will have delayed their entry in the workforce In the same speech he affirmed his stand that there is no need to conscript women 25 Men in Switzerland are required by law to perform military service and any man deemed unfit or exempted from service must pay 3 of their annual income as military exemption tax at a minimum of 400CHF 420 26 This gender selective draft has previously been challenged in the country 23 but the case was rejected by the Federal Supreme Court on the grounds that the specific law requiring service takes precedence over the general law forbidding sex discrimination 27 28 Chantal Gallade former president of the Swiss Defence Committee calls the conscription of men a discrimination against both men and women cementing the stereotypical gender roles of men and women 29 The practice of conscription has been criticized by various men s rights groups such as the National Coalition for Men which claims that no gender oppression is comparable 30 These groups have been joined on occasion by certain feminist activists Beginning in the 1970s liberal feminists have argued in favor of extending conscription to women taking the position that women cannot have the same rights as men if they do not have the same responsibilities and that exempting women from conscription perpetuates stereotypes of women as weak and helpless Radical and pacifist feminists have disagreed however contending that by integrating into existing power structures including military forces and the war system without changing them women merely prop up a male dominated world instead of transforming it 31 There were disagreements between liberal advocates for women s equality and radical and pacifist feminists both in 1980 and again in 2016 on whether women should be included in draft registration or draft registration should be opposed for women and men 11 Anthropologist Ayse Gul Altinay has commented that given equal suffrage rights there is no other citizenship practice that differentiates as radically between men and women as compulsory male conscription 32 34 and continues elsewhere stating that any attempt to de gender nationalism and citizenship needs to incorporate a discussion of universal male conscription 32 58 She goes on to quote feminist writer Cynthia Enloe who argues that there is a reason that so many states in the world have implemented military conscription laws for young men most of those men would not join the state s military if it were left up to them to choose 32 31 32 Selective service EditSee also Men s rights movement Military conscription Congressman Alexander Pirnie R NY drawing the first capsule for the Selective Service draft December 1 1969In the United States most male US citizens and residents must register with the Selective Service System within 30 days of their 18th birthday 33 Those who fail to register may be punished by up to five years in prison and a fine of up to 250 000 although no non registrants have been prosecuted since January 1986 34 They may also be ineligible for federal student financial aid federal job training and federal employment and for certain states state employment and even driver s licenses 35 As of 2014 transgender women are required to register for selective service but may file for an exemption in the event they are drafted 36 Transgender men are not required to register but may face difficulties in receiving benefits which require registration 37 Currently women are exempted from the Selective Service System as only males are required to register this cannot be changed without Congress amending the law although combat roles for women have been allowed since January 23 2013 which certain political analysts have said may get rid of the female exemption of registration 38 Legal issues in the US Edit The selective service in the US had been previously challenged in court in Rostker v Goldberg in 1981 Elgin v Department of Treasury in 2012 and in National Coalition for Men v Selective Service System in 2019 All have argued in small or large part on the grounds of equal protection and due process on the basis of gender 39 Professor Stephanie M Wildman of Santa Clara Law called the decision to uphold the constitutionality of male conscription in Rostker v Goldberg chilling to any advocate of full societal participation 40 In the ensuing congressional debate Senator Mark Hatfield argued that The paternalistic attitude inherent in exclusion of women from past draft registration requirements not only relieved women of the burden of military service it also deprived them of one of the hallmarks of citizenship Until women and men share both the rights and the obligations of citizenship they will not be equal 41 On February 22 2019 Judge Grey H Miller of the U S District Court for the Southern District of Texas USA deciding on National Coalition for Men v Selective Service System declared 42 the current male only Selective Service registration requirement unconstitutional 43 That ruling was reversed by the Fifth Circuit In June 2021 the U S Supreme Court declined to review the decision by the Court of Appeals References Edit a b Persson Alma Sundevall Fia 2019 03 22 Conscripting women gender soldiering and military service in Sweden 1965 2018 Women s History Review 28 7 1039 1056 doi 10 1080 09612025 2019 1596542 ISSN 0961 2025 Stephen Lynn 1981 Making the Draft a Women s Issue Women A Journal of Liberation 8 1 Retrieved 28 March 2016 Lindsey Karen 1982 Women and the Draft In McAllister Pam ed Reweaving the Web of Life Feminism and Nonviolence New Society Publishers ISBN 0865710163 Levertov Denise 1982 A Speech For Antidraft Rally D C March 22 1980 Candles in Babylon New Directions Press ISBN 9780811208314 CODEPINK Opposes Compulsory Draft Registration for All Genders Codepink org Retrieved 24 November 2019 Sun Rivera Women s Draft Sign Me Up To Abolish War Codepink org Retrieved 24 November 2019 Berlatsky Noah May 29 2013 When Men Experience Sexism The Atlantic Archived from the original on January 5 2015 Retrieved April 26 2015 a b c Benatar David May 15 2012 The Second Sexism Discrimination Against Men and Boys John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 0 470 67451 2 Retrieved April 26 2015 Michalowski Helen May 1982 Five feminist principles and the draft Resistance News 8 2 Neudel Marian Henriquez July 1983 Feminism and the Draft Resistance News 13 7 a b Schaeffer Duffy Claire June 28 2016 Feminists weigh in on draft registration for women Retrieved 29 June 2016 No to female conscription International Alliance of Women 24 May 2015 Retrieved 2020 05 17 Letters from draft age women about why they wouldn t register for the draft Resistance News No 2 1 March 1980 p 6 Gestation Women and Draft Resistance Resistance News No 11 November 1982 Women and the resistance movement Resistance News No 21 8 June 1986 Goldstein Joshua S 2003 War and Gender Men s War Roles Boyhood and Coming of Age In Ember Carol R Ember Melvin Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender Men and Women in the World s Cultures Volume 1 Springer p 108 ISBN 978 0 306 47770 6 Retrieved April 25 2015 Kronsell Anica June 29 2006 Methods for studying silence The silence of Swedish conscription In Ackerly Brooke A Stern Maria True Jacqui Feminist Methodologies for International Relations Cambridge University Press p 113 ISBN 978 1 139 45873 3 Retrieved April 25 2015 Selmeski Brian R 2007 Multicultural Citizens Monocultural Men Indigineity Masculinity and Conscription in Ecuador Syracuse University p 149 ISBN 978 0 549 40315 9 Retrieved April 25 2015 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Joenniemi Pertti 2006 The Changing Face of European Conscription Ashgate Publishing pp 142 149 ISBN 978 0 754 64410 1 Retrieved April 25 2015 Koranyi Balazs Fouche Gwladys June 14 2014 Char Pravin ed Norway becomes first NATO country to draft women into military Reuters Oslo Norway Archived from the original on January 28 2015 Retrieved April 26 2015 Women in the Armed Forces Norwegian Armed Forces October 27 2014 Archived from the original on May 2 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Women s Service in the Israel Defense Forces a b INDEPTH FEMALE SOLDIERS Women in the military international CBC News May 30 2006 Archived from the original on April 4 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 100 000 Dutch girls will receive letter of conscription this week including Princess Amalia Should women do National Service now Societal cost will far outweigh benefits says Ng Eng Hen CNA Retrieved 2023 01 23 RS 661 1 Ordonnance du 30 aout 1995 sur la taxe d exemption de l obligation de servir OTEO www admin ch Retrieved 2020 06 13 Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland January 21 2010 Judgment of 21 January 2010 in German Archived from the original on May 2 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 General conscription does not discriminate against men according to federal court Humanrights ch in German Menschenrechte Schweiz MERS March 28 2013 Archived from the original on May 2 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Bondolfi Sibilla March 15 2013 Abolition of conscription Compulsory military service for men only is untenable in German Archived from the original on December 6 2013 Retrieved April 26 2015 Selective Service military conscription National Coalition for Men 17 November 2011 Archived from the original on March 15 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Goldstein Joshua S July 17 2003 War and Gender How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa Cambridge University Press pp 41 43 ISBN 978 0 521 00180 9 a b c Altinay Ayse Gul December 10 2004 The Myth of the Military Nation Militarism Gender and Education in Turkey Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 403 97936 0 Selective Service System Welcome Selective Service System Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs February 12 2015 Archived from the original on April 28 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Hasbrouck Edward Prosecutions of Draft Registration Resisters Resisters info National Resistance Committee Retrieved 28 March 2016 Benefits and Programs Linked to Registration Selective Service System Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs December 21 2010 Archived from the original on April 15 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Frequently Asked Questions Question 35 Selective Service System Office of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs April 9 2015 Archived from the original on March 30 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 How does the Military Selective Service Act apply to individuals who have had a sex change Individuals who are born female and have a sex change are not required to register U S citizens or immigrants who are born male and have a sex change are still required to register In the event of a resumption of the draft males who have had a sex change can file a claim for an exemption from military service if they receive an order to report for examination or induction Selective Service and Transgender People National Center for Transgender Equality May 27 2005 Archived from the original on March 16 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Women and the Draft Women Aren t Required to Register Selective Service System February 25 2014 Archived from the original on March 27 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Angelluci Marc E April 13 2013 National Coalition for Men v Selective Service System PDF National Coalition for Men United States Government Archived PDF from the original on March 21 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Wildman Stephanie M January 1 1984 The Legitimation of Sex Discrimination A Critical Response to Supreme Court Jurisprudence Santa Clara Law Digital Commons Santa Clara University School of Law p 294 Archived from the original on May 2 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 MacDwyer Sara September 9 2010 Rostker v Goldberg The Uneven Development of the Equal Protection Doctrine in Military Affairs Golden Gate University Law Review Women s Law Forum 12 3 Archived from the original on May 2 2015 Retrieved May 2 2015 Once the combat issue is put in proper perspective and the evidence of women s recognized ability to perform military functions is assessed it becomes apparent that an exclusion of women from a draft registration requirement would be the product of the archaic notion that women must remain as the center of home and family One court apparently recognized as much about the Congress which enacted the prior draft law In upholding that law s exclusion of women the court stated In providing for involuntary service for men and voluntary service for women Congress followed the teachings of history that if a nation is to survive men must provide the first line of defense while women keep the home fires burning At one time judicially accepted such romantically paternalistic underpinnings of sex based classifications are intolerable under current equal protection doctrine Overbroad generalizations concerning one sex or the other no longer can sic used to substitute for a functional gender neutral means of distinguishing between the physically unfit and the able bodied The paternalistic attitude inherent in exclusion of women from past draft registration requirements not only relieved women of the burden of military service it also deprived them of one of the hallmarks of citizenship Until women and men share both the rights and the obligations of citizenship they will not be equal Final Judgment National Coalition for Men v Selective Service System Civil Action H 16 3362 PDF Hasbrouck org Retrieved 24 November 2019 Hasbrouck Edward Federal court declares current military draft registration requirement unconstitutional Hasbrouck org Retrieved 24 November 2019 Portals Society Feminism Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Conscription and sexism amp oldid 1171329827, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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