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Lyocell

Lyocell is a semi-synthetic fiber used to make textiles for clothing and other purposes.[1] It is a form of regenerated cellulose made by dissolving pulp and dry jet-wet spinning. Unlike rayon made by some of the more common viscose processes, Lyocell production does not use carbon disulfide,[2][3] which is toxic to workers and the environment.[4][5][2] Lyocell was originally trademarked as Tencel in 1982.

Mattress with Lyocell as cover material
Label of a coat containing Tencel (a brand of Lyocell)

"Lyocell" has become a genericized trademark, used to refer to the Lyocell process for making cellulose fibers.[3][6] The U.S. Federal Trade Commission defines Lyocell as "a fiber composed of cellulose precipitated from an organic solution in which no substitution of the hydroxy groups takes place, and no chemical intermediates are formed". It classifies the fiber as a sub-category of rayon.[7]

Names edit

Other trademarked names for Lyocell fibers are Tencel (Lenzing AG),[8] Newcell (Akzo Nobel), and Seacell (Zimmer AG).[9] The company Birla also sells it under the brand name Excel.[10] There are other manufacturers like Sateri which sell their product under generic name Lyocell[11]

History edit

The development of Tencel was motivated by environmental concerns; researchers sought to manufacture rayon by means less harmful than the viscose method.[12]

The Lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct American Enka fibers facility at Enka, North Carolina. In 2003, the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) awarded Neal E. Franks their Henry E. Millson Award for Invention for Lyocell.[13] In 1966–1968, D. L. Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc. studied NMMO solutions. From 1969 to 1979, American Enka tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process.[12] The operating name for the fiber inside the Enka organization was "Newcell", and the development was carried through a pilot plant scale before the work was stopped.

The basic process of dissolving cellulose in NMMO was first described in a 1981 patent by Mcorsley for Akzona Incorporated[12][14] (the holding company of Akzo). In the 1980s the patent was licensed by Akzo to Courtaulds and Lenzing.[6]

The fiber was developed by Courtaulds Fibres under the brand name "Tencel" in the 1980s. In 1982, a 100-kg/week pilot plant was built in Coventry, UK, and production increased tenfold (to a ton/week) in 1984. In 1988, a 25-ton/week semi-commercial production line opened at the Grimsby, UK, pilot plant.[15][12]

The process was first[16] commercialized at Courtaulds' rayon factories at Mobile, Alabama[17] (1990[16]), and at the Grimsby plant (1998).[16] In January 1993, the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. The second plant in Mobile was planned.[17] By 2004, production had quadrupled to 80,000 tons.[6]

Lenzing began a pilot plant in 1990,[12] and commercial production in 1997, with 12 metric tonnes/year made in a plant in Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal, Austria.[12][6][18] When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20,000 tonnes/year, and planning to double capacity by the end of the year.[19] In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40,000 tons [sic, probably metric tonnes].[6] In 1998, Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement.[6]

In 1998 Courtaulds was acquired by competitor Akzo Nobel,[20] who combined the Tencel division with other fiber divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them to private equity firm CVC Partners. In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG, who combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel.[6] They took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby, and by 2015 was the largest Lyocell producer at 130,000 tonnes/year.[12]

Uses edit

 
Shirt made from Lyocell

It is used in many everyday fabrics. Staple fibers are used in clothes such as denim, chino, underwear, casual wear, and towels. Filament fibers, which are generally longer and smoother than staple fibers,[21] are used in items that have a silkier appearance such as women's clothing and men's dress shirts. Lyocell may be blended with a variety of other fibers such as silk, cotton, rayon, polyester, linen, nylon, and wool. When mixed with other fibers, the resulting fabric is much stronger and more resistant to wear, tear, and pilling.[22] Lyocell also is used in conveyor belts, specialty papers, and medical dressings.[23]

Properties edit

 
Fibrillation of Lyocell may produce a "peach-fuzz" feel.

Lyocell shares many properties with other fibers such as cotton, linen, silk, ramie, hemp, and viscose rayon (to which it is very closely related chemically). Lyocell is 50% more absorbent than cotton, [24] and has a longer wicking distance compared to modal fabrics of a similar weave. [25]

Compared to cotton, consumers often say Lyocell fibers feel softer, and "airier", due to their better ability to wick moisture. Industry claims of higher resistance to wrinkling are as yet unsupported. Lyocell fabric may be machine washed or dry cleaned. It drapes well and may be dyed many colors, needing slightly less dye than cotton to achieve the same depth of colour. [26][10]

Manufacturing process edit

The Lyocell process uses a direct solvent rather than indirect dissolution such as the xanthation-regeneration route in the viscose process. Lyocell fiber is produced from dissolving pulp, which contains cellulose in high purity with little hemicellulose and no lignin. Hardwood logs (such as oak and birch[27]) are chipped into squares about the size of postage stamps. The chips are digested chemically, either with the prehydrolysis-kraft process or with sulfite process, to remove the lignin and hemicellulose. The pulp is bleached to remove the remaining traces of lignin, dried into a continuous sheet and rolled onto spools. The pulp has the consistency of thick posterboard paper and is delivered in rolls weighing some 500 lb (230 kg).

 
N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide is a key solvent in the Lyocell process

At the Lyocell mill, rolls of pulp are broken into one-inch squares and dissolved in N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO[2]), giving a solution called "dope". The filtered cellulose solution is then pumped through spinnerets, devices used with a variety of synthetic fibers. The spinneret is pierced with small holes rather like a shower head; when the solution is forced through it, continuous strands of filament come out. The fibers are drawn in air to align the cellulose molecules, giving the Lyocell fibers its characteristic high strength. The fibers are then immersed into a water bath, where desolvation of the cellulose sets the fiber strands. The bath contains some dilute amine oxide in a steady state concentration. Then the fibers are washed with demineralised water. Next, the Lyocell fiber passes to a drying area, where the water is evaporated from it.

Manufacture then follows the same route as with other kinds of fibers such as viscose. The strands pass to a finishing area, where a lubricant, which may be a soap or silicone or other agents, depending on the future use of the fiber, is applied. This step is a detangler, prior to carding and spinning into yarn. At this stage, the dried, finished fibers are in a form called tow, a large, untwisted bundle of continuous lengths of filament. The bundles of tow are taken to a crimper, a machine that compresses the fiber, giving it texture and bulk. The crimped fiber is then carded by mechanical carders, which perform a combing action to separate and order the strands. The carded strands are then cut and baled for shipment to a fabric mill. The entire manufacturing process, from unrolling the raw cellulose to baling the fiber, takes roughly two hours. After this, the Lyocell may be processed in many ways. It may be spun with another fiber, such as cotton or wool. The resulting yarn can be woven or knitted like any other fabric, and may be given a variety of finishes, from soft and suede-like to silky.[23]

The amine oxide used to dissolve the cellulose and set the fiber after spinning (NMMO) is recycled. Typically,[28] 99 percent of the amine oxide is recovered.[10] NMMO biodegrades without producing harmful products.[2] Since there is little waste product, this process is relatively eco-friendly, though it is energy-intensive.[10]

Future research edit

Lyocell's lack of antibacterial properties is limiting its uses in the medical field. Due to its biodegradability, low toxicity, and comfort, Lyocell would become a useful material for antibacterial garments. Several approaches have been tested to introduce antibacterial capabilities. Three general approaches have been studied to achieve this: physical blending, chemical reaction, and post-treatment. Physical blending methods introduce antibacterial agents into the spinning dope. In chemical reaction methods, antibacterial additives are crosslinked into the Lyocell fibers and therefore giving antimicrobial properties. In post-treatment methods, antibacterial additives are being deposited on Lyocell fiber surfaces through physical coating, padding, or impregnation processes. Physical blending and post-treatment methods appear to be the most promising for large-scale manufacturing. Careful consideration of cost, preparation time, and antibacterial effectiveness is required to select the best method. Creating successful modification of Lyocell fibers to enhance antibacterial properties would allow to manufacture products for health care (such as lab coats, caps, gowns), hygiene products (scrubs, sanitary napkins), and clothing (socks, underwear).[29]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ Krässig, Hans; Schurz, Josef; Steadman, Robert G.; Schliefer, Karl; Albrecht, Wilhelm; Mohring, Marc; Schlosser, Harald (2002). "Cellulose". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a05_375.pub2. ISBN 978-3527306732.
  2. ^ a b c d "Regenerated cellulose by the Lyocell process, a brief review of the process and properties :: BioResources". BioRes. 2018.
  3. ^ a b Tierney, John William (2005). Kinetics of Cellulose Dissolution in N-MethylMorpholine-N-Oxide and Evaporative Processes of Similar Solutions (Thesis).
  4. ^ Swan, Norman; Blanc, Paul (20 February 2017). "The health burden of viscose rayon". ABC Radio National.
  5. ^ Michelle Nijhuis. "Bamboo Boom: Is This Material for You?". Scientific American. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanearth0609-60.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g . Archived from the original on 2010-03-23. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
  7. ^ 16 CFR 303.7(d)
  8. ^ https://www.tencel.com/about
  9. ^ B. Ozipek, H. Karakas, in Advances in Filament Yarn Spinning of Textiles and Polymers, 2014. As quoted by Elsevier
  10. ^ a b c d "Material Guide: How Ethical is Tencel?". Good On You. 2018-07-27. Retrieved 2020-07-21.
  11. ^ https://www.sateri.com/products/lyocell-fibre/
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Johnathan Y. Chen. Textiles and fashion: materials, design and technology, 2015. As quoted by Elsevier
  13. ^ "Millson Award for Invention". AATCC.
  14. ^ US 4246221, Mcorsley, C., "Process for Shaped Cellulose Article Prepared from Solution Containing Cellulose Dissolved in a Tertiary Amine N-oxide Solvent", published 1981  New York, New York, Akzona Incorporated.
  15. ^ Introducing Tencel lyocell
  16. ^ a b c "Lyocell Fiber - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2022-07-28.
  17. ^ a b Ipsen, Erik (25 February 1993). "INTERNATIONAL MANAGER: Freed of Textile Business, Courtaulds Is Doing Fine". International Herald Tribune.
  18. ^ "Lenzing Group". www.lenzing.com. Retrieved 2022-07-28.
  19. ^ Beacham, Will. "Explosion and fire halts 'Lyocell' output at Lenzing's Heiligenkreuz, Austria plant". ICIS Explore.
  20. ^ . Europa. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
  21. ^ Yates, Marypaul (2002). Fabrics: a guide for interior designers and architects (1st ed.). New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-73062-3.
  22. ^ Sewport Support Team. (n.d.). What is Lyocell Fabric: Properties, how its made and where. Sewport. https://sewport.com/fabrics-directory/lyocell-fabric#:~:text=Lyocell%20is%20a%20semi%2Dsynthetic,of%20cellulose%20derived%20from%20wood.
  23. ^ a b Kadolph, Sara; Langford, Anna (2002). Textiles (Ninth ed.). Prentice Hall.
  24. ^ "Pulp fabric: Everything you need to know about lyocell". TheGuardian.com. 18 November 2019.
  25. ^ Ozdemir, Hakan (2017-03-01). "Permeability and Wicking Properties of Modal and Lyocell Woven Fabrics Used for Clothing". Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics. 12 (1). doi:10.1177/155892501701200102. ISSN 1558-9250.
  26. ^ FiberSource
  27. ^ Lyocell - raw materials
  28. ^ "How lyocell is made - material, manufacture, making, used, processing, steps, industry, machine". www.madehow.com. Retrieved 2022-07-28.
  29. ^ Edgar, Kevin J.; Zhang, Huihui (15 December 2020). "Antibacterial modification of Lyocell fiber: A review". Carbohydrate Polymers. 250: 116932. doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116932. PMID 33049845. S2CID 222352836. Retrieved 23 March 2023.

External links edit

  • Blanc, Paul David (2016). Fake silk : the lethal history of viscose rayon. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 328. ISBN 9780300204667.
  • Dissolving of Cellulosics
  • Federal Trade Commission webpage on textiles
  • Information about the fiber from fibersource.com
  • OSU fact sheet
  • Tencel at Courtaulds: From Genesis to Exodus and Beyond… – By Calvin Woodings
  • Uniform Reuse have a long pdf report on fabric properties and suppliers including lyocell
  • Lyocell Comparison

lyocell, semi, synthetic, fiber, used, make, textiles, clothing, other, purposes, form, regenerated, cellulose, made, dissolving, pulp, spinning, unlike, rayon, made, some, more, common, viscose, processes, production, does, carbon, disulfide, which, toxic, wo. Lyocell is a semi synthetic fiber used to make textiles for clothing and other purposes 1 It is a form of regenerated cellulose made by dissolving pulp and dry jet wet spinning Unlike rayon made by some of the more common viscose processes Lyocell production does not use carbon disulfide 2 3 which is toxic to workers and the environment 4 5 2 Lyocell was originally trademarked as Tencel in 1982 Mattress with Lyocell as cover materialLabel of a coat containing Tencel a brand of Lyocell Lyocell has become a genericized trademark used to refer to the Lyocell process for making cellulose fibers 3 6 The U S Federal Trade Commission defines Lyocell as a fiber composed of cellulose precipitated from an organic solution in which no substitution of the hydroxy groups takes place and no chemical intermediates are formed It classifies the fiber as a sub category of rayon 7 Contents 1 Names 2 History 3 Uses 4 Properties 5 Manufacturing process 5 1 Future research 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksNames editOther trademarked names for Lyocell fibers are Tencel Lenzing AG 8 Newcell Akzo Nobel and Seacell Zimmer AG 9 The company Birla also sells it under the brand name Excel 10 There are other manufacturers like Sateri which sell their product under generic name Lyocell 11 History editThe development of Tencel was motivated by environmental concerns researchers sought to manufacture rayon by means less harmful than the viscose method 12 The Lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct American Enka fibers facility at Enka North Carolina In 2003 the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists AATCC awarded Neal E Franks their Henry E Millson Award for Invention for Lyocell 13 In 1966 1968 D L Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc studied NMMO solutions From 1969 to 1979 American Enka tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process 12 The operating name for the fiber inside the Enka organization was Newcell and the development was carried through a pilot plant scale before the work was stopped The basic process of dissolving cellulose in NMMO was first described in a 1981 patent by Mcorsley for Akzona Incorporated 12 14 the holding company of Akzo In the 1980s the patent was licensed by Akzo to Courtaulds and Lenzing 6 The fiber was developed by Courtaulds Fibres under the brand name Tencel in the 1980s In 1982 a 100 kg week pilot plant was built in Coventry UK and production increased tenfold to a ton week in 1984 In 1988 a 25 ton week semi commercial production line opened at the Grimsby UK pilot plant 15 12 The process was first 16 commercialized at Courtaulds rayon factories at Mobile Alabama 17 1990 16 and at the Grimsby plant 1998 16 In January 1993 the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20 000 tons per year by which time Courtaulds had spent 100 million and 10 years on Tencel development Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be 50 million The second plant in Mobile was planned 17 By 2004 production had quadrupled to 80 000 tons 6 Lenzing began a pilot plant in 1990 12 and commercial production in 1997 with 12 metric tonnes year made in a plant in Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal Austria 12 6 18 When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20 000 tonnes year and planning to double capacity by the end of the year 19 In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40 000 tons sic probably metric tonnes 6 In 1998 Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement 6 In 1998 Courtaulds was acquired by competitor Akzo Nobel 20 who combined the Tencel division with other fiber divisions under the Accordis banner then sold them to private equity firm CVC Partners In 2000 CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG who combined it with their Lenzing Lyocell business but maintained the brand name Tencel 6 They took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby and by 2015 was the largest Lyocell producer at 130 000 tonnes year 12 Uses edit nbsp Shirt made from LyocellIt is used in many everyday fabrics Staple fibers are used in clothes such as denim chino underwear casual wear and towels Filament fibers which are generally longer and smoother than staple fibers 21 are used in items that have a silkier appearance such as women s clothing and men s dress shirts Lyocell may be blended with a variety of other fibers such as silk cotton rayon polyester linen nylon and wool When mixed with other fibers the resulting fabric is much stronger and more resistant to wear tear and pilling 22 Lyocell also is used in conveyor belts specialty papers and medical dressings 23 Properties edit nbsp Fibrillation of Lyocell may produce a peach fuzz feel Lyocell shares many properties with other fibers such as cotton linen silk ramie hemp and viscose rayon to which it is very closely related chemically Lyocell is 50 more absorbent than cotton 24 and has a longer wicking distance compared to modal fabrics of a similar weave 25 Compared to cotton consumers often say Lyocell fibers feel softer and airier due to their better ability to wick moisture Industry claims of higher resistance to wrinkling are as yet unsupported Lyocell fabric may be machine washed or dry cleaned It drapes well and may be dyed many colors needing slightly less dye than cotton to achieve the same depth of colour 26 10 Manufacturing process editThe Lyocell process uses a direct solvent rather than indirect dissolution such as the xanthation regeneration route in the viscose process Lyocell fiber is produced from dissolving pulp which contains cellulose in high purity with little hemicellulose and no lignin Hardwood logs such as oak and birch 27 are chipped into squares about the size of postage stamps The chips are digested chemically either with the prehydrolysis kraft process or with sulfite process to remove the lignin and hemicellulose The pulp is bleached to remove the remaining traces of lignin dried into a continuous sheet and rolled onto spools The pulp has the consistency of thick posterboard paper and is delivered in rolls weighing some 500 lb 230 kg nbsp N Methylmorpholine N oxide is a key solvent in the Lyocell processAt the Lyocell mill rolls of pulp are broken into one inch squares and dissolved in N methylmorpholine N oxide NMMO 2 giving a solution called dope The filtered cellulose solution is then pumped through spinnerets devices used with a variety of synthetic fibers The spinneret is pierced with small holes rather like a shower head when the solution is forced through it continuous strands of filament come out The fibers are drawn in air to align the cellulose molecules giving the Lyocell fibers its characteristic high strength The fibers are then immersed into a water bath where desolvation of the cellulose sets the fiber strands The bath contains some dilute amine oxide in a steady state concentration Then the fibers are washed with demineralised water Next the Lyocell fiber passes to a drying area where the water is evaporated from it Manufacture then follows the same route as with other kinds of fibers such as viscose The strands pass to a finishing area where a lubricant which may be a soap or silicone or other agents depending on the future use of the fiber is applied This step is a detangler prior to carding and spinning into yarn At this stage the dried finished fibers are in a form called tow a large untwisted bundle of continuous lengths of filament The bundles of tow are taken to a crimper a machine that compresses the fiber giving it texture and bulk The crimped fiber is then carded by mechanical carders which perform a combing action to separate and order the strands The carded strands are then cut and baled for shipment to a fabric mill The entire manufacturing process from unrolling the raw cellulose to baling the fiber takes roughly two hours After this the Lyocell may be processed in many ways It may be spun with another fiber such as cotton or wool The resulting yarn can be woven or knitted like any other fabric and may be given a variety of finishes from soft and suede like to silky 23 The amine oxide used to dissolve the cellulose and set the fiber after spinning NMMO is recycled Typically 28 99 percent of the amine oxide is recovered 10 NMMO biodegrades without producing harmful products 2 Since there is little waste product this process is relatively eco friendly though it is energy intensive 10 Future research edit Lyocell s lack of antibacterial properties is limiting its uses in the medical field Due to its biodegradability low toxicity and comfort Lyocell would become a useful material for antibacterial garments Several approaches have been tested to introduce antibacterial capabilities Three general approaches have been studied to achieve this physical blending chemical reaction and post treatment Physical blending methods introduce antibacterial agents into the spinning dope In chemical reaction methods antibacterial additives are crosslinked into the Lyocell fibers and therefore giving antimicrobial properties In post treatment methods antibacterial additives are being deposited on Lyocell fiber surfaces through physical coating padding or impregnation processes Physical blending and post treatment methods appear to be the most promising for large scale manufacturing Careful consideration of cost preparation time and antibacterial effectiveness is required to select the best method Creating successful modification of Lyocell fibers to enhance antibacterial properties would allow to manufacture products for health care such as lab coats caps gowns hygiene products scrubs sanitary napkins and clothing socks underwear 29 See also editModal textile References edit Krassig Hans Schurz Josef Steadman Robert G Schliefer Karl Albrecht Wilhelm Mohring Marc Schlosser Harald 2002 Cellulose Ullmann s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Weinheim Wiley VCH doi 10 1002 14356007 a05 375 pub2 ISBN 978 3527306732 a b c d Regenerated cellulose by the Lyocell process a brief review of the process and properties BioResources BioRes 2018 a b Tierney John William 2005 Kinetics of Cellulose Dissolution in N MethylMorpholine N Oxide and Evaporative Processes of Similar Solutions Thesis Swan Norman Blanc Paul 20 February 2017 The health burden of viscose rayon ABC Radio National Michelle Nijhuis Bamboo Boom Is This Material for You Scientific American doi 10 1038 scientificamericanearth0609 60 a b c d e f g Lenzing Acquires TENCEL 2004 Archived from the original on 2010 03 23 Retrieved 2010 01 13 16 CFR 303 7 d https www tencel com about B Ozipek H Karakas in Advances in Filament Yarn Spinning of Textiles and Polymers 2014 As quoted by Elsevier a b c d Material Guide How Ethical is Tencel Good On You 2018 07 27 Retrieved 2020 07 21 https www sateri com products lyocell fibre a b c d e f g Johnathan Y Chen Textiles and fashion materials design and technology 2015 As quoted by Elsevier Millson Award for Invention AATCC US 4246221 Mcorsley C Process for Shaped Cellulose Article Prepared from Solution Containing Cellulose Dissolved in a Tertiary Amine N oxide Solvent published 1981 New York New York Akzona Incorporated Introducing Tencel lyocell a b c Lyocell Fiber an overview ScienceDirect Topics www sciencedirect com Retrieved 2022 07 28 a b Ipsen Erik 25 February 1993 INTERNATIONAL MANAGER Freed of Textile Business Courtaulds Is Doing Fine International Herald Tribune Lenzing Group www lenzing com Retrieved 2022 07 28 Beacham Will Explosion and fire halts Lyocell output at Lenzing s Heiligenkreuz Austria plant ICIS Explore Bulletin EU 6 1998 en 1 3 50 Akzo Nobel Courtaulds Europa Archived from the original on 22 September 2008 Retrieved 13 November 2015 Yates Marypaul 2002 Fabrics a guide for interior designers and architects 1st ed New York Norton ISBN 978 0 393 73062 3 Sewport Support Team n d What is Lyocell Fabric Properties how its made and where Sewport https sewport com fabrics directory lyocell fabric text Lyocell 20is 20a 20semi 2Dsynthetic of 20cellulose 20derived 20from 20wood a b Kadolph Sara Langford Anna 2002 Textiles Ninth ed Prentice Hall Pulp fabric Everything you need to know about lyocell TheGuardian com 18 November 2019 Ozdemir Hakan 2017 03 01 Permeability and Wicking Properties of Modal and Lyocell Woven Fabrics Used for Clothing Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 12 1 doi 10 1177 155892501701200102 ISSN 1558 9250 FiberSource Lyocell raw materials How lyocell is made material manufacture making used processing steps industry machine www madehow com Retrieved 2022 07 28 Edgar Kevin J Zhang Huihui 15 December 2020 Antibacterial modification of Lyocell fiber A review Carbohydrate Polymers 250 116932 doi 10 1016 j carbpol 2020 116932 PMID 33049845 S2CID 222352836 Retrieved 23 March 2023 External links editBlanc Paul David 2016 Fake silk the lethal history of viscose rayon New Haven Yale University Press p 328 ISBN 9780300204667 Dissolving of Cellulosics Federal Trade Commission webpage on textiles Information about the fiber from fibersource com OSU fact sheet Tencel at Courtaulds From Genesis to Exodus and Beyond By Calvin Woodings Uniform Reuse have a long pdf report on fabric properties and suppliers including lyocell Lyocell Comparison Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Lyocell amp oldid 1194526610, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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