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Conjunctiva

January 01, 1970

In the anatomy of the eye, the conjunctiva (pl.  conjunctivae) is a thin mucous membrane that lines the inside of the eyelids and covers the sclera (the white of the eye).[1] It is composed of non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells, stratified columnar epithelium and stratified cuboidal epithelium (depending on the zone). The conjunctiva is highly vascularised, with many microvessels easily accessible for imaging studies.

Conjunctiva
The upper half of a sagittal section through the front of the eyeball. (Label for 'Conjunctiva' visible at center-left)
Horizontal section of the eyeball. (Conjunctiva labeled at upper left)
Details
Part ofEye
ArteryLacrimal artery, anterior ciliary arteries
NerveSupratrochlear nerve
Identifiers
Latintunica conjunctiva
MeSHD003228
TA98A15.2.07.047
TA26836
FMA59011
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Image of a human eye showing the blood vessels of the bulbar conjunctiva
Hyperaemia of the superficial bulbar conjunctiva blood vessels

Structure edit

The conjunctiva is typically divided into three parts:

Part Area
Palpebral or tarsal conjunctiva Lines the eyelids
Bulbar or ocular conjunctiva Covers the eyeball, over the anterior sclera: This region of the conjunctiva is tightly bound to the underlying sclera by Tenon's capsule and moves with the eyeball movements. The average thickness of the bulbar conjunctival membrane is 33 microns.[2]
Fornix conjunctiva Forms the junction between the bulbar and palpebral conjunctivas: It is loose and flexible, allowing the free movement of the lids and eyeball.[3]

Blood supply edit

Blood to the bulbar conjunctiva is primarily derived from the ophthalmic artery. The blood supply to the palpebral conjunctiva (the eyelid) is derived from the external carotid artery. However, the circulations of the bulbar conjunctiva and palpebral conjunctiva are linked, so both bulbar conjunctival and palpebral conjunctival vessels are supplied by both the ophthalmic artery and the external carotid artery, to varying extents.[4]

Nerve supply edit

Sensory innervation of the conjunctiva is divided into four parts:[5]

Microanatomy edit

The conjunctiva consists of unkeratinized, both stratified squamous and stratified columnar epithelium, with interspersed goblet cells.[6] The epithelial layer contains blood vessels, fibrous tissue, and lymphatic channels.[6] Accessory lacrimal glands in the conjunctiva constantly produce the aqueous portion of tears.[6] Additional cells present in the conjunctival epithelium include melanocytes, T and B cell lymphocytes.[6]

Function edit

The conjunctiva helps lubricate the eye by producing mucus and tears, although a smaller volume of tears than the lacrimal gland.[7] It also contributes to immune surveillance and helps to prevent the entrance of microbes into the eye.

Clinical significance edit

Disorders of the conjunctiva and cornea are common sources of eye complaints, in particular because the surface of the eye is exposed to various external influences and is especially susceptible to trauma, infections, chemical irritation, allergic reactions, and dryness.

Bulbar conjunctival microvasculature edit

Vessel morphology edit

The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature contains arterioles, meta-arterioles, venules, capillaries, and communicating vessels. Vessel morphology varies greatly between subjects and even between regions of the individual eyes. In some subjects, arterioles and venules can be seen to run parallel with each other. Paired arterioles are generally smaller than corresponding venules.[22] The average bulbar conjunctival vessel has been reported to be 15.1 microns, which reflects the high number of small capillaries, which are typically <10 microns in diameter.[23]

Blood oxygen dynamics edit

The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature is in close proximity to ambient air, thus oxygen diffusion from ambient air strongly influences their blood oxygen saturation. Because of oxygen diffusion, hypoxic bulbar conjunctival vessels will rapidly reoxygenate (in under 10 seconds) when exposed to ambient air (i.e. when the eyelid is open). Closing the eyelid stops this oxygen diffusion by placing a barrier between the bulbar conjunctival microvessels and ambient air.[24]

Blood vessel imaging methods edit

The bulbar conjunctival microvessels are typically imaged with a high-magnification slit lamp with green filters.[25][26][27] With such high-magnification imaging systems, it is possible to see groups of individual red blood cells flowing in vivo.[25] Fundus cameras may also be used for low-magnification wide field-of-view imaging of the bulbar conjunctival microvasculature. Modified fundus cameras have been used to measure conjunctival blood flow [28] and to measure blood oxygen saturation.[24] Fluorescein angiography has been used to study the blood flow of the bulbar conjunctiva and to differentiate the bulbar conjunctival and episcleral microcirculation.[29][30][31]

Vasodilation edit

The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature is known to dilate in response to several stimuli and external conditions, including allergens (e.g. pollen),[32] temperature,[33] time-of-day,[33] contact-lens wear,[13] and acute mild hypoxia.[24] Bulbar conjunctival vasodilation has also been shown to correlate changes in emotional state.[34]

Type 2 diabetes is associated with an increase in average bulbar conjunctival vessel diameter and capillary loss.[11][12] Sickle-cell anemia is associated with altered average vessel diameter.[14]

See also edit

Additional images edit

  •  
    Sagittal section through the upper eyelid.
  •  
    Extrinsic eye muscle. Nerves of orbita. Deep dissection.

References edit

  1. ^ "Conjunctiva". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
  2. ^ Efron N, Al-Dossari M, Pritchard N (May 2009). "In vivo confocal microscopy of the bulbar conjunctiva". Clinical & Experimental Ophthalmology. 37 (4): 335–44. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2009.02065.x. PMID 19594558. S2CID 35398240.
  3. ^ Eye, human Encyclopædia Britannica
  4. ^ a b Pavlou AT, Wolff HG (July 1959). "The bulbar conjunctival vessels in occlusion of the internal carotid artery". A.M.A. Archives of Internal Medicine. 104 (1): 53–60. doi:10.1001/archinte.1959.00270070055007. PMID 13660526.
  5. ^ . Archived from the original on February 14, 2013. Retrieved July 31, 2016.
  6. ^ a b c d Goldman L (2012). Goldman's Cecil Medicine (24th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. p. 2426. ISBN 978-1437727883.
  7. ^ London Place Eye Center (2003). Conjunctivitis 2004-08-08 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 25, 2004.
  8. ^ Khansari MM, Wanek J, Tan M, Joslin CE, Kresovich JK, Camardo N, et al. (April 2017). "Assessment of Conjunctival Microvascular Hemodynamics in Stages of Diabetic Microvasculopathy". Scientific Reports. 7: 45916. Bibcode:2017NatSR...745916K. doi:10.1038/srep45916. PMC 5384077. PMID 28387229.
  9. ^ Khansari MM, O'Neill W, Penn R, Chau F, Blair NP, Shahidi M (July 2016). "Automated fine structure image analysis method for discrimination of diabetic retinopathy stage using conjunctival microvasculature images". Biomedical Optics Express. 7 (7): 2597–606. doi:10.1364/BOE.7.002597. PMC 4948616. PMID 27446692.
  10. ^ Isenberg SJ, McRee WE, Jedrzynski MS (October 1986). "Conjunctival hypoxia in diabetes mellitus". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 27 (10): 1512–5. PMID 3759367.
  11. ^ a b Fenton BM, Zweifach BW, Worthen DM (September 1979). "Quantitative morphometry of conjunctival microcirculation in diabetes mellitus". Microvascular Research. 18 (2): 153–66. doi:10.1016/0026-2862(79)90025-6. PMID 491983.
  12. ^ a b Ditzel J (1967-01-12). "The in vivo reactions of the small blood vessels to diabetes mellitus". Acta Medica Scandinavica. Supplementum. 476 (S476): 123–34. doi:10.1111/j.0954-6820.1967.tb12691.x. PMID 5236035.
  13. ^ a b Cheung AT, Ramanujam S, Greer DA, Kumagai LF, Aoki TT (2001-10-01). "Microvascular abnormalities in the bulbar conjunctiva of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus". Endocrine Practice. 7 (5): 358–63. doi:10.4158/EP.7.5.358. PMID 11585371.
  14. ^ a b Fink AI (1968-01-01). "Vascular changes in the bulbar conjunctiva associated with sickle-cell disease: some observations on fine structure". Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society. 66: 788–826. PMC 1310317. PMID 5720854.
  15. ^ Isenberg SJ, McRee WE, Jedrzynski MS, Gange SN, Gange SL (January 1987). "Effects of sickle cell anemia on conjunctival oxygen tension and temperature". Archives of Internal Medicine. 147 (1): 67–9. doi:10.1001/archinte.147.1.67. PMID 3800533.
  16. ^ Wanek J, Gaynes B, Lim JI, Molokie R, Shahidi M (August 2013). "Human bulbar conjunctival hemodynamics in hemoglobin SS and SC disease". American Journal of Hematology. 88 (8): 661–4. doi:10.1002/ajh.23475. PMC 4040222. PMID 23657867.
  17. ^ Harper RN, Moore MA, Marr MC, Watts LE, Hutchins PM (November 1978). "Arteriolar rarefaction in the conjunctiva of human essential hypertensives". Microvascular Research. 16 (3): 369–72. doi:10.1016/0026-2862(78)90070-5. PMID 748720.
  18. ^ Lee RE (August 1955). "Anatomical and physiological aspects of the capillary bed in the bulbar conjunctiva of man in health and disease". Angiology. 6 (4): 369–82. doi:10.1177/000331975500600408. PMID 13275744. S2CID 11589129.
  19. ^ . Medilexicon.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2012-11-13.
  20. ^ Hughes WL (January 1942). "Conjunctivochalasis". American Journal of Ophthalmology. 25 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(42)93297-5.
  21. ^ Varde MA, Biswas J (January 2009). "Ocular surface tumors". Oman Journal of Ophthalmology. 2 (1): 1–2. doi:10.4103/0974-620X.48414. PMC 3018098. PMID 21234216.
  22. ^ Meighan SS (September 1956). "Blood vessels of the bulbar conjunctiva in man". The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 40 (9): 513–26. doi:10.1136/bjo.40.9.513. PMC 1324675. PMID 13364178.
  23. ^ Shahidi M, Wanek J, Gaynes B, Wu T (March 2010). "Quantitative assessment of conjunctival microvascular circulation of the human eye". Microvascular Research. 79 (2): 109–13. doi:10.1016/j.mvr.2009.12.003. PMC 3253734. PMID 20053367.
  24. ^ a b c MacKenzie LE, Choudhary TR, McNaught AI, Harvey AR (August 2016). "In vivo oximetry of human bulbar conjunctival and episcleral microvasculature using snapshot multispectral imaging" (PDF). Experimental Eye Research. 149: 48–58. doi:10.1016/j.exer.2016.06.008. PMID 27317046. S2CID 25038785.
  25. ^ a b van Zijderveld R, Ince C, Schlingemann RO (May 2014). "Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging of conjunctival microcirculation". Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 252 (5): 773–9. doi:10.1007/s00417-014-2603-9. PMID 24627137. S2CID 1595902.
  26. ^ Khansari MM, O'Neill W, Penn R, Chau F, Blair NP, Shahidi M (July 2016). "Automated fine structure image analysis method for discrimination of diabetic retinopathy stage using conjunctival microvasculature images". Biomedical Optics Express. 7 (7): 2597–606. doi:10.1364/BOE.7.002597. PMC 4948616. PMID 27446692.
  27. ^ Khansari MM, Wanek J, Felder AE, Camardo N, Shahidi M (February 2016). "Automated Assessment of Hemodynamics in the Conjunctival Microvasculature Network". IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging. 35 (2): 605–11. doi:10.1109/TMI.2015.2486619. PMC 4821773. PMID 26452274.
  28. ^ Jiang H, Ye Y, DeBuc DC, Lam BL, Rundek T, Tao A, et al. (January 2013). "Human conjunctival microvasculature assessed with a retinal function imager (RFI)". Microvascular Research. 85: 134–7. doi:10.1016/j.mvr.2012.10.003. PMC 3534915. PMID 23084966.
  29. ^ Meyer PA (1988-01-01). "Patterns of blood flow in episcleral vessels studied by low-dose fluorescein videoangiography". Eye. 2 ( Pt 5) (5): 533–46. doi:10.1038/eye.1988.104. PMID 3256492.
  30. ^ Ormerod LD, Fariza E, Webb RH (1995-01-01). "Dynamics of external ocular blood flow studied by scanning angiographic microscopy". Eye. 9 ( Pt 5) (5): 605–14. doi:10.1038/eye.1995.148. PMID 8543081.
  31. ^ Meyer PA, Watson PG (January 1987). "Low dose fluorescein angiography of the conjunctiva and episclera". The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 71 (1): 2–10. doi:10.1136/bjo.71.1.2. PMC 1041073. PMID 3814565.
  32. ^ Horak F, Berger U, Menapace R, Schuster N (September 1996). "Quantification of conjunctival vascular reaction by digital imaging". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 98 (3): 495–500. doi:10.1016/S0091-6749(96)70081-7. PMID 8828525.
  33. ^ a b Duench S, Simpson T, Jones LW, Flanagan JG, Fonn D (June 2007). "Assessment of variation in bulbar conjunctival redness, temperature, and blood flow". Optometry and Vision Science. 84 (6): 511–6. doi:10.1097/OPX.0b013e318073c304. PMID 17568321. S2CID 943038.
  34. ^ Provine RR, Nave-Blodgett J, Cabrera MO (2013-11-01). "The Emotional Eye: Red Sclera as a Uniquely Human Cue of Emotion". Ethology. 119 (11): 993–998. doi:10.1111/eth.12144. ISSN 1439-0310.

External links edit

  • . Medicinenet.com. 1999. Archived from the original on 7 June 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2004.

January 01, 1970
conjunctiva, anatomy, conjunctiva, conjunctivae, thin, mucous, membrane, that, lines, inside, eyelids, covers, sclera, white, composed, keratinized, stratified, squamous, epithelium, with, goblet, cells, stratified, columnar, epithelium, stratified, cuboidal, . In the anatomy of the eye the conjunctiva pl conjunctivae is a thin mucous membrane that lines the inside of the eyelids and covers the sclera the white of the eye 1 It is composed of non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells stratified columnar epithelium and stratified cuboidal epithelium depending on the zone The conjunctiva is highly vascularised with many microvessels easily accessible for imaging studies ConjunctivaThe upper half of a sagittal section through the front of the eyeball Label for Conjunctiva visible at center left Horizontal section of the eyeball Conjunctiva labeled at upper left DetailsPart ofEyeArteryLacrimal artery anterior ciliary arteriesNerveSupratrochlear nerveIdentifiersLatintunica conjunctivaMeSHD003228TA98A15 2 07 047TA26836FMA59011Anatomical terminology edit on Wikidata Image of a human eye showing the blood vessels of the bulbar conjunctiva Hyperaemia of the superficial bulbar conjunctiva blood vessels Contents 1 Structure 1 1 Blood supply 1 2 Nerve supply 1 3 Microanatomy 2 Function 3 Clinical significance 4 Bulbar conjunctival microvasculature 4 1 Vessel morphology 4 2 Blood oxygen dynamics 4 3 Blood vessel imaging methods 4 4 Vasodilation 5 See also 6 Additional images 7 References 8 External linksStructure editThe conjunctiva is typically divided into three parts Part Area Palpebral or tarsal conjunctiva Lines the eyelids Bulbar or ocular conjunctiva Covers the eyeball over the anterior sclera This region of the conjunctiva is tightly bound to the underlying sclera by Tenon s capsule and moves with the eyeball movements The average thickness of the bulbar conjunctival membrane is 33 microns 2 Fornix conjunctiva Forms the junction between the bulbar and palpebral conjunctivas It is loose and flexible allowing the free movement of the lids and eyeball 3 Blood supply edit Blood to the bulbar conjunctiva is primarily derived from the ophthalmic artery The blood supply to the palpebral conjunctiva the eyelid is derived from the external carotid artery However the circulations of the bulbar conjunctiva and palpebral conjunctiva are linked so both bulbar conjunctival and palpebral conjunctival vessels are supplied by both the ophthalmic artery and the external carotid artery to varying extents 4 Nerve supply edit Sensory innervation of the conjunctiva is divided into four parts 5 Area Nerve Superior Supraorbital nerve Supratrochlear nerve Infratrochlear nerve Inferior Infraorbital nerve Lateral Lacrimal nerve with contribution from zygomaticofacial nerve Circumcorneal Long ciliary nerves Microanatomy edit The conjunctiva consists of unkeratinized both stratified squamous and stratified columnar epithelium with interspersed goblet cells 6 The epithelial layer contains blood vessels fibrous tissue and lymphatic channels 6 Accessory lacrimal glands in the conjunctiva constantly produce the aqueous portion of tears 6 Additional cells present in the conjunctival epithelium include melanocytes T and B cell lymphocytes 6 Function editThe conjunctiva helps lubricate the eye by producing mucus and tears although a smaller volume of tears than the lacrimal gland 7 It also contributes to immune surveillance and helps to prevent the entrance of microbes into the eye Clinical significance editDisorders of the conjunctiva and cornea are common sources of eye complaints in particular because the surface of the eye is exposed to various external influences and is especially susceptible to trauma infections chemical irritation allergic reactions and dryness The conjunctival microvascular hemodynamics are affected by diabetic retinopathy DR hence can be useful for DR diagnosis and monitoring 8 and discriminating stages of DR 9 Type II diabetes is associated with conjunctival hypoxia 10 increased average blood vessel diameter and capillary loss 11 12 13 Sickle cell anemia is associated with blood vessel sludging altered blood flow and blood vessel diameter and capillary micro haemorrhages 14 15 16 Hypertension is associated with an increase in the tortuosity of bulbar conjunctival blood vessels and capillary and arteriole loss 17 18 Carotid artery occlusion is associated with slower conjunctival blood flow and apparent capillary loss 4 With age the conjunctiva can stretch and loosen from the underlying sclera leading to the formation of conjunctival folds a condition known as conjunctivochalasis 19 20 The conjunctiva can be affected by tumors which can be benign pre malignant or malignant 21 Leptospirosis an infection with Leptospira can cause conjunctival suffusion which is characterized by chemosis and redness without exudates Bulbar conjunctival microvasculature editVessel morphology edit The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature contains arterioles meta arterioles venules capillaries and communicating vessels Vessel morphology varies greatly between subjects and even between regions of the individual eyes In some subjects arterioles and venules can be seen to run parallel with each other Paired arterioles are generally smaller than corresponding venules 22 The average bulbar conjunctival vessel has been reported to be 15 1 microns which reflects the high number of small capillaries which are typically lt 10 microns in diameter 23 Blood oxygen dynamics edit The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature is in close proximity to ambient air thus oxygen diffusion from ambient air strongly influences their blood oxygen saturation Because of oxygen diffusion hypoxic bulbar conjunctival vessels will rapidly reoxygenate in under 10 seconds when exposed to ambient air i e when the eyelid is open Closing the eyelid stops this oxygen diffusion by placing a barrier between the bulbar conjunctival microvessels and ambient air 24 Blood vessel imaging methods edit The bulbar conjunctival microvessels are typically imaged with a high magnification slit lamp with green filters 25 26 27 With such high magnification imaging systems it is possible to see groups of individual red blood cells flowing in vivo 25 Fundus cameras may also be used for low magnification wide field of view imaging of the bulbar conjunctival microvasculature Modified fundus cameras have been used to measure conjunctival blood flow 28 and to measure blood oxygen saturation 24 Fluorescein angiography has been used to study the blood flow of the bulbar conjunctiva and to differentiate the bulbar conjunctival and episcleral microcirculation 29 30 31 Vasodilation edit The bulbar conjunctival microvasculature is known to dilate in response to several stimuli and external conditions including allergens e g pollen 32 temperature 33 time of day 33 contact lens wear 13 and acute mild hypoxia 24 Bulbar conjunctival vasodilation has also been shown to correlate changes in emotional state 34 Type 2 diabetes is associated with an increase in average bulbar conjunctival vessel diameter and capillary loss 11 12 Sickle cell anemia is associated with altered average vessel diameter 14 See also editConjunctivitis pink eye Conjunctivochalasis Dry eye Pinguecula Pterygium Rougine Subconjunctival hemorrhage Diabetes Sickle cell disease Slit lampAdditional images edit nbsp Sagittal section through the upper eyelid nbsp Extrinsic eye muscle Nerves of orbita Deep dissection References edit Conjunctiva www sciencedirect com Retrieved 4 August 2022 Efron N Al Dossari M Pritchard N May 2009 In vivo confocal microscopy of the bulbar conjunctiva Clinical amp Experimental Ophthalmology 37 4 335 44 doi 10 1111 j 1442 9071 2009 02065 x PMID 19594558 S2CID 35398240 Eye human Encyclopaedia Britannica a b Pavlou AT Wolff HG July 1959 The bulbar conjunctival vessels in occlusion of the internal carotid artery A M A Archives of Internal Medicine 104 1 53 60 doi 10 1001 archinte 1959 00270070055007 PMID 13660526 Table 1 Summary of sensory nerve supply Archived from the original on February 14 2013 Retrieved July 31 2016 a b c d Goldman L 2012 Goldman s Cecil Medicine 24th ed Philadelphia Elsevier Saunders p 2426 ISBN 978 1437727883 London Place Eye Center 2003 Conjunctivitis Archived 2004 08 08 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved July 25 2004 Khansari MM Wanek J Tan M Joslin CE Kresovich JK Camardo N et al April 2017 Assessment of Conjunctival Microvascular Hemodynamics in Stages of Diabetic Microvasculopathy Scientific Reports 7 45916 Bibcode 2017NatSR 745916K doi 10 1038 srep45916 PMC 5384077 PMID 28387229 Khansari MM O Neill W Penn R Chau F Blair NP Shahidi M July 2016 Automated fine structure image analysis method for discrimination of diabetic retinopathy stage using conjunctival microvasculature images Biomedical Optics Express 7 7 2597 606 doi 10 1364 BOE 7 002597 PMC 4948616 PMID 27446692 Isenberg SJ McRee WE Jedrzynski MS October 1986 Conjunctival hypoxia in diabetes mellitus Investigative Ophthalmology amp Visual Science 27 10 1512 5 PMID 3759367 a b Fenton BM Zweifach BW Worthen DM September 1979 Quantitative morphometry of conjunctival microcirculation in diabetes mellitus Microvascular Research 18 2 153 66 doi 10 1016 0026 2862 79 90025 6 PMID 491983 a b Ditzel J 1967 01 12 The in vivo reactions of the small blood vessels to diabetes mellitus Acta Medica Scandinavica Supplementum 476 S476 123 34 doi 10 1111 j 0954 6820 1967 tb12691 x PMID 5236035 a b Cheung AT Ramanujam S Greer DA Kumagai LF Aoki TT 2001 10 01 Microvascular abnormalities in the bulbar conjunctiva of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus Endocrine Practice 7 5 358 63 doi 10 4158 EP 7 5 358 PMID 11585371 a b Fink AI 1968 01 01 Vascular changes in the bulbar conjunctiva associated with sickle cell disease some observations on fine structure Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society 66 788 826 PMC 1310317 PMID 5720854 Isenberg SJ McRee WE Jedrzynski MS Gange SN Gange SL January 1987 Effects of sickle cell anemia on conjunctival oxygen tension and temperature Archives of Internal Medicine 147 1 67 9 doi 10 1001 archinte 147 1 67 PMID 3800533 Wanek J Gaynes B Lim JI Molokie R Shahidi M August 2013 Human bulbar conjunctival hemodynamics in hemoglobin SS and SC disease American Journal of Hematology 88 8 661 4 doi 10 1002 ajh 23475 PMC 4040222 PMID 23657867 Harper RN Moore MA Marr MC Watts LE Hutchins PM November 1978 Arteriolar rarefaction in the conjunctiva of human essential hypertensives Microvascular Research 16 3 369 72 doi 10 1016 0026 2862 78 90070 5 PMID 748720 Lee RE August 1955 Anatomical and physiological aspects of the capillary bed in the bulbar conjunctiva of man in health and disease Angiology 6 4 369 82 doi 10 1177 000331975500600408 PMID 13275744 S2CID 11589129 Conjunctivochalasis Medical Definition Medilexicon com Archived from the original on 2016 03 03 Retrieved 2012 11 13 Hughes WL January 1942 Conjunctivochalasis American Journal of Ophthalmology 25 1 48 51 doi 10 1016 S0002 9394 42 93297 5 Varde MA Biswas J January 2009 Ocular surface tumors Oman Journal of Ophthalmology 2 1 1 2 doi 10 4103 0974 620X 48414 PMC 3018098 PMID 21234216 Meighan SS September 1956 Blood vessels of the bulbar conjunctiva in man The British Journal of Ophthalmology 40 9 513 26 doi 10 1136 bjo 40 9 513 PMC 1324675 PMID 13364178 Shahidi M Wanek J Gaynes B Wu T March 2010 Quantitative assessment of conjunctival microvascular circulation of the human eye Microvascular Research 79 2 109 13 doi 10 1016 j mvr 2009 12 003 PMC 3253734 PMID 20053367 a b c MacKenzie LE Choudhary TR McNaught AI Harvey AR August 2016 In vivo oximetry of human bulbar conjunctival and episcleral microvasculature using snapshot multispectral imaging PDF Experimental Eye Research 149 48 58 doi 10 1016 j exer 2016 06 008 PMID 27317046 S2CID 25038785 a b van Zijderveld R Ince C Schlingemann RO May 2014 Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging of conjunctival microcirculation Graefe s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology 252 5 773 9 doi 10 1007 s00417 014 2603 9 PMID 24627137 S2CID 1595902 Khansari MM O Neill W Penn R Chau F Blair NP Shahidi M July 2016 Automated fine structure image analysis method for discrimination of diabetic retinopathy stage using conjunctival microvasculature images Biomedical Optics Express 7 7 2597 606 doi 10 1364 BOE 7 002597 PMC 4948616 PMID 27446692 Khansari MM Wanek J Felder AE Camardo N Shahidi M February 2016 Automated Assessment of Hemodynamics in the Conjunctival Microvasculature Network IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 35 2 605 11 doi 10 1109 TMI 2015 2486619 PMC 4821773 PMID 26452274 Jiang H Ye Y DeBuc DC Lam BL Rundek T Tao A et al January 2013 Human conjunctival microvasculature assessed with a retinal function imager RFI Microvascular Research 85 134 7 doi 10 1016 j mvr 2012 10 003 PMC 3534915 PMID 23084966 Meyer PA 1988 01 01 Patterns of blood flow in episcleral vessels studied by low dose fluorescein videoangiography Eye 2 Pt 5 5 533 46 doi 10 1038 eye 1988 104 PMID 3256492 Ormerod LD Fariza E Webb RH 1995 01 01 Dynamics of external ocular blood flow studied by scanning angiographic microscopy Eye 9 Pt 5 5 605 14 doi 10 1038 eye 1995 148 PMID 8543081 Meyer PA Watson PG January 1987 Low dose fluorescein angiography of the conjunctiva and episclera The British Journal of Ophthalmology 71 1 2 10 doi 10 1136 bjo 71 1 2 PMC 1041073 PMID 3814565 Horak F Berger U Menapace R Schuster N September 1996 Quantification of conjunctival vascular reaction by digital imaging The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 98 3 495 500 doi 10 1016 S0091 6749 96 70081 7 PMID 8828525 a b Duench S Simpson T Jones LW Flanagan JG Fonn D June 2007 Assessment of variation in bulbar conjunctival redness temperature and blood flow Optometry and Vision Science 84 6 511 6 doi 10 1097 OPX 0b013e318073c304 PMID 17568321 S2CID 943038 Provine RR Nave Blodgett J Cabrera MO 2013 11 01 The Emotional Eye Red Sclera as a Uniquely Human Cue of Emotion Ethology 119 11 993 998 doi 10 1111 eth 12144 ISSN 1439 0310 External links edit Conjunctiva Medicinenet com 1999 Archived from the original on 7 June 2014 Retrieved 25 July 2004 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Conjunctiva amp oldid 1222040138, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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