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Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal

The Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal comprise several elongated river valleys in the southern lowland Terai part of the country. These tropical valleys are enclosed by the Himalayan foothills, viz the Mahabharat Range and the Sivalik Hills farther south.[1][2]

These valleys are part of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion.[3] They are filled up with coarse to fine alluvial sediments.[4] The Chitwan Valley and the Dang and Deukhuri Valleys are some of the largest Inner Terai Valleys. Malaria was prevalent in this region until the late 1950s. Since its eradication, the area became a viable destination for large-scale migration of people from the hills who transformed the area from virgin forest and grassland to farmland.[5]

Geology edit

 
Geologic – Tectonic map of the Himalaya, modified after Le Fort (1988)

The Inner Terai valleys lie between the Sivalik Hills and Mahabharat Range. They hold flat plains with winding rivers that shift their courses from time to time, running northwest or southeast along the axis of the Sivalik Hills.

Climate edit

 
Nepal topography. The green/yellow zones hold the Inner Terai valleys.

The Terai has a humid, subtropical climate. The mean annual rainfall at the Rampur weatherstation in Chitwan was 2,214 mm (87.2 in) between 1995 and 2006. More than 80% of the total annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon season from June to September. Average temperatures ranged from 8.08 °C (46.54 °F) in January to 34.91 °C (94.84 °F) in June.[6]

In the past, the inner and outer Terai were a formidable barrier between Nepal and potential invaders from India because marshes and forests were infested by anopheline mosquitos that transmitted virulent strains of malaria, especially during the hot spring and rainy summer monsoon.

History edit

Until the mid 18th century, the Terai was divided into several smaller kingdoms, and the forests were little disturbed.[7] After the unification of Nepal in the late 1760s, the rulers granted large areas of fertiIe land and forest resources to members of the royal family, officials, priests and selected groups of the society. The beneficiaries of these grants had the right to collect revenues from cultivated land and forest products. They appointed tax collectors who were also responsible for reclamation of land and establishment of settlements.[8] In the late 1920s, the Rana rulers ordered the clearing of forests and extraction of timber for export to India in order to collect revenues. Cleared areas were subsequently used for agriculture.[7]

Tharu people have been living in the Terai for many centuries, and reputedly had an innate resistance to malaria.[9] After malaria was eradicated using DDT in the mid-1950s, people from the hills migrated to the Terai. Timber export continued to 1969. In 1970, the king granted land to loyal ex-army personnel in the districts of Jhapa, Sunsari, Rupandehi and Banke, where seven colonies were developed for resettling about 7,000 people. They acquired property rights over uncultivated forest and waste land, thus accelerating the deforestation process in the Terai.[8]

Environmental issues edit

The well-meaning malaria eradication campaign has had unexpected consequences by opening up the Terai region to human settlement. The Inner Terai valleys are home to a rich and diverse ecosystem. Since the early 1990s, however, the forests have been increasingly destroyed because of growing demands for timber and agricultural land.[10][11] This has led to concerns about the risk of losing many rare plant.[12][13]

The valleys also mitigate the severity of floods on the Gangetic plains. During heavy rainfall forests absorb water. During floods, rivers overflow their banks and flood adjacent forests. Later the forests gradually release water back into the rivers. Deforestation reduces this buffering effect. It also accelerates soil erosion, causing downstream rivers to silt up and overflow their banks.[14] The frequency and severity of flooding in the Gangetic plain and Bangladesh has steadily increased in recent years. Deforestation of the Terai appears to be one of the major causes.[15] The Indian and Nepalese governments are cooperating in measures including construction of barrages and dams in the Terai, such as the Koshi Barrage.[16] However, these efforts may have mixed results. They contain floodwater in the short term, but may increase the problem in the longer term by reducing water velocity in the rivers downstream, and thus accelerating silting and reducing the drainage capacity of the rivers.[17]

Valleys edit

The major Inner Terai Valleys are listed from west to east. Click on the terrain and satellite imagery links to see vegetation, rivers, topography, roads and towns.

Western Terai edit

Markers at valleys Jogbudha (J), Surkhet (S), Dang (A) and Deukhuri (E) terrain satellite

Surkhet Valley edit

 
Map of the VDCs in Surkhet District

The Surkhet Valley is situated in the Surkhet district, mid-western Nepal. The valley is about 700 m (2,300 ft) above sea level, forming an ellipse about 9 km (5.6 mi) east-west by 6 km (3.7 mi) north-south. It is drained by the Bheri River, a tributary of the Karnali.[18] The district is the homeland of the Raji people.[19] Tharu people from Dang settled in the valley since at least the 19th century.[20]

Imagery of Surkhet (S): terrain satellite

Dang and Deukhuri Valleys edit

 
Map of the settlements in Dang-Deukhuri District

Both valleys are located in the Dang Deukhuri District of the Rapti Zone in mid-western Nepal.[20] The Dang Valley lies between the Mahabharat Range in the north and the Churia Range in the south.[21] It forms a nearly 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) plain within a local drainage basin of less than 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi). It is drained by the Babai River, and is one of the largest Inner Terai valleys.[22]

The Deukhuri Valley is southeast of the Dang Valley and extends about 60 km (37 mi) in WNW-ESE direction with a maximum width of 20 km (12 mi).[23] It forms a nearly 600 km2 (230 sq mi) plain within a drainage basin of 6,100 km2 (2,400 sq mi).[22] The valley is drained by the West Rapti River.[23]

The Mahendra Highway passes through the Deukhuri Valley.[22] Both valleys are settled by Tharu people.[20]

Imagery of Dang (A) and Deukhuri (E): terrain satellite

Central Terai edit

Chitwan Valley edit

The Chitwan Valley, the biggest valley in Nepal, encompasses the districts of Makwanpur, Chitwan and Nawalpur of central Nepal. The Chitwan Valley lies south-west of the Kathmandu valley and it has 600 square miles in area. After the re-structuring of the country in 2015, two districts of this valley, namely, Makwanpur and Chitwan lies in Bagmati Province and Nawalpur district lies in Gandaki Province. It is 150 km (93 mi) long and roughly 30–48 km (19–30 mi) wide. The cities of Bharatpur, Ratnanagar, Hetauda and Kawasoti are in the valley. It is drained by the Rapti River flowing from the Mahabharat Range near Hetauda, then west down the valley to join the bigger Narayani River west of Meghauli situated within the valley.

Imagery of Chitwan (C): terrain satellite

The Chitwan National Park, Nepal's first national park established in 1973, was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1984. It contains the largest and least disturbed natural Sal hill forest and associated communities. Its fauna comprises Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, great one-horned rhinos, wild Asian elephant, gaur, golden monitor lizard, gharial and marsh crocodile.[24]

Eastern Terai edit

Kamala Valley edit

 
Sagarmatha zone: Udayapur district in green

The Kamala Valley, also called Udayapur Valley is in Udayapur district in southeastern Nepal. It is about 30 km (19 mi) long and between 2 km (1.2 mi) and 4 km (2.5 mi) wide. It is drained by the Triyuga river flowing east to join the great Koshi River. This valley lies between the Mahabharat Range to the north and the Sivalik Hills to the south, with an average elevation of about 430 m (1,410 ft).[25]

The mouth of the valley opens onto a 175 km (109 mi) rectangle of land where the Triyuga meets the Koshi river above the Koshi Barrage. It was designated the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in 1976, and is home to the last remaining population of wild Asian water buffalo in Nepal. The reserve is mostly wetlands, subject to seasonal flooding, but also includes some grasslands and small patches of riverine forest. It is a Ramsar Site.[24]

Imagery of Kamala valley: terrain satellite

Traditionally, the Kamala Valley was primarily inhabited by the Dhanwar people (or Danuwar),[26] but there is a fast-growing population of migrants from the Nepali hills and from India.

References edit

  1. ^ Gurung, H. (1971). "Landscape pattern of Nepal". Himalayan Review (4): 1–10.
  2. ^ Nagendra, H. (2002). "Tenure and forest conditions: community forestry in the Nepal Terai". Environmental Conservation. 29 (4): 530–539. doi:10.1017/S0376892902000383. S2CID 86632135.
  3. ^ Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C. (2001). "Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.
  4. ^ Hasegawa S.; Dahal, R. K.; Yamanaka M.; Bhandary N. P.; Yatabe R.; Inagaki H. (2009). "Causes of large-scale landslides in the Lesser Himalaya of central Nepal". Environmental Geology. 57 (6): 1423–1434. Bibcode:2009EnGeo..57.1423H. doi:10.1007/s00254-008-1420-z. S2CID 59490114.
  5. ^ Gurung, H. (1988). "Nepal: Consequences of migration and policy implications". Contributions to Nepalese Studies. 15 (1): 67–94.
  6. ^ Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (2006). Climatological Records of Nepal (Several Volumes), Babarmahal, Kathmandu.
  7. ^ a b Gautam, A. P., Shivakoti, G. P., & Webb, E. L. (2004). A review of forest policies, institutions, and changes in the resource condition in Nepal. International Forestry Review 6 (2): 136–148.
  8. ^ a b Regmi, R. R. (1994). Deforestation and Rural Society in the Nepalese Terai. Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology 4: 72–89.
  9. ^ Terrenato, L., Shrestha, S., Dixit, K.A., Luzzatto, L., Modiano, G., Morpurgo, G., Arese, P. (1988). "Decreased malaria morbidity in the Tharu people compared to sympatric populations in Nepal". Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 82 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1080/00034983.1988.11812202. PMID 3041928.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ . Archived from the original on 2008-12-01. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
  11. ^ . Archived from the original on 2017-06-29. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
  12. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
  13. ^ An Overview of Floral Diversity in Wetlands of Terai Region of Nepal: M. Siwakoti, Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University Swayambhu, Nepal
  14. ^ . Archived from the original on 2008-09-22. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
  15. ^ "Recent floods in Bangladesh: Possible causes and solutions". Archived from the original on 1997-07-24. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
  16. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
  17. ^ . Archived from the original on 2009-01-21. Retrieved 2008-10-14.
  18. ^ Yadav, S. K. (2002). (PDF) (MSc. Thesis). Trondheim: The Norwegian University For Science and Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
  19. ^ Thapa L. B., Dhakal T. M., Chaudhary R., Thapa H. (2014). "Medicinal Plants Used by Raji Ethnic Tribe of Nepal in Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders". Our Nature. 11 (2): 177–186. doi:10.3126/on.v11i2.9645.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b c Krauskopff, G. (1995). "The Anthropology of the Tharus: An Annotated Bibliography" (PDF). Kailash. 17 (3&4): 185–213.
  21. ^ Sharmai, D. R. (1988). Archaeological Remains of the Dang Valley. Ancient Nepal 88: 8–15.
  22. ^ a b c Mugnier J. L., Leturmy P., Mascle G., Huyghe P., Chalaron E., Vidal G., Delcaillau B. (1999). "The Siwaliks of western Nepal: I. Geometry and kinematics". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 17 (5): 629–642. Bibcode:1999JAESc..17..629M. doi:10.1016/s1367-9120(99)00038-3.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ a b Kimura, K. (1998). Geomorphic Development of the Deukhuri Dun, Nepal Sub-Himalaya. The science reports of the Tohoku University, 7th series.
  24. ^ a b Bhuju, U. R., Shakya, P. R., Basnet, T. B., Shrestha, S. (2007). (PDF). Kathmandu: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development; Government of Nepal, Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology; United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-26.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Darsie, Jr, R. F.; Pradhan, S. P. & Vaidya, R. G. (1992). . Mosquito Systematics. 24: 23–28. Archived from the original on 2008-12-19. Retrieved 2008-10-13.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Khatry, P. (1995). The Manjani System of the Danuwar State of the Kamala Valley: A Brief Study of an Egalitarian Judiciary. Contributions to Nepalese Studies 22 (1): 43–55.

inner, terai, valleys, nepal, comprise, several, elongated, river, valleys, southern, lowland, terai, part, country, these, tropical, valleys, enclosed, himalayan, foothills, mahabharat, range, sivalik, hills, farther, south, these, valleys, part, terai, duar,. The Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal comprise several elongated river valleys in the southern lowland Terai part of the country These tropical valleys are enclosed by the Himalayan foothills viz the Mahabharat Range and the Sivalik Hills farther south 1 2 These valleys are part of the Terai Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion 3 They are filled up with coarse to fine alluvial sediments 4 The Chitwan Valley and the Dang and Deukhuri Valleys are some of the largest Inner Terai Valleys Malaria was prevalent in this region until the late 1950s Since its eradication the area became a viable destination for large scale migration of people from the hills who transformed the area from virgin forest and grassland to farmland 5 Contents 1 Geology 2 Climate 3 History 4 Environmental issues 5 Valleys 5 1 Western Terai 5 1 1 Surkhet Valley 5 1 2 Dang and Deukhuri Valleys 5 2 Central Terai 5 2 1 Chitwan Valley 5 3 Eastern Terai 5 3 1 Kamala Valley 6 ReferencesGeology edit nbsp Geologic Tectonic map of the Himalaya modified after Le Fort 1988 Main article Geology of the Himalaya This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed December 2014 Learn how and when to remove this template message The Inner Terai valleys lie between the Sivalik Hills and Mahabharat Range They hold flat plains with winding rivers that shift their courses from time to time running northwest or southeast along the axis of the Sivalik Hills Climate edit nbsp Nepal topography The green yellow zones hold the Inner Terai valleys The Terai has a humid subtropical climate The mean annual rainfall at the Rampur weatherstation in Chitwan was 2 214 mm 87 2 in between 1995 and 2006 More than 80 of the total annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon season from June to September Average temperatures ranged from 8 08 C 46 54 F in January to 34 91 C 94 84 F in June 6 In the past the inner and outer Terai were a formidable barrier between Nepal and potential invaders from India because marshes and forests were infested by anopheline mosquitos that transmitted virulent strains of malaria especially during the hot spring and rainy summer monsoon History editUntil the mid 18th century the Terai was divided into several smaller kingdoms and the forests were little disturbed 7 After the unification of Nepal in the late 1760s the rulers granted large areas of fertiIe land and forest resources to members of the royal family officials priests and selected groups of the society The beneficiaries of these grants had the right to collect revenues from cultivated land and forest products They appointed tax collectors who were also responsible for reclamation of land and establishment of settlements 8 In the late 1920s the Rana rulers ordered the clearing of forests and extraction of timber for export to India in order to collect revenues Cleared areas were subsequently used for agriculture 7 Tharu people have been living in the Terai for many centuries and reputedly had an innate resistance to malaria 9 After malaria was eradicated using DDT in the mid 1950s people from the hills migrated to the Terai Timber export continued to 1969 In 1970 the king granted land to loyal ex army personnel in the districts of Jhapa Sunsari Rupandehi and Banke where seven colonies were developed for resettling about 7 000 people They acquired property rights over uncultivated forest and waste land thus accelerating the deforestation process in the Terai 8 Environmental issues editThe well meaning malaria eradication campaign has had unexpected consequences by opening up the Terai region to human settlement The Inner Terai valleys are home to a rich and diverse ecosystem Since the early 1990s however the forests have been increasingly destroyed because of growing demands for timber and agricultural land 10 11 This has led to concerns about the risk of losing many rare plant 12 13 The valleys also mitigate the severity of floods on the Gangetic plains During heavy rainfall forests absorb water During floods rivers overflow their banks and flood adjacent forests Later the forests gradually release water back into the rivers Deforestation reduces this buffering effect It also accelerates soil erosion causing downstream rivers to silt up and overflow their banks 14 The frequency and severity of flooding in the Gangetic plain and Bangladesh has steadily increased in recent years Deforestation of the Terai appears to be one of the major causes 15 The Indian and Nepalese governments are cooperating in measures including construction of barrages and dams in the Terai such as the Koshi Barrage 16 However these efforts may have mixed results They contain floodwater in the short term but may increase the problem in the longer term by reducing water velocity in the rivers downstream and thus accelerating silting and reducing the drainage capacity of the rivers 17 Valleys editThe major Inner Terai Valleys are listed from west to east Click on the terrain and satellite imagery links to see vegetation rivers topography roads and towns Western Terai edit Markers at valleys Jogbudha J Surkhet S Dang A and Deukhuri E terrain satellite Surkhet Valley edit nbsp Map of the VDCs in Surkhet DistrictThe Surkhet Valley is situated in the Surkhet district mid western Nepal The valley is about 700 m 2 300 ft above sea level forming an ellipse about 9 km 5 6 mi east west by 6 km 3 7 mi north south It is drained by the Bheri River a tributary of the Karnali 18 The district is the homeland of the Raji people 19 Tharu people from Dang settled in the valley since at least the 19th century 20 Imagery of Surkhet S terrain satellite Dang and Deukhuri Valleys edit nbsp Map of the settlements in Dang Deukhuri DistrictBoth valleys are located in the Dang Deukhuri District of the Rapti Zone in mid western Nepal 20 The Dang Valley lies between the Mahabharat Range in the north and the Churia Range in the south 21 It forms a nearly 1 000 km2 390 sq mi plain within a local drainage basin of less than 3 000 km2 1 200 sq mi It is drained by the Babai River and is one of the largest Inner Terai valleys 22 The Deukhuri Valley is southeast of the Dang Valley and extends about 60 km 37 mi in WNW ESE direction with a maximum width of 20 km 12 mi 23 It forms a nearly 600 km2 230 sq mi plain within a drainage basin of 6 100 km2 2 400 sq mi 22 The valley is drained by the West Rapti River 23 The Mahendra Highway passes through the Deukhuri Valley 22 Both valleys are settled by Tharu people 20 Imagery of Dang A and Deukhuri E terrain satellite Central Terai edit Chitwan Valley edit The Chitwan Valley the biggest valley in Nepal encompasses the districts of Makwanpur Chitwan and Nawalpur of central Nepal The Chitwan Valley lies south west of the Kathmandu valley and it has 600 square miles in area After the re structuring of the country in 2015 two districts of this valley namely Makwanpur and Chitwan lies in Bagmati Province and Nawalpur district lies in Gandaki Province It is 150 km 93 mi long and roughly 30 48 km 19 30 mi wide The cities of Bharatpur Ratnanagar Hetauda and Kawasoti are in the valley It is drained by the Rapti River flowing from the Mahabharat Range near Hetauda then west down the valley to join the bigger Narayani River west of Meghauli situated within the valley Imagery of Chitwan C terrain satelliteThe Chitwan National Park Nepal s first national park established in 1973 was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1984 It contains the largest and least disturbed natural Sal hill forest and associated communities Its fauna comprises Bengal tiger Indian leopard great one horned rhinos wild Asian elephant gaur golden monitor lizard gharial and marsh crocodile 24 Eastern Terai edit Kamala Valley edit nbsp Sagarmatha zone Udayapur district in greenThe Kamala Valley also called Udayapur Valley is in Udayapur district in southeastern Nepal It is about 30 km 19 mi long and between 2 km 1 2 mi and 4 km 2 5 mi wide It is drained by the Triyuga river flowing east to join the great Koshi River This valley lies between the Mahabharat Range to the north and the Sivalik Hills to the south with an average elevation of about 430 m 1 410 ft 25 The mouth of the valley opens onto a 175 km 109 mi rectangle of land where the Triyuga meets the Koshi river above the Koshi Barrage It was designated the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve in 1976 and is home to the last remaining population of wild Asian water buffalo in Nepal The reserve is mostly wetlands subject to seasonal flooding but also includes some grasslands and small patches of riverine forest It is a Ramsar Site 24 Imagery of Kamala valley terrain satelliteTraditionally the Kamala Valley was primarily inhabited by the Dhanwar people or Danuwar 26 but there is a fast growing population of migrants from the Nepali hills and from India References edit Gurung H 1971 Landscape pattern of Nepal Himalayan Review 4 1 10 Nagendra H 2002 Tenure and forest conditions community forestry in the Nepal Terai Environmental Conservation 29 4 530 539 doi 10 1017 S0376892902000383 S2CID 86632135 Dinerstein E Loucks C 2001 Terai Duar savanna and grasslands Terrestrial Ecoregions World Wildlife Fund Hasegawa S Dahal R K Yamanaka M Bhandary N P Yatabe R Inagaki H 2009 Causes of large scale landslides in the Lesser Himalaya of central Nepal Environmental Geology 57 6 1423 1434 Bibcode 2009EnGeo 57 1423H doi 10 1007 s00254 008 1420 z S2CID 59490114 Gurung H 1988 Nepal Consequences of migration and policy implications Contributions to Nepalese Studies 15 1 67 94 Department of Hydrology and Meteorology 2006 Climatological Records of Nepal Several Volumes Babarmahal Kathmandu a b Gautam A P Shivakoti G P amp Webb E L 2004 A review of forest policies institutions and changes in the resource condition in Nepal International Forestry Review 6 2 136 148 a b Regmi R R 1994 Deforestation and Rural Society in the Nepalese Terai Occasional Papers in Sociology and Anthropology 4 72 89 Terrenato L Shrestha S Dixit K A Luzzatto L Modiano G Morpurgo G Arese P 1988 Decreased malaria morbidity in the Tharu people compared to sympatric populations in Nepal Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 82 1 1 11 doi 10 1080 00034983 1988 11812202 PMID 3041928 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Regional Workshop on Issues Challenges and Opportunities for Forest Management of Terai Inner Terai and Churia in Nepal Archived from the original on 2008 12 01 Retrieved 2008 10 10 Forests Monitor The Terai Forests Archived from the original on 2017 06 29 Retrieved 2008 10 10 Orchids in the Churiya Hills and their survival in Nepal PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2008 12 19 Retrieved 2008 10 10 An Overview of Floral Diversity in Wetlands of Terai Region of Nepal M Siwakoti Natural History Museum Tribhuvan University Swayambhu Nepal Fluvial geomorphological analysis with special reference to flood hazard Baghmati River basin north Bihar India Archived from the original on 2008 09 22 Retrieved 2008 10 14 Recent floods in Bangladesh Possible causes and solutions Archived from the original on 1997 07 24 Retrieved 2008 10 14 Indian Ministry of Water Resources Flood and centrally sponsored schemes c PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2008 12 19 Retrieved 2008 10 13 Causes Effects and responses to flooding The UK and Bangladesh Archived from the original on 2009 01 21 Retrieved 2008 10 14 Yadav S K 2002 Hydrological Analysis for Bheri Babai Hydropower Project Nepal PDF MSc Thesis Trondheim The Norwegian University For Science and Technology Archived from the original PDF on 2008 12 19 Retrieved 2008 10 11 Thapa L B Dhakal T M Chaudhary R Thapa H 2014 Medicinal Plants Used by Raji Ethnic Tribe of Nepal in Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders Our Nature 11 2 177 186 doi 10 3126 on v11i2 9645 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c Krauskopff G 1995 The Anthropology of the Tharus An Annotated Bibliography PDF Kailash 17 3 amp 4 185 213 Sharmai D R 1988 Archaeological Remains of the Dang Valley Ancient Nepal 88 8 15 a b c Mugnier J L Leturmy P Mascle G Huyghe P Chalaron E Vidal G Delcaillau B 1999 The Siwaliks of western Nepal I Geometry and kinematics Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 17 5 629 642 Bibcode 1999JAESc 17 629M doi 10 1016 s1367 9120 99 00038 3 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b Kimura K 1998 Geomorphic Development of the Deukhuri Dun Nepal Sub Himalaya The science reports of the Tohoku University 7th series a b Bhuju U R Shakya P R Basnet T B Shrestha S 2007 Nepal Biodiversity Resource Book Protected Areas Ramsar Sites and World Heritage Sites PDF Kathmandu International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development Government of Nepal Ministry of Environment Science and Technology United Nations Environment Programme Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Archived from the original PDF on 2011 07 26 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Darsie Jr R F Pradhan S P amp Vaidya R G 1992 Notes on the mosquitoes of Nepal II New species records from 1991 collections Mosquito Systematics 24 23 28 Archived from the original on 2008 12 19 Retrieved 2008 10 13 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Khatry P 1995 The Manjani System of the Danuwar State of the Kamala Valley A Brief Study of an Egalitarian Judiciary Contributions to Nepalese Studies 22 1 43 55 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal amp oldid 1183768725, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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