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Massachusetts smallpox epidemic

January 01, 1970

The Massachusetts smallpox epidemic or colonial epidemic was a smallpox outbreak that hit Massachusetts in 1633.[1] Smallpox outbreaks were not confined to 1633 however, and occurred nearly every ten years.[2] Smallpox was caused by two different types of variola viruses: variola major and variola minor.[3] The disease was hypothesized to be transmitted due to an increase in the immigration of European settlers to the region who brought Old World smallpox aboard their ships.[4]

Smallpox defined edit

Smallpox, is known under scientific nomenclature as Variola virus. There are two strains of Variola virus, Variola major and Variola minor. The Variola major strain is the most common and is the strain that most likely wiped out indigenous and colonist populations during the 1633 epidemic. Variola major’s weaker sister, Variola minor, was less common and only results in approximately less than 1% of deaths related to smallpox.[5] Smallpox is thought to be ancient, and it is not native to North America.[6]

Signs and symptoms of smallpox edit

The virus is spread by airborne salivae, like from a cough or saliva on a bed sheet, and can only be spread from human to human. The first stage of infection is the incubation period. The incubation period is the preliminary stage of infection where there is no knowledge of someone having smallpox, there are no physical manifestations of illness during this period. The length of the incubation period is typically 10-14 days. Following the incubation period, initial symptoms start to appear, such as a fever. Within the next few days, they start to form a rash on their skin, and tongue, and can even be found in their mouth and throat. The rash sores then form into pustules which eventually scab over and fall off. Once all of the scabs have fallen off, the person is no longer contagious.[7]

Colonization and the spread of Smallpox edit

Smallpox was not present in indigenous populations before the arrival of European settlers to the New World. Settlers likely brought smallpox and introduced the disease to the New World when coming on their ships.[4] Indigenous populations had no previous encounters with smallpox, so the disease was considered an unexpected and severe killer of their peoples compared to the predominant nature and consistent presence of the disease within Europe and Asia.[8]

Cases and deaths edit

There are no statistics on the number of cases of smallpox in the 1633 epidemic. Though there are rough estimates that after Europeans arrived to the New World, approximately 20 million people died.[4]

 
Smallpox burial ground near Nobscot Hill, this hill is near the Massachusetts Bay region.

European infection edit

Europeans brought smallpox to North America when they first began colonizing. Most Europeans were at least partially immune to the disease due to high levels of exposure from living conditions which were often in close contact with Iivestock and in areas with large human populations.[9] However, 20 settlers on the Mayflower were infected including their only physician Samuel Fuller.

While the European settlers remained mostly unaffected by smallpox in 1630, they witnessed their Native American neighbors fall victim to it rapidly. A New England colonist in 1630 said the Native Americans "fell down so generally of this disease as they were in the end not able to help one another, not to make a fire, nor to fetch a little water to drink, nor any to bury the dead...". Yet despite the destruction wrought by smallpox, it was seen as a gift from God by some Puritans. Including Increase Mather, a clergyman and one of Harvard College's first presidents, who stated that the smallpox epidemic was God's solution to the Native American and Puritan land disputes.

Some Christian settlers in Boston thought that they caught smallpox from being religiously sinful.[10]

Native American infection edit

Nearby Native Americans were not immune to smallpox and by 1618, a year after the first epidemic swept through Massachusetts, more than two-thirds of the Massachusetts Native Americans including the Mohawks, native people in the Lake Ontario area and the Iroquois were killed from infection.[citation needed] The epidemic continued and by 1633, smallpox infected entire tribes and left the people unable to care for each other or bury their dead.[1] There is a hypothesis that Native populations might have had a higher concentration of deaths compared to European settlers due to "protein-calorie malnutrition" from 1500-1800 in the New World. The symptoms of protein-calorie malnutrition influence the immune system and also persisting weight loss, anemia, slow wound healing, and in some cases muscular dystrophy. This hypothesis is supported by skeletal evidence of Native populations.[8]

Effect on Indigenous populations edit

 
Map of Wampanoag territory in Massachusetts circa 1620

The indigenous tribe most populous in the Massachusetts Bay region during the 17th century was the Wampanoag tribe. The Wampanoag people were the first indigenous population to have contact with the European settlers arriving in Plymouth off the Mayflower. The estimates of the original Wampanoag population were approximately 12,000, though after the introduction of colonization and disease their populations were decimated to a mere 400. Due to the lack of immunity within indigenous communities, the disease ravaged their populations and caused a direct demographic shift on the populations of early American colonies. Other factors that contributed to the decimation of indigenous populations would be the dispersed nature of indigenous tribes.[11] Due to the presence of English colonists spreading disease such as smallpox, there was a definitive demographic shift of the region from a dominant indigenous Wampanoag population to a growing English settler population.[12]

How Massachusetts handled the outbreak edit

Response to the 1633 Epidemic edit

European settlers believed that the smallpox disease was the result of their religious sinfulness. As a means of treating their conditions, people began to pray to their Christian God and participate in fasting as well as repenting for their sins. Some individuals also responded by leaving the area to avoid the disease.[10]

 
Boylston Place

Variolation edit

 
An English journal by Dr. Zabdiel Boylston from 1730 describing smallpox in the New England region

Variolation was known as inoculation in Massachusetts during this time period. This is a procedure that can be performed a few different ways. They all included taking scabs or pus from someone who had natural smallpox. People would then take the scab or pus and inject it into their skin, or rub the matter on themselves. This would allow them to have a mild form of smallpox, which had a low mortality rate. Once someone has been infected with smallpox, they would never get the virus again. This operation allowed people to be immune for the rest of their lives.[13] This is what a man named Cotton Mather proposed during the Boston smallpox epidemic of 1721. He sought out many doctors to perform this procedure, but the only one who was willing to try was Dr. Zabdiel Boylston. This doctor had a history of performing risky procedures, and when it was time to try inoculation he tested his hypothesis on his six-year-old son.[10] The smallpox inoculation was deemed successful after much deliberation between government officials and other doctors. This procedure was then spread throughout the city in hopes to get the virus under control.[14]

Effects on future outbreaks edit

After the events of the 1633 Massachusetts smallpox epidemic there were subsequent outbreaks of smallpox in the region. Most notably in 1721, there was a significant outbreak of smallpox in Massachusetts.[10] According to a historical account in 1884 of the 1721 smallpox outbreak, more than one sixth of people would die from smallpox naturally if not treated by inoculation. Dr. Boylston was threatened to be hanged by townsfolk because they believed that the smallpox disease was an act of God and the doctor should not interfere. In 1722, there was a religious sermon that compared Dr. Boylston to Job in the Bible by saying, "the Devil was the first inoculator and Job his first patient."[15] The last smallpox case in Massachusetts, specifically Boston, was in 1932. [16]

References edit

  1. ^ a b Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues [2 Volumes]. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 663–664. ISBN 9780313341014.
  2. ^ "1633-34 — Smallpox Epidemic, New England Natives, Plymouth Colonists, MA –>1000". usdeadlyevents.com. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  3. ^ Geddes, Alasdair M. (2006-05-01). "The history of smallpox". Clinics in Dermatology. 24 (3): 152–157. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2005.11.009. PMID 16714195.
  4. ^ a b c Pais, Richard (October–December 2021). "Factors of Coronavirus". Contemporary Social Sciences. 30 (4): 14. JSTOR 24631803 – via JND Meerut.
  5. ^ "Variola Virus (Smallpox)". Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  6. ^ "Massachusetts Medical Society: The Story of Smallpox in Massachusetts". www.massmed.org. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  7. ^ "Signs and Symptoms | Smallpox | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-02-15. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  8. ^ a b RILEY, JAMES C. (2010). "Smallpox and American Indians Revisited". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 65 (4): 445–477. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrq005. ISSN 0022-5045. JSTOR 24631803. PMID 20219730.
  9. ^ Price, Michael (2016). "European diseases left a genetic mark on Native Americans". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aal0382.
  10. ^ a b c d Kass, Amalie M. (2012). "Boston's Historic Smallpox Epidemic". Massachusetts Historical Review. 14: 1–51. doi:10.5224/masshistrevi.14.1.0001.
  11. ^ Zhadanov, Sergey I.; Dulik, Matthew C.; Markley, Michael; Jennings, George W.; Gaieski, Jill B.; Elias, George; Schurr, Theodore G. (2010-03-12). "Genetic heritage and native identity of the Seaconke Wampanoag tribe of massachusetts". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 142 (4): 579–589. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21281. PMID 20229500.
  12. ^ Murphy, Ashley (2021). "A Case for Deference in American Indian Health Law". American Indian Law Review. 46 (1): 179–200.
  13. ^ Boylston, Arthur (July 2012). "The origins of inoculation". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 105 (7): 309–313. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2012.12k044. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 3407399. PMID 22843649.
  14. ^ Blake, John B. (1952). "The Inoculation Controversy in Boston: 1721-1722". The New England Quarterly. 25 (4): 489–506. doi:10.2307/362582. ISSN 0028-4866. JSTOR 362582.
  15. ^ Hurd, D. Hamilton, ed. (1884). History of Norfolk County, Massachusetts, with biographical sketches of many of its pioneers and prominent men. UMass Amherst Libraries. Philadelphia: J. W. Lewis & Co.
  16. ^ Archivist (2001-04-01). "Smallpox in Boston a hundred years ago". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 84 (4): 301–301. doi:10.1136/adc.84.4.301. ISSN 0003-9888. PMC 1718710.

Bibliography edit

  1. Archivist (2001-04-01). "Smallpox in Boston a hundred years ago". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 84 (4): 301–301. doi:10.1136/adc.84.4.301. ISSN 0003-9888.
  2. Blake, John B. (1952). "The Inoculation Controversy in Boston: 1721-1722". The New England Quarterly. 25 (4): 489–506. doi:10.2307/362582. ISSN 0028-4866
  3. Boylston, Arthur (2012). "The Origins of Inoculation". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine: 309–313.
  4. Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues [2 Volumes]. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 663–664. ISBN 9780313341014.
  5. Geddes, Alasdair M. (2006-05-01). "The history of smallpox". Clinics in Dermatology. 24 (3): 152–157. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2005.11.009. PMID 16714195.
  6. Hurd, D. Hamilton, ed. (1884). History of Norfolk County, Massachusetts, with biographical sketches of many of its pioneers and prominent men. UMass Amherst Libraries. Philadelphia: J. W. Lewis & Co.
  7. Kass, Amalie M. (2012). "Boston's Historic Smallpox Epidemic". Massachusetts Historical Review (MHR). 14: 1–51. doi:10.5224/masshistrevi.14.1.0001. ISSN 1526-3894.
  8. "Massachusetts Medical Society: The Story of Smallpox in Massachusetts". www.massmed.org. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  9. Murphy, Ashley. (2021). “A Case for Deference in American Indian Health Law.” American Indian Law Review 46 (1): 179–200.
  10. Pais, Richard (October–December 2021). "Factors of Coronavirus" (PDF). Contemporary Social Sciences. 30 (4): 14 – via JND Meerut.
  11. Price, Michael (2016). "European diseases left a genetic mark on Native Americans". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aal0382.
  12. Riley, James C. (2010). "Smallpox and American Indians Revisited". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 65 (4): 445–477. ISSN 0022-5045
  13. "Signs and Symptoms | Smallpox | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-02-15. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  14. "Variola Virus (Smallpox)". Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  15. Zhadanov, Sergey I.; Dulik, Matthew C.; Markley, Michael; Jennings, George W.; Gaieski, Jill B.; Elias, George; Schurr, Theodore G. (2010-03-12). "Genetic heritage and native identity of the Seaconke Wampanoag tribe of massachusetts". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 142 (4): 579–589. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21281
  16. "1633-34 — Smallpox Epidemic, New England Natives, Plymouth Colonists, MA –>1000". usdeadlyevents.com. Retrieved 11 May 2020.

January 01, 1970
massachusetts, smallpox, epidemic, colonial, epidemic, smallpox, outbreak, that, massachusetts, 1633, smallpox, outbreaks, were, confined, 1633, however, occurred, nearly, every, years, smallpox, caused, different, types, variola, viruses, variola, major, vari. The Massachusetts smallpox epidemic or colonial epidemic was a smallpox outbreak that hit Massachusetts in 1633 1 Smallpox outbreaks were not confined to 1633 however and occurred nearly every ten years 2 Smallpox was caused by two different types of variola viruses variola major and variola minor 3 The disease was hypothesized to be transmitted due to an increase in the immigration of European settlers to the region who brought Old World smallpox aboard their ships 4 Contents 1 Smallpox defined 1 1 Signs and symptoms of smallpox 2 Colonization and the spread of Smallpox 2 1 Cases and deaths 3 European infection 4 Native American infection 5 Effect on Indigenous populations 6 How Massachusetts handled the outbreak 6 1 Response to the 1633 Epidemic 6 2 Variolation 6 3 Effects on future outbreaks 7 References 7 1 BibliographySmallpox defined editSmallpox is known under scientific nomenclature as Variola virus There are two strains of Variola virus Variola major and Variola minor The Variola major strain is the most common and is the strain that most likely wiped out indigenous and colonist populations during the 1633 epidemic Variola major s weaker sister Variola minor was less common and only results in approximately less than 1 of deaths related to smallpox 5 Smallpox is thought to be ancient and it is not native to North America 6 Signs and symptoms of smallpox edit The virus is spread by airborne salivae like from a cough or saliva on a bed sheet and can only be spread from human to human The first stage of infection is the incubation period The incubation period is the preliminary stage of infection where there is no knowledge of someone having smallpox there are no physical manifestations of illness during this period The length of the incubation period is typically 10 14 days Following the incubation period initial symptoms start to appear such as a fever Within the next few days they start to form a rash on their skin and tongue and can even be found in their mouth and throat The rash sores then form into pustules which eventually scab over and fall off Once all of the scabs have fallen off the person is no longer contagious 7 Colonization and the spread of Smallpox editSmallpox was not present in indigenous populations before the arrival of European settlers to the New World Settlers likely brought smallpox and introduced the disease to the New World when coming on their ships 4 Indigenous populations had no previous encounters with smallpox so the disease was considered an unexpected and severe killer of their peoples compared to the predominant nature and consistent presence of the disease within Europe and Asia 8 Cases and deaths edit There are no statistics on the number of cases of smallpox in the 1633 epidemic Though there are rough estimates that after Europeans arrived to the New World approximately 20 million people died 4 nbsp Smallpox burial ground near Nobscot Hill this hill is near the Massachusetts Bay region European infection editEuropeans brought smallpox to North America when they first began colonizing Most Europeans were at least partially immune to the disease due to high levels of exposure from living conditions which were often in close contact with Iivestock and in areas with large human populations 9 However 20 settlers on the Mayflower were infected including their only physician Samuel Fuller While the European settlers remained mostly unaffected by smallpox in 1630 they witnessed their Native American neighbors fall victim to it rapidly A New England colonist in 1630 said the Native Americans fell down so generally of this disease as they were in the end not able to help one another not to make a fire nor to fetch a little water to drink nor any to bury the dead Yet despite the destruction wrought by smallpox it was seen as a gift from God by some Puritans Including Increase Mather a clergyman and one of Harvard College s first presidents who stated that the smallpox epidemic was God s solution to the Native American and Puritan land disputes Some Christian settlers in Boston thought that they caught smallpox from being religiously sinful 10 Native American infection editNearby Native Americans were not immune to smallpox and by 1618 a year after the first epidemic swept through Massachusetts more than two thirds of the Massachusetts Native Americans including the Mohawks native people in the Lake Ontario area and the Iroquois were killed from infection citation needed The epidemic continued and by 1633 smallpox infected entire tribes and left the people unable to care for each other or bury their dead 1 There is a hypothesis that Native populations might have had a higher concentration of deaths compared to European settlers due to protein calorie malnutrition from 1500 1800 in the New World The symptoms of protein calorie malnutrition influence the immune system and also persisting weight loss anemia slow wound healing and in some cases muscular dystrophy This hypothesis is supported by skeletal evidence of Native populations 8 Effect on Indigenous populations edit nbsp Map of Wampanoag territory in Massachusetts circa 1620 The indigenous tribe most populous in the Massachusetts Bay region during the 17th century was the Wampanoag tribe The Wampanoag people were the first indigenous population to have contact with the European settlers arriving in Plymouth off the Mayflower The estimates of the original Wampanoag population were approximately 12 000 though after the introduction of colonization and disease their populations were decimated to a mere 400 Due to the lack of immunity within indigenous communities the disease ravaged their populations and caused a direct demographic shift on the populations of early American colonies Other factors that contributed to the decimation of indigenous populations would be the dispersed nature of indigenous tribes 11 Due to the presence of English colonists spreading disease such as smallpox there was a definitive demographic shift of the region from a dominant indigenous Wampanoag population to a growing English settler population 12 How Massachusetts handled the outbreak editResponse to the 1633 Epidemic edit European settlers believed that the smallpox disease was the result of their religious sinfulness As a means of treating their conditions people began to pray to their Christian God and participate in fasting as well as repenting for their sins Some individuals also responded by leaving the area to avoid the disease 10 nbsp Boylston Place Variolation edit nbsp An English journal by Dr Zabdiel Boylston from 1730 describing smallpox in the New England region Variolation was known as inoculation in Massachusetts during this time period This is a procedure that can be performed a few different ways They all included taking scabs or pus from someone who had natural smallpox People would then take the scab or pus and inject it into their skin or rub the matter on themselves This would allow them to have a mild form of smallpox which had a low mortality rate Once someone has been infected with smallpox they would never get the virus again This operation allowed people to be immune for the rest of their lives 13 This is what a man named Cotton Mather proposed during the Boston smallpox epidemic of 1721 He sought out many doctors to perform this procedure but the only one who was willing to try was Dr Zabdiel Boylston This doctor had a history of performing risky procedures and when it was time to try inoculation he tested his hypothesis on his six year old son 10 The smallpox inoculation was deemed successful after much deliberation between government officials and other doctors This procedure was then spread throughout the city in hopes to get the virus under control 14 Effects on future outbreaks edit After the events of the 1633 Massachusetts smallpox epidemic there were subsequent outbreaks of smallpox in the region Most notably in 1721 there was a significant outbreak of smallpox in Massachusetts 10 According to a historical account in 1884 of the 1721 smallpox outbreak more than one sixth of people would die from smallpox naturally if not treated by inoculation Dr Boylston was threatened to be hanged by townsfolk because they believed that the smallpox disease was an act of God and the doctor should not interfere In 1722 there was a religious sermon that compared Dr Boylston to Job in the Bible by saying the Devil was the first inoculator and Job his first patient 15 The last smallpox case in Massachusetts specifically Boston was in 1932 16 References edit a b Byrne Joseph Patrick 2008 Encyclopedia of Pestilence Pandemics and Plagues 2 Volumes Westport Conn Greenwood Press pp 663 664 ISBN 9780313341014 1633 34 Smallpox Epidemic New England Natives Plymouth Colonists MA gt 1000 usdeadlyevents com Retrieved 11 May 2020 Geddes Alasdair M 2006 05 01 The history of smallpox Clinics in Dermatology 24 3 152 157 doi 10 1016 j clindermatol 2005 11 009 PMID 16714195 a b c Pais Richard October December 2021 Factors of Coronavirus Contemporary Social Sciences 30 4 14 JSTOR 24631803 via JND Meerut Variola Virus Smallpox Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security Retrieved 2023 04 18 Massachusetts Medical Society The Story of Smallpox in Massachusetts www massmed org Retrieved 2023 04 20 Signs and Symptoms Smallpox CDC www cdc gov 2019 02 15 Retrieved 2023 04 18 a b RILEY JAMES C 2010 Smallpox and American Indians Revisited Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 65 4 445 477 doi 10 1093 jhmas jrq005 ISSN 0022 5045 JSTOR 24631803 PMID 20219730 Price Michael 2016 European diseases left a genetic mark on Native Americans Science doi 10 1126 science aal0382 a b c d Kass Amalie M 2012 Boston s Historic Smallpox Epidemic Massachusetts Historical Review 14 1 51 doi 10 5224 masshistrevi 14 1 0001 Zhadanov Sergey I Dulik Matthew C Markley Michael Jennings George W Gaieski Jill B Elias George Schurr Theodore G 2010 03 12 Genetic heritage and native identity of the Seaconke Wampanoag tribe of massachusetts American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142 4 579 589 doi 10 1002 ajpa 21281 PMID 20229500 Murphy Ashley 2021 A Case for Deference in American Indian Health Law American Indian Law Review 46 1 179 200 Boylston Arthur July 2012 The origins of inoculation Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 105 7 309 313 doi 10 1258 jrsm 2012 12k044 ISSN 0141 0768 PMC 3407399 PMID 22843649 Blake John B 1952 The Inoculation Controversy in Boston 1721 1722 The New England Quarterly 25 4 489 506 doi 10 2307 362582 ISSN 0028 4866 JSTOR 362582 Hurd D Hamilton ed 1884 History of Norfolk County Massachusetts with biographical sketches of many of its pioneers and prominent men UMass Amherst Libraries Philadelphia J W Lewis amp Co Archivist 2001 04 01 Smallpox in Boston a hundred years ago Archives of Disease in Childhood 84 4 301 301 doi 10 1136 adc 84 4 301 ISSN 0003 9888 PMC 1718710 Bibliography edit Archivist 2001 04 01 Smallpox in Boston a hundred years ago Archives of Disease in Childhood 84 4 301 301 doi 10 1136 adc 84 4 301 ISSN 0003 9888 Blake John B 1952 The Inoculation Controversy in Boston 1721 1722 The New England Quarterly 25 4 489 506 doi 10 2307 362582 ISSN 0028 4866 Boylston Arthur 2012 The Origins of Inoculation Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 309 313 Byrne Joseph Patrick 2008 Encyclopedia of Pestilence Pandemics and Plagues 2 Volumes Westport Conn Greenwood Press pp 663 664 ISBN 9780313341014 Geddes Alasdair M 2006 05 01 The history of smallpox Clinics in Dermatology 24 3 152 157 doi 10 1016 j clindermatol 2005 11 009 PMID 16714195 Hurd D Hamilton ed 1884 History of Norfolk County Massachusetts with biographical sketches of many of its pioneers and prominent men UMass Amherst Libraries Philadelphia J W Lewis amp Co Kass Amalie M 2012 Boston s Historic Smallpox Epidemic Massachusetts Historical Review MHR 14 1 51 doi 10 5224 masshistrevi 14 1 0001 ISSN 1526 3894 Massachusetts Medical Society The Story of Smallpox in Massachusetts www massmed org Retrieved 2023 04 20 Murphy Ashley 2021 A Case for Deference in American Indian Health Law American Indian Law Review 46 1 179 200 Pais Richard October December 2021 Factors of Coronavirus PDF Contemporary Social Sciences 30 4 14 via JND Meerut Price Michael 2016 European diseases left a genetic mark on Native Americans Science doi 10 1126 science aal0382 Riley James C 2010 Smallpox and American Indians Revisited Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 65 4 445 477 ISSN 0022 5045 Signs and Symptoms Smallpox CDC www cdc gov 2019 02 15 Retrieved 2023 04 18 Variola Virus Smallpox Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security Retrieved 2023 04 18 Zhadanov Sergey I Dulik Matthew C Markley Michael Jennings George W Gaieski Jill B Elias George Schurr Theodore G 2010 03 12 Genetic heritage and native identity of the Seaconke Wampanoag tribe of massachusetts American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142 4 579 589 doi 10 1002 ajpa 21281 1633 34 Smallpox Epidemic New England Natives Plymouth Colonists MA gt 1000 usdeadlyevents com Retrieved 11 May 2020 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Massachusetts smallpox epidemic amp oldid 1202230452, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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