Low-level waste (LLW) or Low-level radioactive waste (LLRW) is nuclear waste that does not fit into the categorical definitions for intermediate-level waste (ILW), high-level waste (HLW), spent nuclear fuel (SNF), transuranic waste (TRU), or certain byproduct materials known as 11e(2) wastes, such as uranium mill tailings. In essence, it is a definition by exclusion, and LLW is that category of radioactive wastes that do not fit into the other categories. If LLW is mixed with hazardous wastes as classified by RCRA, then it has a special status as mixed low-level waste (MLLW) and must satisfy treatment, storage, and disposal regulations both as LLW and as hazardous waste. While the bulk of LLW is not highly radioactive, the definition of LLW does not include references to its activity, and some LLW may be quite radioactive, as in the case of radioactive sources used in industry and medicine.
NRC Graphic of a low-level waste facility.
LLW includes items that have become contaminated with radioactive material or have become radioactive through exposure to neutron radiation. This waste typically consists of contaminated protective shoe covers and clothing, wiping rags, mops, filters, reactor water treatment residues, equipments and tools, luminous dials, medical tubes, swabs, injection needles, syringes, and laboratory animal carcasses and tissues. The radioactivity can range from just above background levels found in nature to very highly radioactive in certain cases such as parts from inside the reactor vessel in a nuclear power plant.
The definition of low-level waste is set by the nuclear regulators of individual countries, though the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) provides recommendations.[1] Some countries, such as France, specify categories for long-lived low- and intermediate-level waste. U.S. regulations do not define the category of intermediate-level waste.
Depending on who "owns" the waste, its handling and disposal is regulated differently. All nuclear facilities, whether they are a utility or a disposal site, have to comply with Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations. The four low-level waste facilities in the U.S. are Barnwell, South Carolina; Richland, Washington; Clive, Utah; and as of June 2013, Andrews County, Texas.[2][3] The Barnwell and the Clive locations are operated by EnergySolutions, the Richland location is operated by U.S. Ecology, and the Andrews County location is operated by Waste Control Specialists. Barnwell, Richland, and Andrews County accept Classes A through C of low-level waste, whereas Clive only accepts Class A LLW. The DOE has dozens of LLW sites under management. The largest of these exist at DOE Reservations around the country (e.g. the Hanford Reservation, Savannah River Site, Nevada Test Site, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Idaho National Laboratory, to name the most significant).
Classes of wastes are detailed in 10 C.F.R. § 61.55 Waste Classification,[4] enforced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, reproduced in the table below. These are not all the isotopes disposed of at these facilities, just the ones that are of most concern for the long-term monitoring of the sites. Waste is divided into three classes, A through C, where A is the least radioactive and C is the most radioactive. Class A LLW is able to be deposited near the surface, whereas Classes B and C LLW have to be buried progressively deeper.
In 10 C.F.R. § 20.2002, the NRC reserves the right to grant a free release of radioactive waste. The overall activity of such a disposal cannot exceed 1 mrem/yr and the NRC regards requests on a case-by-case basis. Low-level waste passing such strict regulations is then disposed of in a landfill with other garbage. Items allowed to be disposed of in this way are: glow-in-the-dark watches (radium) and smoke detectors (americium) among other things.
LLW should not be confused with high-level waste (HLW) or spent nuclear fuel (SNF). C Class low level waste has a limit of 100 nano-Curies per gram of alpha-emittingtransuranic nuclides with a half life greater than 5 years; any more than 100 nCi, and it must be classified as transuranic waste (TRU). These require different disposal pathways. TRU wastes from the U.S. nuclear weapons complex is currently disposed at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Carlsbad, New Mexico, though other sites also are being considered for on-site disposal of particularly difficult to manage TRU wastes.
^(PDF). RADWASS Programme. Vienna: IAEA. 1994. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2005.
^"Disposal of Commercial Low-Level Radioactive Waste". Nuclear Energy Institute. April 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
^(PDF). Waste Control Specialists. 6 June 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 May 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
^official online version of 10 C.F.R. § 61.55 Waste Classification
General referencesEdit
Fentiman, Audeen W. and James H. Saling. Radioactive Waste Management. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2002. Second ed.
Jorge L. Contreras, "In the Village Square: Risk Misperception and Decisionmaking in the Regulation of Low-Level Radioactive Waste", 19 Ecology Law Quarterly 481 (1992) (SSRN)
External linksEdit
NRC description of low-level waste
October 17, 2023
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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this article discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new article as appropriate December 2010 Learn how and when to remove this template message Low level waste LLW or Low level radioactive waste LLRW is nuclear waste that does not fit into the categorical definitions for intermediate level waste ILW high level waste HLW spent nuclear fuel SNF transuranic waste TRU or certain byproduct materials known as 11e 2 wastes such as uranium mill tailings In essence it is a definition by exclusion and LLW is that category of radioactive wastes that do not fit into the other categories If LLW is mixed with hazardous wastes as classified by RCRA then it has a special status as mixed low level waste MLLW and must satisfy treatment storage and disposal regulations both as LLW and as hazardous waste While the bulk of LLW is not highly radioactive the definition of LLW does not include references to its activity and some LLW may be quite radioactive as in the case of radioactive sources used in industry and medicine NRC Graphic of a low level waste facility LLW includes items that have become contaminated with radioactive material or have become radioactive through exposure to neutron radiation This waste typically consists of contaminated protective shoe covers and clothing wiping rags mops filters reactor water treatment residues equipments and tools luminous dials medical tubes swabs injection needles syringes and laboratory animal carcasses and tissues The radioactivity can range from just above background levels found in nature to very highly radioactive in certain cases such as parts from inside the reactor vessel in a nuclear power plant The definition of low level waste is set by the nuclear regulators of individual countries though the International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA provides recommendations 1 Some countries such as France specify categories for long lived low and intermediate level waste U S regulations do not define the category of intermediate level waste Contents 1 Disposal 2 See also 3 References 3 1 Notes 3 2 General references 4 External linksDisposal Edit nbsp Low level waste storage pit at the Nevada National Security Site Depending on who owns the waste its handling and disposal is regulated differently All nuclear facilities whether they are a utility or a disposal site have to comply with Nuclear Regulatory Commission NRC regulations The four low level waste facilities in the U S are Barnwell South Carolina Richland Washington Clive Utah and as of June 2013 Andrews County Texas 2 3 The Barnwell and the Clive locations are operated by EnergySolutions the Richland location is operated by U S Ecology and the Andrews County location is operated by Waste Control Specialists Barnwell Richland and Andrews County accept Classes A through C of low level waste whereas Clive only accepts Class A LLW The DOE has dozens of LLW sites under management The largest of these exist at DOE Reservations around the country e g the Hanford Reservation Savannah River Site Nevada Test Site Los Alamos National Laboratory Oak Ridge National Laboratory Idaho National Laboratory to name the most significant Classes of wastes are detailed in 10 C F R 61 55 Waste Classification 4 enforced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission reproduced in the table below These are not all the isotopes disposed of at these facilities just the ones that are of most concern for the long term monitoring of the sites Waste is divided into three classes A through C where A is the least radioactive and C is the most radioactive Class A LLW is able to be deposited near the surface whereas Classes B and C LLW have to be buried progressively deeper In 10 C F R 20 2002 the NRC reserves the right to grant a free release of radioactive waste The overall activity of such a disposal cannot exceed 1 mrem yr and the NRC regards requests on a case by case basis Low level waste passing such strict regulations is then disposed of in a landfill with other garbage Items allowed to be disposed of in this way are glow in the dark watches radium and smoke detectors americium among other things Radionuclide Class A Curies m3 Class B Ci m3 Class C Ci m3 upper limit for LLW Total of all nuclides with less than 5 year half life 700 No limit No limitTritium 3H 40 No limit No limitCobalt 60 60Co 700 No limit No limitNickel 63 63Ni 3 5 70 700Ni 63 in activated metal 35 700 7000Strontium 90 90Sr 0 04 150 7000Cesium 137 137Cs 1 44 4600Carbon 14 14C 0 8 8C 14 in activated metal 8 80Nickel 59 59Ni in activated metal 22 220Niobium 94 94Nb in activated metal 0 02 0 2Technetium 99 99Tc 0 3 3Iodine 129 129I 0 008 0 08Alpha emitting transuranic nuclideswith a half life greater than 5 years 10 nCi g 100 nCi gPlutonium 241 241Pu 350 nCi g 3500 nCi gCurium 242 242Cm 2000 nCi g 20000 nCi gLLW should not be confused with high level waste HLW or spent nuclear fuel SNF C Class low level waste has a limit of 100 nano Curies per gram of alpha emitting transuranic nuclides with a half life greater than 5 years any more than 100 nCi and it must be classified as transuranic waste TRU These require different disposal pathways TRU wastes from the U S nuclear weapons complex is currently disposed at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant WIPP near Carlsbad New Mexico though other sites also are being considered for on site disposal of particularly difficult to manage TRU wastes See also EditLow Level Waste Repository Mixed waste radioactive hazardous Radioactive waste Spent nuclear fuel Transuranic wasteReferences EditNotes Edit Classification of Radioactive Waste a Safety Guide Safety Series No 111 G 1 1 PDF RADWASS Programme Vienna IAEA 1994 Archived from the original PDF on 15 May 2005 Disposal of Commercial Low Level Radioactive Waste Nuclear Energy Institute April 2014 Retrieved 8 May 2015 New Federal Waste Facility Opens with Ribbon Cutting Ceremony PDF Waste Control Specialists 6 June 2013 Archived from the original PDF on 23 May 2014 Retrieved 9 May 2015 official online version of 10 C F R 61 55 Waste Classification General references Edit Fentiman Audeen W and James H Saling Radioactive Waste Management New York Taylor amp Francis 2002 Second ed Jorge L Contreras In the Village Square Risk Misperception and Decisionmaking in the Regulation of Low Level Radioactive Waste 19 Ecology Law Quarterly 481 1992 SSRN External links EditNRC description of low level waste Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Low level waste amp oldid 1170760683, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
