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Penicillium rubens

February 15, 2024

Penicillium rubens is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium and was the first species known to produce the antibiotic penicillin. It was first described by Philibert Melchior Joseph Ehi Biourge in 1923. For the discovery of penicillin from this species Alexander Fleming shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945.[1] The original penicillin-producing type has been variously identified as Penicillium rubrum, P. notatum, and P. chrysogenum among others, but genomic comparison and phylogenetic analysis in 2011 resolved that it is P. rubens.[2][3] It is the best source of penicillins and produces benzylpenicillin (G), phenoxymethylpenicillin (V) and octanoylpenicillin (K). It also produces other important bioactive compounds such as andrastin, chrysogine, fungisporin, roquefortine, and sorbicillins.[4][5]

Penicillium rubens
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Eurotiales
Family: Aspergillaceae
Genus: Penicillium
Species:
P. rubens
Binomial name
Penicillium rubens
Biourge (1910)

History edit

Belgian microbiologist Philibert Melchior Joseph Ehi Biourge was the first to describe P. rubens in 1923.[6] The medicinal importance was discovered by Alexander Fleming, a physician at St Mary's Hospital, London. In September 1928, Fleming found that one of his bacterial cultures (of Staphylococcus aureus) was contaminated with mould, and that the area around the mould inhibited bacterial growth. He gave the name penicillin for the purported antibacterial substance produced by the mould. After a series of experimental tests, he published his discovery in the June 1929 issue of the British Journal of Experimental Pathology.[7] With the help of his colleague Charles J. La Touche, Fleming identified the fungus as Penicillium rubrum.[1]

But Charles Thom at the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Peoria, Illinois, compared the specimen with his collection of Penicillium species, and corrected the species as P. notatum. In his publication in 1931, he resolved that P. notatum was a member of P. chrysogenum species complex, which he had described in 1910.[8] P. notatum was described by Swedish chemist Richard Westling in 1811. Thom adopted and popularised the use of P. chrysogenum.[9] After discovery of other new species and taxonomic reexamination, three species, P. notatum, P. meleagrinum, and P. cyaneofulvum were recognised as P. chrysogenum.[10][11] The Seventeenth International Botanical Congress held in Vienna, Austria, in 2005 adopted the name P. chrysogenum as the conserved name (nomen conservandum).[12]

Whole genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis, particularly using β-tubulin sequences, in 2011 showed that P. notatum is P. rubens, and that P. chrysogenum is a different species.[2][13]

Biology edit

 
Penicillium rubens (CBS 205.57 = NRRL 824 = IBT 30142), Fleming's original penicillin-producer. A–C. Colonies seven-day-old 25°C. A. Colonies in Czapek yeast extract agar. B. Colonies in malt extract agar. C. Colonies in yeast extract sucrose agar. D–H. Conidiophores. I. Conidia. Bars = 10 µm.

P. rubens is a common fungus of indoor environment. Along with Cladosporium halotolerans and Aspergillus niger, it is one of the nuisance moulds when humidity is high. It is the most resilient mould as it needs less water for growth and propagation.[14] It has a soft and velvety surface. The spore-bearing filaments, conidiophores are smooth and measure 200-300 µm in length. The hairy surface, penicilli are 8-12 µm long. The conidia are smooth-walled, ellipsoidal in shape, measuring 2.5-4.0 µm long, and are blue or bluish-green in colour.[15] It exists in a number of strains, of which the most important are Fleming's strain (designated CBS 205.57 or NRRL 824 or IBT 30142) from which the first penicillin was discovered and the Wisconsin strain (NRRL1951) obtained from a cantaloupe in Peoria, Illinois, in 1944 and has been used for industrial production of penicillin G.[16] The original Wisconsin strain itself has been produced in a variety of strains.[17]

Genome edit

P. rubens has four chromosomes.[18] The genome of the Wisconsin strain has been most studied. The nuclear genome of 54-1255 strain, regarded as low-penicillin producer, has a size of 32.19 Mb. There are 13,653 open reading frames (ORFs), including 592 probable pseudogenes and 116 truncated ORFs.[19] Three genes, namely pcbAB, pcbC, and penDE constitute the core sites for penicillin biosynthesis. They are distributed in clusters among other (ORFs) in a 58.8 kb region,[20] on chromosome 2.[18][17] pcbAB encodes an enzyme α-aminoadipoyl-L-cysteinyl-D-valine synthetase, pcbC encodes isopenicillinN (IPN) synthase, and penDE, encoding acyl-CoA:isopenicillinN acyltransferase.[21] The high penicillin-producing strain, NCPC10086, has slightly larger genome of 32.3 Mb, with about 13,290 protein-coding genes. There are at least 69 genes not present in 54-1255 strain. The gene Pch018g00010 that codes for enzymes in glutathione metabolism is considered as the key factor in enhanced penicillin production of this strain.[22]

The mitochondrial genome consists of 31,790 bp and 17 ORFs.[19] Enzymes synthesised from the nuclear genome are not sufficient for complete synthesis of penicillin. Enzymes of the final biosynthetic pathway such as acyl-CoA:isopenicillinN acyltransferase28 and phenylacetyl-CoA ligase are synthesised in separate cell organelles called microbodies (peroxisomes). The peroxisome gene pex11 is essential for controlling the amount of penicillin synthesis; the more the gene is activated (expressed), the more the penicillins.[23]

Uses edit

P. rubens is the principal source of a class of antibiotics, penicillins. The species produces three such compounds, benzylpenicillin (G), phenoxymethylpenicillin (V) and octanoylpenicillin (K).[24] Penicillin G is the first naturally occurring compound isolated and used as an antibiotic.[25][26][27] It is also the source of cephalosporins.[28]

References edit

  1. ^ a b Lalchhandama, K. (2020). "Reappraising Fleming's snot and mould". Science Vision. 20 (1): 29–42. doi:10.33493/scivis.20.01.03.
  2. ^ a b Houbraken, Jos; Frisvad, Jens C.; Samson, Robert A. (2011). "Fleming's penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P. rubens". IMA Fungus. 2 (1): 87–95. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2011.02.01.12. PMC 3317369. PMID 22679592.
  3. ^ Hibbett, David S.; Taylor, John W. (2013). "Fungal systematics: is a new age of enlightenment at hand?". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 11 (2): 129–133. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2963. PMID 23288349. S2CID 17070407.
  4. ^ Visagie, C.M.; Houbraken, J.; Frisvad, J.C.; Hong, S.-B.; Klaassen, C.H.W.; Perrone, G.; Seifert, K.A.; Varga, J.; Yaguchi, T.; Samson, R.A. (2014). "Identification and nomenclature of the genus Penicillium". Studies in Mycology. 78: 343–371. doi:10.1016/j.simyco.2014.09.001. PMC 4261876. PMID 25505353.
  5. ^ Pohl, Carsten; Polli, Fabiola; Schütze, Tabea; Viggiano, Annarita; Mózsik, László; Jung, Sascha; de Vries, Maaike; Bovenberg, Roel A. L.; Meyer, Vera; Driessen, Arnold J. M. (2020). "A Penicillium rubens platform strain for secondary metabolite production". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 7630. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.7630P. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-64893-6. PMC 203126. PMID 32376967.
  6. ^ Biourge, P. (1923). "Les moissisures du groupe Penicillium Link". La Cellule. 33: 7–331.
  7. ^ Fleming, Alexander (1929). "On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with Special Reference to their Use in the Isolation of B. influenzæ". British Journal of Experimental Pathology. 10 (3): 226–236. doi:10.1093/clinids/2.1.129. JSTOR 4452419. PMC 2048009. PMID 11545337.
  8. ^ "Appendix. History of species used and Dr. Thom's diagnoses of species". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character. 220 (468–473): 83–92. 1931. doi:10.1098/rstb.1931.0015.
  9. ^ Thom, Charles (1945). "Mycology Presents Penicillin". Mycologia. 37 (4): 460–475. doi:10.2307/3754632. JSTOR 3754632.
  10. ^ Samson, R. A.; Hadlok, R.; Stolk, Amelia C. (1977). "A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 43 (2): 169–175. doi:10.1007/BF00395671. PMID 413477. S2CID 41843432.
  11. ^ Scott, James; Untereiner, Wendy A.; Wong, Bess; Straus, Neil A.; Malloch, David (2004). "Genotypic variation in Penicillium chysogenum from indoor environments". Mycologia. 96 (5): 1095–1105. doi:10.1080/15572536.2005.11832908. PMID 21148929. S2CID 30505910.
  12. ^ "International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (VIENNA CODE). Appendix IV Nomina specifica conservanda et rejicienda. B. Fungi". International Association of Plant Taxonomy. 2006. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
  13. ^ Houbraken, J.; Frisvad, J.C.; Seifert, K.A.; Overy, D.P.; Tuthill, D.M.; Valdez, J.G.; Samson, R.A. (2012-12-31). "New penicillin-producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena". Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi. 29 (1): 78–100. doi:10.3767/003158512X660571. PMC 3589797. PMID 23606767.
  14. ^ Segers, Frank J. J.; van Laarhoven, Karel A.; Huinink, Hendrik P.; Adan, Olaf C. G.; Wösten, Han A. B.; Dijksterhuis, Jan (2016). Brakhage, A. A. (ed.). "The Indoor Fungus Cladosporium halotolerans Survives Humidity Dynamics Markedly Better than Aspergillus niger and Penicillium rubens despite Less Growth at Lowered Steady-State Water Activity". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 82 (17): 5089–5098. Bibcode:2016ApEnM..82.5089S. doi:10.1128/AEM.00510-16. PMC 4988216. PMID 27316968.
  15. ^ "Penicillium rubens Biourge ATCC ® 28089™". www.atcc.org. Retrieved 2020-06-17.
  16. ^ Raper, K. B.; Alexander, D. F.; Coghill, R. D. (1944). "Penicillin: II. Natural Variation and Penicillin Production in Penicillium notatum and Allied Species". Journal of Bacteriology. 48 (6): 639–659. doi:10.1128/JB.48.6.639-659.1944. PMC 374019. PMID 16560880.
  17. ^ a b Martín, Juan F. (2020). "Insight into the Genome of Diverse Penicillium chrysogenum Strains: Specific Genes, Cluster Duplications and DNA Fragment Translocations". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (11): 3936. doi:10.3390/ijms21113936. PMC 7312703. PMID 32486280.
  18. ^ a b Fierro, Francisco; Gutiérrez, Santiago; Diez, Bruno; Martín, Juan F. (1993). "Resolution of four large chromosomes in penicillin-producing filamentous fungi: the penicillin gene cluster is located on chromosome II (9.6 Mb) in Penicillium notatum and chromosome 1 (10.4 Mb) in Penicillium chrysogenum". Molecular and General Genetics. 241–241 (5–6): 573–578. doi:10.1007/BF00279899. PMID 8264531. S2CID 13542522.
  19. ^ a b van den Berg, Marco A; Albang, Richard; Albermann, Kaj; Badger, Jonathan H; Daran, Jean-Marc; M Driessen, Arnold J; Garcia-Estrada, Carlos; Fedorova, Natalie D; Harris, Diana M; Heijne, Wilbert H M; Joardar, Vinita (2008). "Genome sequencing and analysis of the filamentous fungus Penicillium chrysogenum". Nature Biotechnology. 26 (10): 1161–1168. doi:10.1038/nbt.1498. PMID 18820685.
  20. ^ Díez, B.; Gutiérrez, S.; Barredo, J. L.; van Solingen, P.; van der Voort, L. H.; Martín, J. F. (1990). "The cluster of penicillin biosynthetic genes. Identification and characterization of the pcbAB gene encoding the alpha-aminoadipyl-cysteinyl-valine synthetase and linkage to the pcbC and penDE genes". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 265 (27): 16358–16365. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)46231-4. PMID 2129535.
  21. ^ Fierro, F.; Barredo, J. L.; Diez, B.; Gutierrez, S.; Fernandez, F. J.; Martin, J. F. (1995). "The penicillin gene cluster is amplified in tandem repeats linked by conserved hexanucleotide sequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 92 (13): 6200–6204. Bibcode:1995PNAS...92.6200F. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.13.6200. PMC 41670. PMID 7597101.
  22. ^ Wang, Fu-Qiang; Zhong, Jun; Zhao, Ying; Xiao, Jingfa; Liu, Jing; Dai, Meng; Zheng, Guizhen; Zhang, Li; Yu, Jun; Wu, Jiayan; Duan, Baoling (2014). "Genome sequencing of high-penicillin producing industrial strain of Penicillium chrysogenum". BMC Genomics. 15 (Suppl 1): S11. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-S1-S11. PMC 4046689. PMID 24564352.
  23. ^ Kiel, Jan A.K.W.; van der Klei, Ida J.; van den Berg, Marco A.; Bovenberg, Roel A.L.; Veenhuis, Marten (2005). "Overproduction of a single protein, Pc-Pex11p, results in 2-fold enhanced penicillin production by Penicillium chrysogenum". Fungal Genetics and Biology. 42 (2): 154–164. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2004.10.010. PMID 15670713.
  24. ^ Ferrero, M. A.; Reglero, A.; Martín-Villacorta, J.; Fernández-Cañón, J. M.; Luengo, J. M. (1990). "Biosynthesis of benzylpenicillin (G), phenoxymethylpenicillin (V) and octanoylpenicillin (K) from glutathione S-derivatives". The Journal of Antibiotics. 43 (6): 684–691. doi:10.7164/antibiotics.43.684. PMID 2166024.
  25. ^ Winkle, Walton Van; Herwick, Robert P. (1945). "Penicillin—a review*". Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association. 34 (4): 97–109. doi:10.1002/jps.3030340402. PMC 3802448.
  26. ^ Lobanovska, Mariya; Pilla, Giulia (2017). "Penicillin's Discovery and Antibiotic Resistance: Lessons for the Future?". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 90 (1): 135–145. PMC 5369031. PMID 28356901.
  27. ^ Bush, K (2004). "Antibacterial drug discovery in the 21st century". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 10: 10–17. doi:10.1111/j.1465-0691.2004.1005.x. PMID 15522035.
  28. ^ Cantwell, C. A.; Beckmann, R. J.; Dotzlaf, J. E.; Fisher, D. L.; Skatrud, P. L.; Yeh, W. K.; Queener, S. W. (1990). "Cloning and expression of a hybrid Streptomyces clavuligerus cefE gene in Penicillium chrysogenum". Current Genetics. 17 (3): 213–221. doi:10.1007/BF00312612. PMID 2111228. S2CID 9230950.

February 15, 2024
penicillium, rubens, species, fungus, genus, penicillium, first, species, known, produce, antibiotic, penicillin, first, described, philibert, melchior, joseph, biourge, 1923, discovery, penicillin, from, this, species, alexander, fleming, shared, nobel, prize. Penicillium rubens is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium and was the first species known to produce the antibiotic penicillin It was first described by Philibert Melchior Joseph Ehi Biourge in 1923 For the discovery of penicillin from this species Alexander Fleming shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 1 The original penicillin producing type has been variously identified as Penicillium rubrum P notatum and P chrysogenum among others but genomic comparison and phylogenetic analysis in 2011 resolved that it is P rubens 2 3 It is the best source of penicillins and produces benzylpenicillin G phenoxymethylpenicillin V and octanoylpenicillin K It also produces other important bioactive compounds such as andrastin chrysogine fungisporin roquefortine and sorbicillins 4 5 Penicillium rubensScientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom FungiDivision AscomycotaClass EurotiomycetesOrder EurotialesFamily AspergillaceaeGenus PenicilliumSpecies P rubensBinomial namePenicillium rubensBiourge 1910 Contents 1 History 2 Biology 2 1 Genome 3 Uses 4 ReferencesHistory editBelgian microbiologist Philibert Melchior Joseph Ehi Biourge was the first to describe P rubens in 1923 6 The medicinal importance was discovered by Alexander Fleming a physician at St Mary s Hospital London In September 1928 Fleming found that one of his bacterial cultures of Staphylococcus aureus was contaminated with mould and that the area around the mould inhibited bacterial growth He gave the name penicillin for the purported antibacterial substance produced by the mould After a series of experimental tests he published his discovery in the June 1929 issue of the British Journal of Experimental Pathology 7 With the help of his colleague Charles J La Touche Fleming identified the fungus as Penicillium rubrum 1 But Charles Thom at the U S Department of Agriculture Peoria Illinois compared the specimen with his collection of Penicillium species and corrected the species as P notatum In his publication in 1931 he resolved that P notatum was a member of P chrysogenum species complex which he had described in 1910 8 P notatum was described by Swedish chemist Richard Westling in 1811 Thom adopted and popularised the use of P chrysogenum 9 After discovery of other new species and taxonomic reexamination three species P notatum P meleagrinum and P cyaneofulvum were recognised as P chrysogenum 10 11 The Seventeenth International Botanical Congress held in Vienna Austria in 2005 adopted the name P chrysogenum as the conserved name nomen conservandum 12 Whole genome sequence and phylogenetic analysis particularly using b tubulin sequences in 2011 showed that P notatum is P rubens and that P chrysogenum is a different species 2 13 Biology edit nbsp Penicillium rubens CBS 205 57 NRRL 824 IBT 30142 Fleming s original penicillin producer A C Colonies seven day old 25 C A Colonies in Czapek yeast extract agar B Colonies in malt extract agar C Colonies in yeast extract sucrose agar D H Conidiophores I Conidia Bars 10 µm P rubens is a common fungus of indoor environment Along with Cladosporium halotolerans and Aspergillus niger it is one of the nuisance moulds when humidity is high It is the most resilient mould as it needs less water for growth and propagation 14 It has a soft and velvety surface The spore bearing filaments conidiophores are smooth and measure 200 300 µm in length The hairy surface penicilli are 8 12 µm long The conidia are smooth walled ellipsoidal in shape measuring 2 5 4 0 µm long and are blue or bluish green in colour 15 It exists in a number of strains of which the most important are Fleming s strain designated CBS 205 57 or NRRL 824 or IBT 30142 from which the first penicillin was discovered and the Wisconsin strain NRRL1951 obtained from a cantaloupe in Peoria Illinois in 1944 and has been used for industrial production of penicillin G 16 The original Wisconsin strain itself has been produced in a variety of strains 17 Genome edit P rubens has four chromosomes 18 The genome of the Wisconsin strain has been most studied The nuclear genome of 54 1255 strain regarded as low penicillin producer has a size of 32 19 Mb There are 13 653 open reading frames ORFs including 592 probable pseudogenes and 116 truncated ORFs 19 Three genes namely pcbAB pcbC and penDE constitute the core sites for penicillin biosynthesis They are distributed in clusters among other ORFs in a 58 8 kb region 20 on chromosome 2 18 17 pcbAB encodes an enzyme a aminoadipoyl L cysteinyl D valine synthetase pcbC encodes isopenicillinN IPN synthase and penDE encoding acyl CoA isopenicillinN acyltransferase 21 The high penicillin producing strain NCPC10086 has slightly larger genome of 32 3 Mb with about 13 290 protein coding genes There are at least 69 genes not present in 54 1255 strain The gene Pch018g00010 that codes for enzymes in glutathione metabolism is considered as the key factor in enhanced penicillin production of this strain 22 The mitochondrial genome consists of 31 790 bp and 17 ORFs 19 Enzymes synthesised from the nuclear genome are not sufficient for complete synthesis of penicillin Enzymes of the final biosynthetic pathway such as acyl CoA isopenicillinN acyltransferase28 and phenylacetyl CoA ligase are synthesised in separate cell organelles called microbodies peroxisomes The peroxisome gene pex11 is essential for controlling the amount of penicillin synthesis the more the gene is activated expressed the more the penicillins 23 Uses editP rubens is the principal source of a class of antibiotics penicillins The species produces three such compounds benzylpenicillin G phenoxymethylpenicillin V and octanoylpenicillin K 24 Penicillin G is the first naturally occurring compound isolated and used as an antibiotic 25 26 27 It is also the source of cephalosporins 28 References edit a b Lalchhandama K 2020 Reappraising Fleming s snot and mould Science Vision 20 1 29 42 doi 10 33493 scivis 20 01 03 a b Houbraken Jos Frisvad Jens C Samson Robert A 2011 Fleming s penicillin producing strain is not Penicillium chrysogenum but P rubens IMA Fungus 2 1 87 95 doi 10 5598 imafungus 2011 02 01 12 PMC 3317369 PMID 22679592 Hibbett David S Taylor John W 2013 Fungal systematics is a new age of enlightenment at hand Nature Reviews Microbiology 11 2 129 133 doi 10 1038 nrmicro2963 PMID 23288349 S2CID 17070407 Visagie C M Houbraken J Frisvad J C Hong S B Klaassen C H W Perrone G Seifert K A Varga J Yaguchi T Samson R A 2014 Identification and nomenclature of the genus Penicillium Studies in Mycology 78 343 371 doi 10 1016 j simyco 2014 09 001 PMC 4261876 PMID 25505353 Pohl Carsten Polli Fabiola Schutze Tabea Viggiano Annarita Mozsik Laszlo Jung Sascha de Vries Maaike Bovenberg Roel A L Meyer Vera Driessen Arnold J M 2020 A Penicillium rubens platform strain for secondary metabolite production Scientific Reports 10 1 7630 Bibcode 2020NatSR 10 7630P doi 10 1038 s41598 020 64893 6 PMC 203126 PMID 32376967 Biourge P 1923 Les moissisures du groupe Penicillium Link La Cellule 33 7 331 Fleming Alexander 1929 On the Antibacterial Action of Cultures of a Penicillium with Special Reference to their Use in the Isolation of B influenzae British Journal of Experimental Pathology 10 3 226 236 doi 10 1093 clinids 2 1 129 JSTOR 4452419 PMC 2048009 PMID 11545337 Appendix History of species used and Dr Thom s diagnoses of species Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B Containing Papers of a Biological Character 220 468 473 83 92 1931 doi 10 1098 rstb 1931 0015 Thom Charles 1945 Mycology Presents Penicillin Mycologia 37 4 460 475 doi 10 2307 3754632 JSTOR 3754632 Samson R A Hadlok R Stolk Amelia C 1977 A taxonomic study of the Penicillium chrysogenum series Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 43 2 169 175 doi 10 1007 BF00395671 PMID 413477 S2CID 41843432 Scott James Untereiner Wendy A Wong Bess Straus Neil A Malloch David 2004 Genotypic variation in Penicillium chysogenum from indoor environments Mycologia 96 5 1095 1105 doi 10 1080 15572536 2005 11832908 PMID 21148929 S2CID 30505910 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature VIENNA CODE Appendix IV Nomina specifica conservanda et rejicienda B Fungi International Association of Plant Taxonomy 2006 Retrieved 17 June 2020 Houbraken J Frisvad J C Seifert K A Overy D P Tuthill D M Valdez J G Samson R A 2012 12 31 New penicillin producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena Persoonia Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi 29 1 78 100 doi 10 3767 003158512X660571 PMC 3589797 PMID 23606767 Segers Frank J J van Laarhoven Karel A Huinink Hendrik P Adan Olaf C G Wosten Han A B Dijksterhuis Jan 2016 Brakhage A A ed The Indoor Fungus Cladosporium halotolerans Survives Humidity Dynamics Markedly Better than Aspergillus niger and Penicillium rubens despite Less Growth at Lowered Steady State Water Activity Applied and Environmental Microbiology 82 17 5089 5098 Bibcode 2016ApEnM 82 5089S doi 10 1128 AEM 00510 16 PMC 4988216 PMID 27316968 Penicillium rubens Biourge ATCC 28089 www atcc org Retrieved 2020 06 17 Raper K B Alexander D F Coghill R D 1944 Penicillin II Natural Variation and Penicillin Production in Penicillium notatum and Allied Species Journal of Bacteriology 48 6 639 659 doi 10 1128 JB 48 6 639 659 1944 PMC 374019 PMID 16560880 a b Martin Juan F 2020 Insight into the Genome of Diverse Penicillium chrysogenum Strains Specific Genes Cluster Duplications and DNA Fragment Translocations International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21 11 3936 doi 10 3390 ijms21113936 PMC 7312703 PMID 32486280 a b Fierro Francisco Gutierrez Santiago Diez Bruno Martin Juan F 1993 Resolution of four large chromosomes in penicillin producing filamentous fungi the penicillin gene cluster is located on chromosome II 9 6 Mb in Penicillium notatum and chromosome 1 10 4 Mb in Penicillium chrysogenum Molecular and General Genetics 241 241 5 6 573 578 doi 10 1007 BF00279899 PMID 8264531 S2CID 13542522 a b van den Berg Marco A Albang Richard Albermann Kaj Badger Jonathan H Daran Jean Marc M Driessen Arnold J Garcia Estrada Carlos Fedorova Natalie D Harris Diana M Heijne Wilbert H M Joardar Vinita 2008 Genome sequencing and analysis of the filamentous fungus Penicillium chrysogenum Nature Biotechnology 26 10 1161 1168 doi 10 1038 nbt 1498 PMID 18820685 Diez B Gutierrez S Barredo J L van Solingen P van der Voort L H Martin J F 1990 The cluster of penicillin biosynthetic genes Identification and characterization of the pcbAB gene encoding the alpha aminoadipyl cysteinyl valine synthetase and linkage to the pcbC and penDE genes The Journal of Biological Chemistry 265 27 16358 16365 doi 10 1016 S0021 9258 17 46231 4 PMID 2129535 Fierro F Barredo J L Diez B Gutierrez S Fernandez F J Martin J F 1995 The penicillin gene cluster is amplified in tandem repeats linked by conserved hexanucleotide sequences Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 92 13 6200 6204 Bibcode 1995PNAS 92 6200F doi 10 1073 pnas 92 13 6200 PMC 41670 PMID 7597101 Wang Fu Qiang Zhong Jun Zhao Ying Xiao Jingfa Liu Jing Dai Meng Zheng Guizhen Zhang Li Yu Jun Wu Jiayan Duan Baoling 2014 Genome sequencing of high penicillin producing industrial strain of Penicillium chrysogenum BMC Genomics 15 Suppl 1 S11 doi 10 1186 1471 2164 15 S1 S11 PMC 4046689 PMID 24564352 Kiel Jan A K W van der Klei Ida J van den Berg Marco A Bovenberg Roel A L Veenhuis Marten 2005 Overproduction of a single protein Pc Pex11p results in 2 fold enhanced penicillin production by Penicillium chrysogenum Fungal Genetics and Biology 42 2 154 164 doi 10 1016 j fgb 2004 10 010 PMID 15670713 Ferrero M A Reglero A Martin Villacorta J Fernandez Canon J M Luengo J M 1990 Biosynthesis of benzylpenicillin G phenoxymethylpenicillin V and octanoylpenicillin K from glutathione S derivatives The Journal of Antibiotics 43 6 684 691 doi 10 7164 antibiotics 43 684 PMID 2166024 Winkle Walton Van Herwick Robert P 1945 Penicillin a review Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 34 4 97 109 doi 10 1002 jps 3030340402 PMC 3802448 Lobanovska Mariya Pilla Giulia 2017 Penicillin s Discovery and Antibiotic Resistance Lessons for the Future The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 90 1 135 145 PMC 5369031 PMID 28356901 Bush K 2004 Antibacterial drug discovery in the 21st century Clinical Microbiology and Infection 10 10 17 doi 10 1111 j 1465 0691 2004 1005 x PMID 15522035 Cantwell C A Beckmann R J Dotzlaf J E Fisher D L Skatrud P L Yeh W K Queener S W 1990 Cloning and expression of a hybrid Streptomyces clavuligerus cefE gene in Penicillium chrysogenum Current Genetics 17 3 213 221 doi 10 1007 BF00312612 PMID 2111228 S2CID 9230950 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Penicillium rubens amp oldid 1194838876, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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