Connectograms are graphical representations of connectomics, the field of study dedicated to mapping and interpreting all of the white matter fiber connections in the human brain. These circular graphs based on diffusion MRI data utilize graph theory to demonstrate the white matter connections and cortical characteristics for single structures, single subjects, or populations.
Connectogram showing average connections and cortical measures of 110 normal, right-handed males, aged 25-36.
Legend for metadata presented in the various rings of the connectogram.
Background and description
The connectogram, as a graphical representation of brain connectomics, was proposed in 2012.[1]
Circular representations of connections have been used in a number of disciplines; examples include representation of aspects of epidemics,[2] geographical networks,[3] musical beats,[4] diversity in bird populations,[5] and genomic data.[6] Connectograms were also cited as a source of inspiration for the heads-up display style of Tony Stark's helmet in Iron Man 3.[7]
Brains colored according to the outer ring of the connectogram.
Connectograms are circular, with the left half depicting the left hemisphere and the right half depicting the right hemisphere. The hemispheres are further broken down into frontal lobe, insular cortex, limbic lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, subcortical structures, and cerebellum. At the bottom the brain stem is also represented between the two hemispheres. Within these lobes, each cortical area is labeled with an abbreviation and assigned its own color, which can be used to designate these same cortical regions in other figures, such as the parcellated brain surfaces in the adjacent image, so that the reader can find the corresponding cortical areas on a geometrically accurate surface and see exactly how disparate the connected regions may be. Inside the cortical surface ring, the concentric circles each represent different attributes of the corresponding cortical regions. In order from outermost to innermost, these metric rings represent the grey matter volume, surface area, cortical thickness, curvature, and degree of connectivity (the relative proportion of fibers initiating or terminating in the region compared to the whole brain). Inside these circles, lines connect regions that are found to be structurally connected. The relative density (number of fibers) of these connections is reflected in the opacity of the lines, so that one can easily compare various connections and their structural importance. The fractional anisotropy of each connection is reflected in its color.[1]
Uses
Brain mapping
With the recent concerted push to map all of the human brain and its connections,[8][9] it has become increasingly important to find ways to graphically represent the large amounts of data involved in connectomics. Most other representations of the connectome use 3 dimensions, and therefore require an interactive graphical user interface.[1] The connectogram can display 83 cortical regions within each hemisphere, and visually display which areas are structurally connected, all on a flat surface. It is therefore conveniently filed in patient records, or to display in print. The graphs were originally developed using the visualization tool called Circos,.[10][11]
Clinical use
Connectogram, typical of those in clinical use, depicting estimated connection damage in Phineas Gage, who in 1848 survived a large iron bar being propelled through his skull and brain. The connectogram shows only the connections that were estimated to be damaged.
On an individual level, connectograms can be used to inform the treatment of patients with neuroanatomical abnormalities. Connectograms have been used to monitor the progression of neurological recovery of patients who suffered a traumatic brain injury (TBI).[12] They have also been applied to famous patient Phineas Gage, to estimate damage to his neural network (as well as the damage at the cortical level—the primary focus of earlier studies on Gage).[13]
Empirical study
Connectograms can represent the averages of cortical metrics (grey matter volume, surface area, cortical thickness, curvature, and degree of connectivity), as well as tractography data, such as the average densities and fractional anisotropy of the connections, across populations of any size. This allows for visual and statistical comparison between groups such as males and females,[14] differing age cohorts, or healthy controls and patients. Some versions have been used to analyze how partitioned networks are in patient populations[15] or the relative balance between inter- and intra-hemispheric connections.[16]
Modified versions
There are many possibilities for which measures are included in the rings of a connectogram. Irimia and Van Horn (2012) have published connectograms which examine the correlative relationships between regions and uses the figures to compare the approaches of graph theory and connectomics.[17] Some have been published without the inner circles of cortical metrics.[18] Others include additional measures relating to neural networks,[19] which can be added as additional rings to the inside to show metrics of graph theory, as in the extended connectogram here:
A connectogram of a healthy control subject, and includes 5 additional nodal measures not included in the standard connectogram. From outside to inside, the rings represent the cortical region, grey matter volume, surface area, cortical thickness, curvature, degree of connectivity, node strength, betweenness centrality, eccentricity, nodal efficiency, and eigenvector centrality. Between degree of connectivity and node strength, a blank ring has been added as a placeholder.
^ abcIrimia, Andrei; Chambers, M.C.; Torgerson, C.M.; Van Horn, J.D. (2 April 2012). "Circular representation of human cortical networks for subject and population-level connectomic visualization". NeuroImage. 60 (2): 1340–51. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.107. PMC3594415. PMID 22305988.
^Guo, Zhenyang; et al. (January 2013). "National Borders Effectively Halt the Spread of Rabies: The Current Rabies Epidemic in China Is Dislocated from Cases in Neighboring Countries". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 7 (1): e2039. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002039. PMC3561166. PMID 23383359.
^Hennemann, Stefan (2013). "Information-rich visualisation of dense geographical networks". Journal of Maps. 9 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1080/17445647.2012.753850. hdl:10.1080/17445647.2012.753850. S2CID 128952987.
^Lamere, Paul (2012-11-12). "The Infinite Jukebox". Music Machinery.
^Jetz, W.; G. H. Thomas; J. B. Joy; K. Hartmann; A. O. Mooers (15 November 2012). "The global diversity of birds in space and time". Nature. 491 (7424): 444–448. Bibcode:2012Natur.491..444J. doi:10.1038/nature11631. PMID 23123857. S2CID 590585.
^Yip, Kevin; et al. (26 September 2012). "Classification of human genomic regions based on experimentally determined binding sites of more than 100 transcription-related factors". Genome Biology. 13 (9): R48. doi:10.1186/gb-2012-13-9-r48. PMC3491392. PMID 22950945.
^Barbas, Helen (October 2017). Paulo J.S. Goncalves (ed.). VR, AR, MR SIMULATIONS AND INSPIRATIONS FROM "IRON MAN 3"(PDF). European Simulation and Modelling Conference. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
^"Hard Cell". The Economist. 9 March 2013. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
^"Introduction to Circos, Features and Uses // CIRCOS Circular Genome Data Visualization".
^Krzywinski, M; Schein, J; Birol, I; Connors, J; Gascoyne, R; Horsman, D; Jones, SJ; Marra, MA (28 May 2009). "Circos: an information aesthetic for comparative genomics". Genome Research. 19 (9): 1639–1645. doi:10.1101/gr.092759.109. PMC2752132. PMID 19541911.
^Irimia, Andrei; Chambers, M.C.; Torgerson, C.M.; Filippou, M.; Hovda, D.A.; Alger, J.R.; Gerig, G.; Toga, A.W.; Vespa, P.M.; Kikinis, R.; Van Horn, J.D. (6 February 2012). "Patient-tailored connectomics visualization for the assessment of white matter atrophy in traumatic brain injury". Frontiers in Neurology. 3: 10. doi:10.3389/fneur.2012.00010. PMC3275792. PMID 22363313.
^Van Horn, John D.; Irimia, A.; Torgerson, C.M.; Chambers, M.C.; Kikinis, R.; Toga, A.W. (16 May 2012). Sporns, Olaf (ed.). "Mapping connectivity damage in the case of Phineas Gage". PLOS ONE. 7 (5): e37454. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...737454V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037454. PMC3353935. PMID 22616011.
^Ingalhalikar, Madhura; Alex Smith; Drew Parker; Theodore Satterthwaite; Mark Elliott; Kosha Ruparel; Hakon Hakonarson; Raquel Gur; Ragini Verma (December 2013). "Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (2): 823–8. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111..823I. doi:10.1073/pnas.1316909110. PMC3896179. PMID 24297904.
^Messé, Arnaud; Sophie Caplain; Mélanie Pélégrini-Issac; Sophie Blancho; Richard Lévy; Nozar Aghakhani; Michèle Montreuil; Habib Benali; Stéphane Lehéricy (6 June 2013). "Specific and Evolving Resting-State Network Alterations in Post-Concussion Syndrome Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury". PLOS ONE. 8 (6): e65470. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...865470M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065470. PMC3675039. PMID 23755237.
^Irimia, Andrei; Jack Van Horn (29 October 2012). "The structural, connectomic, and network covariance of the human brain". NeuroImage. 66: 489–499. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.10.066. PMC3586751. PMID 23116816.
^Pandit, A.S.; Robinson E; Aljabar P; Ball G; Gousias IS; Wang Z; Hajnal JV; Rueckert D; Counsell SJ; Montana G; Edwards AD (31 March 2013). "Whole-Brain Mapping of Structural Connectivity in Infants Reveals Altered Connection Strength Associated with Growth and Preterm Birth". Cerebral Cortex. 24 (9): 2324–2333. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht086. PMID 23547135.
^Petrella, Jeffrey; P. Murali Doraiswamy (9 April 2013). "From the bridges of Königsberg to the fields of Alzheimer". Neurology. 80 (15): 1360–2. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31828c3062. PMID 23486887. S2CID 207122930.
^Craddock, R Cameron; Saad Jbabdi; Chao-Gan Yan; Joshua T Vogelstein; F Xavier Castellanos; Adriana Di Martino; Clare Kelly; Keith Heberlein; Stan Colcombe; Michael P Milham (June 2013). "Imaging human connectomes at the macroscale". Nature Methods. 10 (6): 524–39. doi:10.1038/nmeth.2482. PMC4096321. PMID 23722212.
^Margulies, Daniel; Joachim Böttger; Aimi Watanabe; Krzysztof J. Gorgolewski (15 October 2013). "Visualizing the human connectome". NeuroImage. 80: 445–61. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.111. PMID 23660027.
^Karunakaran, Suganya; Matthew J. Rollo; Kamin Kim; Jessica A. Johnson; Gridhar P. Kalamangalam; Behnaam Aazhang; Nitin Tandon (5 December 2017). "The interictal mesial temporal lobe epilepsy network". Epilepsia. 59 (1): 244–258. doi:10.1111/epi.13959. PMID 29210066.
January 07, 2023
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Connectograms are graphical representations of connectomics the field of study dedicated to mapping and interpreting all of the white matter fiber connections in the human brain These circular graphs based on diffusion MRI data utilize graph theory to demonstrate the white matter connections and cortical characteristics for single structures single subjects or populations Contents 1 Structure 2 Background and description 3 Uses 3 1 Brain mapping 3 2 Clinical use 3 3 Empirical study 3 4 Modified versions 4 Regions and their abbreviations 5 See also 6 References 7 Further readingStructure Edit Connectogram showing average connections and cortical measures of 110 normal right handed males aged 25 36 Legend for metadata presented in the various rings of the connectogram Background and description EditThe connectogram as a graphical representation of brain connectomics was proposed in 2012 1 Circular representations of connections have been used in a number of disciplines examples include representation of aspects of epidemics 2 geographical networks 3 musical beats 4 diversity in bird populations 5 and genomic data 6 Connectograms were also cited as a source of inspiration for the heads up display style of Tony Stark s helmet in Iron Man 3 7 Brains colored according to the outer ring of the connectogram Connectograms are circular with the left half depicting the left hemisphere and the right half depicting the right hemisphere The hemispheres are further broken down into frontal lobe insular cortex limbic lobe temporal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe subcortical structures and cerebellum At the bottom the brain stem is also represented between the two hemispheres Within these lobes each cortical area is labeled with an abbreviation and assigned its own color which can be used to designate these same cortical regions in other figures such as the parcellated brain surfaces in the adjacent image so that the reader can find the corresponding cortical areas on a geometrically accurate surface and see exactly how disparate the connected regions may be Inside the cortical surface ring the concentric circles each represent different attributes of the corresponding cortical regions In order from outermost to innermost these metric rings represent the grey matter volume surface area cortical thickness curvature and degree of connectivity the relative proportion of fibers initiating or terminating in the region compared to the whole brain Inside these circles lines connect regions that are found to be structurally connected The relative density number of fibers of these connections is reflected in the opacity of the lines so that one can easily compare various connections and their structural importance The fractional anisotropy of each connection is reflected in its color 1 Uses EditBrain mapping Edit With the recent concerted push to map all of the human brain and its connections 8 9 it has become increasingly important to find ways to graphically represent the large amounts of data involved in connectomics Most other representations of the connectome use 3 dimensions and therefore require an interactive graphical user interface 1 The connectogram can display 83 cortical regions within each hemisphere and visually display which areas are structurally connected all on a flat surface It is therefore conveniently filed in patient records or to display in print The graphs were originally developed using the visualization tool called Circos 10 11 source source source source source source source source source source Clinical use Edit Connectogram typical of those in clinical use depicting estimated connection damage in Phineas Gage who in 1848 survived a large iron bar being propelled through his skull and brain The connectogram shows only the connections that were estimated to be damaged On an individual level connectograms can be used to inform the treatment of patients with neuroanatomical abnormalities Connectograms have been used to monitor the progression of neurological recovery of patients who suffered a traumatic brain injury TBI 12 They have also been applied to famous patient Phineas Gage to estimate damage to his neural network as well as the damage at the cortical level the primary focus of earlier studies on Gage 13 Empirical study Edit Connectograms can represent the averages of cortical metrics grey matter volume surface area cortical thickness curvature and degree of connectivity as well as tractography data such as the average densities and fractional anisotropy of the connections across populations of any size This allows for visual and statistical comparison between groups such as males and females 14 differing age cohorts or healthy controls and patients Some versions have been used to analyze how partitioned networks are in patient populations 15 or the relative balance between inter and intra hemispheric connections 16 Modified versions Edit There are many possibilities for which measures are included in the rings of a connectogram Irimia and Van Horn 2012 have published connectograms which examine the correlative relationships between regions and uses the figures to compare the approaches of graph theory and connectomics 17 Some have been published without the inner circles of cortical metrics 18 Others include additional measures relating to neural networks 19 which can be added as additional rings to the inside to show metrics of graph theory as in the extended connectogram here A connectogram of a healthy control subject and includes 5 additional nodal measures not included in the standard connectogram From outside to inside the rings represent the cortical region grey matter volume surface area cortical thickness curvature degree of connectivity node strength betweenness centrality eccentricity nodal efficiency and eigenvector centrality Between degree of connectivity and node strength a blank ring has been added as a placeholder Regions and their abbreviations EditAcronym Region in connectogramACgG S Anterior part of the cingulate gyrus and sulcusACirInS Anterior segment of the circular sulcus of the insulaALSHorp Horizontal ramus of the anterior segment of the lateral sulcus or fissure ALSVerp Vertical ramus of the anterior segment of the lateral sulcus or fissure AngG Angular gyrusAOcS Anterior occipital sulcus and preoccipital notch temporo occipital incisure ATrCoS Anterior transverse collateral sulcusCcS Calcarine sulcusCgSMarp Marginal branch or part of the cingulate sulcusCoS LinS Medial occipito temporal sulcus collateral sulcus and lingual sulcusCS Central sulcus Rolando s fissure Cun CuneusFMarG S Fronto marginal gyrus of Wernicke and sulcusFuG Lateral occipito temporal gyrus fusiform gyrus HG Heschl s gyrus anterior transverse temporal gyrus InfCirInS Inferior segment of the circular sulcus of the insulaInfFGOpp Opercular part of the inferior frontal gyrusInfFGOrp Orbital part of the inferior frontal gyrusInfFGTrip Triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrusInfFS Inferior frontal sulcusInfOcG S Inferior occipital gyrus and sulcusInfPrCS Inferior part of the precentral sulcusIntPS TrPS Intraparietal sulcus interparietal sulcus and transverse parietal sulciInfTG Inferior temporal gyrusInfTS Inferior temporal sulcusJS Sulcus intermedius primus of Jensen LinG Lingual gyrus lingual part of the medial occipito temporal gyrusLOcTS Lateral occipito temporal sulcusLoInG CInS Long insular gyrus and central insular sulcusLOrS Lateral orbital sulcusMACgG S Middle anterior part of the cingulate gyrus and sulcusMedOrS Medial orbital sulcus olfactory sulcus MFG Middle frontal gyrusMFS Middle frontal sulcusMOcG Middle occipital gyrus lateral occipital gyrusMOcS LuS Middle occipital sulcus and lunatus sulcusMPosCgG S Middle posterior part of the cingulate gyrus and sulcusMTG Middle temporal gyrusOcPo Occipital poleOrG Orbital gyriOrS Orbital sulci H shaped sulci PaCL S Paracentral lobule and sulcusPaHipG Parahippocampal gyrus parahippocampal part of the medial occipito temporal gyrusPerCaS Pericallosal sulcus S of corpus callosum POcS Parieto occipital sulcus or fissure PoPl Polar plane of the superior temporal gyrusPosCG Postcentral gyrusPosCS Postcentral sulcusPosDCgG Posterior dorsal part of the cingulate gyrusPosLS Posterior ramus or segment of the lateral sulcus or fissure PosTrCoS Posterior transverse collateral sulcusPosVCgG Posterior ventral part of the cingulate gyrus isthmus of the cingulate gyrus PrCG Precentral gyrusPrCun PrecuneusRG Straight gyrus gyrus rectus SbCaG Subcallosal area subcallosal gyrusSbCG S Subcentral gyrus central operculum and sulciSbOrS Suborbital sulcus sulcus rostrales supraorbital sulcus SbPS Subparietal sulcusShoInG Short insular gyriSuMarG Supramarginal gyrusSupCirInS Superior segment of the circular sulcus of the insulaSupFG Superior frontal gyrusSupFS Superior frontal sulcusSupOcG Superior occipital gyrusSupPrCS Superior part of the precentral sulcusSupOcS TrOcS Superior occipital sulcus and transverse occipital sulcusSupPL Superior parietal lobuleSupTGLp Lateral aspect of the superior temporal gyrusSupTS Superior temporal sulcusTPl Temporal plane of the superior temporal gyrusTPo Temporal poleTrFPoG S Transverse frontopolar gyri and sulciTrTS Transverse temporal sulcusAmg AmygdalaCaN Caudate nucleusHip HippocampusNAcc Nucleus accumbensPal PallidumPu PutamenTha ThalamusCeB CerebellumBStem Brain stemSee also EditConnectome Connectomics Human Connectome Project Brain mapping Tractography Chord diagram information visualization References Edit a b c Irimia Andrei Chambers M C Torgerson C M Van Horn J D 2 April 2012 Circular representation of human cortical networks for subject and population level connectomic visualization NeuroImage 60 2 1340 51 doi 10 1016 j neuroimage 2012 01 107 PMC 3594415 PMID 22305988 Guo Zhenyang et al January 2013 National Borders Effectively Halt the Spread of Rabies The Current Rabies Epidemic in China Is Dislocated from Cases in Neighboring Countries PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7 1 e2039 doi 10 1371 journal pntd 0002039 PMC 3561166 PMID 23383359 Hennemann Stefan 2013 Information rich visualisation of dense geographical networks Journal of Maps 9 1 1 8 doi 10 1080 17445647 2012 753850 hdl 10 1080 17445647 2012 753850 S2CID 128952987 Lamere Paul 2012 11 12 The Infinite Jukebox Music Machinery Jetz W G H Thomas J B Joy K Hartmann A O Mooers 15 November 2012 The global diversity of birds in space and time Nature 491 7424 444 448 Bibcode 2012Natur 491 444J doi 10 1038 nature11631 PMID 23123857 S2CID 590585 Yip Kevin et al 26 September 2012 Classification of human genomic regions based on experimentally determined binding sites of more than 100 transcription related factors Genome Biology 13 9 R48 doi 10 1186 gb 2012 13 9 r48 PMC 3491392 PMID 22950945 Barbas Helen October 2017 Paulo J S Goncalves ed VR AR MR SIMULATIONS AND INSPIRATIONS FROM IRON MAN 3 PDF European Simulation and Modelling Conference Retrieved 6 November 2017 Human Connectome Project NIH Hard Cell The Economist 9 March 2013 Retrieved 11 March 2013 Introduction to Circos Features and Uses CIRCOS Circular Genome Data Visualization Krzywinski M Schein J Birol I Connors J Gascoyne R Horsman D Jones SJ Marra MA 28 May 2009 Circos an information aesthetic for comparative genomics Genome Research 19 9 1639 1645 doi 10 1101 gr 092759 109 PMC 2752132 PMID 19541911 Irimia Andrei Chambers M C Torgerson C M Filippou M Hovda D A Alger J R Gerig G Toga A W Vespa P M Kikinis R Van Horn J D 6 February 2012 Patient tailored connectomics visualization for the assessment of white matter atrophy in traumatic brain injury Frontiers in Neurology 3 10 doi 10 3389 fneur 2012 00010 PMC 3275792 PMID 22363313 Van Horn John D Irimia A Torgerson C M Chambers M C Kikinis R Toga A W 16 May 2012 Sporns Olaf ed Mapping connectivity damage in the case of Phineas Gage PLOS ONE 7 5 e37454 Bibcode 2012PLoSO 737454V doi 10 1371 journal pone 0037454 PMC 3353935 PMID 22616011 Ingalhalikar Madhura Alex Smith Drew Parker Theodore Satterthwaite Mark Elliott Kosha Ruparel Hakon Hakonarson Raquel Gur Ragini Verma December 2013 Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 2 823 8 Bibcode 2014PNAS 111 823I doi 10 1073 pnas 1316909110 PMC 3896179 PMID 24297904 Messe Arnaud Sophie Caplain Melanie Pelegrini Issac Sophie Blancho Richard Levy Nozar Aghakhani Michele Montreuil Habib Benali Stephane Lehericy 6 June 2013 Specific and Evolving Resting State Network Alterations in Post Concussion Syndrome Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury PLOS ONE 8 6 e65470 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 865470M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0065470 PMC 3675039 PMID 23755237 Wee Chong Yaw Pew Thian Yap Daoqiang Zhang Lihong Wang Dinggang Shen 7 March 2013 Group constrained sparse fMRI connectivity modeling for mild cognitive impairment identification Brain Structure amp Function 219 2 641 656 doi 10 1007 s00429 013 0524 8 PMC 3710527 PMID 23468090 Irimia Andrei Jack Van Horn 29 October 2012 The structural connectomic and network covariance of the human brain NeuroImage 66 489 499 doi 10 1016 j neuroimage 2012 10 066 PMC 3586751 PMID 23116816 Pandit A S Robinson E Aljabar P Ball G Gousias IS Wang Z Hajnal JV Rueckert D Counsell SJ Montana G Edwards AD 31 March 2013 Whole Brain Mapping of Structural Connectivity in Infants Reveals Altered Connection Strength Associated with Growth and Preterm Birth Cerebral Cortex 24 9 2324 2333 doi 10 1093 cercor bht086 PMID 23547135 Sporns Olaf 2011 Networks of the Brain MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 01469 4 Further reading Edit further 1 further 2 further 3 further 4 Petrella Jeffrey P Murali Doraiswamy 9 April 2013 From the bridges of Konigsberg to the fields of Alzheimer Neurology 80 15 1360 2 doi 10 1212 WNL 0b013e31828c3062 PMID 23486887 S2CID 207122930 Craddock R Cameron Saad Jbabdi Chao Gan Yan Joshua T Vogelstein F Xavier Castellanos Adriana Di Martino Clare Kelly Keith Heberlein Stan Colcombe Michael P Milham June 2013 Imaging human connectomes at the macroscale Nature Methods 10 6 524 39 doi 10 1038 nmeth 2482 PMC 4096321 PMID 23722212 Margulies Daniel Joachim Bottger Aimi Watanabe Krzysztof J Gorgolewski 15 October 2013 Visualizing the human connectome NeuroImage 80 445 61 doi 10 1016 j neuroimage 2013 04 111 PMID 23660027 Karunakaran Suganya Matthew J Rollo Kamin Kim Jessica A Johnson Gridhar P Kalamangalam Behnaam Aazhang Nitin Tandon 5 December 2017 The interictal mesial temporal lobe epilepsy network Epilepsia 59 1 244 258 doi 10 1111 epi 13959 PMID 29210066 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Connectogram amp oldid 1052074477, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
