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California genocide

December 20, 2023

For the conflicts during the settling of California by the United States, see California Indian Wars. For the system of forced labor for Indigenous people during the California genocide, see Forced labor in California.

The California genocide was a series of systematized killings of thousands of Indigenous peoples of California by United States government agents and private citizens in the 19th century. It began following the American Conquest of California from Mexico, and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Rush, which accelerated the decline of the Indigenous population of California. Between 1846 and 1873, it is estimated that non-Natives killed between 9,492 and 16,094 California Natives. Hundreds to thousands were additionally starved or worked to death.[4] Acts of enslavement, kidnapping, rape, child separation and forced displacement were widespread. These acts were encouraged, tolerated, and carried out by state authorities and militias.[8]

California genocide
Part of the California Indian Wars
"Protecting The Settlers", illustration by J. R. Browne in The Indians Of California, 1864
LocationCalifornia
Date1846–1873
TargetIndigenous Californians
Attack type
Genocide, ethnic cleansing, human hunting, slavery, rape, Indian removal
DeathsNo more than 2,000 (per Anderson)[1]
4,300 (per Cook)[2]
4,500 (per California Secretary of State)[3]
9,492–16,094 (per Madley)[4]
100,000+ (per Castillo/California Native American Heritage Commission)[5]
Injured10,000–27,000[6][7] taken as forced laborers by white settlers; 4,000–7,000 of them children[7]
PerpetratorsUnited States Army, California State Militia, White American settlers

The 1925 book Handbook of the Indians of California estimated that the Indigenous population of California decreased from perhaps as many as 150,000 in 1848 to 30,000 in 1870 and fell further to 16,000 in 1900. The decline was caused by disease, low birth rates, starvation, killings, and massacres. California Natives, particularly during the Gold Rush, were targeted in killings.[9][10][11] Between 10,000[6] and 27,000[7] were also taken as forced labor by settlers. The state of California used its institutions to favor white settlers' rights over Indigenous rights, dispossessing natives.[12]

Since the 2000s several American academics and activist organizations, both Native American and European American, have characterized the period immediately following the U.S. Conquest of California as one in which the state and federal governments waged genocide against the Native Americans in the territory. In 2019, California's governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide and called for a research group to be formed to better understand the topic and inform future generations.[13]

Background edit

Indigenous peoples edit

 
Indigenous ethnic and (inset) linguistic groups of California prior to European arrival

Prior to Spanish arrival, California was home to an Indigenous population thought to have been as high as 300,000.[14] The largest group were the Chumash people, with a population around 10,000.[15] The region was highly diverse, with numerous distinct languages spoken. While there was great diversity in the area, archeological findings show little evidence of intertribal conflicts.[11]

The various tribal groups appear to have adapted to particular areas and territories. According to journalist Nathan Gilles, because of traditions practiced by the Native people of Northern California, they were able to "manage the threat of wildfires and cultivate traditional plants".[16] For example, traditional use of fire by Californian and Pacific Northwest tribes, allowed them to "cultivate plants and fungi" that "adapted to regular burning. The list runs from fiber sources, such as bear-grass and willow, to foodstuffs, such as berries, mushrooms, and acorns from oak trees that once made up sprawling orchards".[16] Because of traditional practices of Native Californian tribes, they were able to support habitats and climates that would then support an abundance of wildlife, including rabbits, deer, varieties of fish, fruit, roots, and acorns. The natives largely followed a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, moving around their area through the seasons as different types of food were available.[17]

The Native people of California, according to sociologist Kari Norgaard, were "hunting and fishing for their food, weaving baskets using traditional techniques" and "carrying out important ceremonies to keep the world intact".[18] It was also recorded that the Indigenous people in California and across the continent had, and continue to, use "fire to enhance specific plant species, optimize hunting conditions, maintain open travel routes, and generally support the flourishing of the species upon which they depend, according to scholars[19] like the United States Forest Service ecologist and Karuk descendent Frank Lake".[18]

Contact edit

California was one of the last regions in the Americas to be colonized. Catholic Spanish missionaries, led by Franciscan administrator Junípero Serra and military forces under the command of Gaspar de Portolá, did not reach this area until 1769. The mission was intended to spread the Catholic faith among the region's Native peoples and establish and expand the reach of the Spanish Empire.[17] The Spanish built San Diego de Alcalá, the first of 21 missions, at what developed as present-day San Diego in the southern part of the state along the Pacific. Military outposts were constructed alongside the missions to house the soldiers sent to protect the missionaries.[citation needed]

Spanish and Mexican rule were devastating for native populations. "As the missions grew, California's native population of Indians began a catastrophic decline."[20] Gregory Orfalea estimates that pre-contact population was reduced by 33% during the Spanish and Mexican regimes. Most of the decline stemmed from imported diseases, low birth rates, and the disruption of traditional ways of life, but violence was common, and some historians have charged that life in the missions was close to slavery.[10][21] However, according to George Tinker, a Native scholar, "The Native American population of coastal population was reduced by some 90 percent during seventy years under the sole proprietorship of Serra's mission system".[22]

According to journalist Ed Castillo, Serra spread the Christian faith among the Native population in a destructive way that caused their population to decline rapidly while he was in power. Castillo writes that "The Franciscans took it upon themselves to brutalize the Indians, and to rejoice in their death...They simply wanted the souls of these Indians, so they baptized them, and when they died, from disease or beatings... they were going to heaven, which was a cause of celebration".[17] According to Castillo, the Native American population were forced to abandon their "sustainable and complex civilization" as well as "their beliefs, their faith, and their way of life".[17]

Timeline edit

The following is a rough timeline of some of the key events and policies that contributed to the genocide. It is by no means comprehensive.

1769 edit

Spanish colonizers establish a mission system in California, which leads to the forced conversion and enslavement of Native Americans.[23][24][25]

1821–1823 edit

Mexico gains independence from Spain and takes control of California, continuing the Spanish government's policies of forced labor and conversion of Indigenous peoples.[26][25]

1846–48 edit

The Mexican-American War led to the annexation of California by the United States. The settlers and U.S. military formed an alliance and were joined by some Indigenous people, although the military had "murdered many natives".[27][25]

1848 edit

The discovery of gold in California leads to the influx of a massive horde of settlers, who form militias to kill and displace Indigenous peoples.[28][29][25]

1850 edit

The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians is passed, legalizing the enslavement of Native Americans and allowing settlers to capture and force them into labor.[30][31]

1851–52 edit

The Mariposa War breaks out between white settlers and the Mariposa Battalion, resulting in the displacement and killing of Native Americans in the Sierra Nevada region.[32]

1851–69 edit

California pays bounties for the killing of Native Americans.[33][34][35]

1860s edit

The federal government begins a policy of forced removal of Native Americans peoples to reservations, which leads to violence and displacement.[36]

Late 1800s–early 1900s edit

Indigenous children are forcibly removed from their families by the California government and placed in boarding schools, where they are subjected to abuse and forced assimilation.[37][38][39]

1909 edit

The California state government establishes the California Eugenics Record Office, which promotes the forced sterilization of people declared by the government to be "unfit", including "Black, Latino and Indigenous women who were incarcerated or in state institutions for disabilities".[40][41][42]

Response following statehood edit

 
Map of California from Indian Land Cessions in the United States

Following the American Conquest of California from Mexico, and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Rush in 1849, California state and federal authorities incited, aided, and financed the violence against the Native Americans. The California Natives were also sometimes contemptuously referred to as "Diggers", for their practice of digging up roots to eat.[43][44][45][46][47][48][49] On January 6, 1851, at his State of the State address to the California Senate, 1st Governor Peter Burnett said: "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate this result but with painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power or wisdom of man to avert."[50][51][52] During the California genocide, reports of the decimation of Native Americans in California were made to the rest of the United States and internationally.[note 1]

The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians was enacted in 1850 (amended 1860, repealed 1863). This law provided for "apprenticing" or indenturing Indian children to Whites, and also punished "vagrant" Indians by "hiring" them out to the highest bidder at a public auction if the Indian could not provide sufficient bond or bail. This legalized a form of slavery in California.[53] White settlers took 10,000 to 27,000 California Native Americans as forced laborers, including 4,000 to 7,000 children.[6][7]

I have the honor to report to the general commanding the Department of the Pacific that I have been in this valley fifteen days, carrying out my instructions to chastise these Indians, or the Indians of Owens River; that I have killed several, taken eleven prisoners, and destroyed a great many rancherias and a large quantity of seeds, worms, &c., that the Indians had gathered for food.

— George S. Evans, Lieutenant-Colonel Second Cavalry California Volunteers, Commanding Owens River Expedition (1862), War of the Rebellion: OPERATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST. Chapter LXII.[54]

A notable early eyewitness testimony and account: "The Indians of California" (1864) is from John Ross Browne, Customs official and Inspector of Indian Affairs on the Pacific Coast. He systematically described the fraud, corruption, land theft, slavery, rape, and massacre perpetrated on a substantial portion of the aboriginal population.[55][56] This was confirmed by a contemporary, Superintendent Dorcas J. Spencer.[57]

Violence statistics edit

In 1943, a study by demographer Sherburne Cook, estimated that there were 4,556 killings of California Indians between 1847 and 1865.[4][3] Contemporary historian Benjamin Madley has documented the numbers of Californian Indians killed between 1846 and 1873; he estimates that during this period at least 9,492 to 16,092 Californian Indians were killed by non-Indians, including between 1,680 and 3,741 killed by the U.S. Army. Most of the deaths took place in what he defined as more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise"). Madley also estimates that fewer than 1,400 non-Indians were killed by Indians during this period.[4] The Native American activist and former Sonoma State University Professor Ed Castillo was asked by The State of California's Native American Heritage Commission to write the state's official history of the genocide; he wrote that "well-armed death squads combined with the widespread random killing of Indians by individual miners resulted in the death of 100,000 Indians in [1848 and 1849]."[5] Another contemporary historian, Gary Clayton Anderson, estimated that no more than 2,000 Native Americans were killed in California.[1] Jeffrey Ostler has critiqued Anderson's estimate, calling it "unsubstantiated" and "at least five times too low".[58]

Archaeological evidence of violence and refugeeism in California edit

Research made in 2015 on native burial mounds in the San Francisco Bay area found that natives would move to different places in order to avoid genocide. The movement can be traced by the dating of the burial mounds since multiple native tribes found these burial mound spaces as places of religious and cultural freedom.[59]

The Amah Mutsun are a group of Indigenous peoples who were reported to be unable to pass on their traditions during this time, their practices remained untold for a number of years. People of this group, descendants, and archaeologists participate in conducting collaborative, ethnographic research to bring light to previous practices like burial practices and vegetation patterns.[60]

List of recorded massacres edit

Year Date Name Current location Description Reported casualties References
1846 April 6 Sacramento River massacre Sacramento River in Shasta County, Northern California Captain John C. Frémont's men attacked a band of Indians (probably Wintun) on the Sacramento River in California, killing between 120 and 200 Indians. 120–200 [61]
1846 June Sutter Buttes massacre Sutter Buttes in Sutter County, Northern California Captain John C. Frémont's men attacked a rancheria on the banks of the Sacramento River near Sutter Buttes, killing several Patwin people. 14+ [62]
1846 December Pauma massacre Pauma Valley in San Diego County, Southern California 11 Californios captured at Rancho Pauma were killed as horse thieves by Indians at Warner Springs, California, leading to the Temecula massacre. 11 (settlers) [63]
1846 December Temecula massacre Temecula in Riverside County, Southern California 33 to 40 Luiseño Indians killed in an ambush in revenge for the Pauma Massacre east of Temecula, California. 33–40 [63]
1847 March Rancheria Tulea massacre Napa Valley in Napa County, Northern California White slavers retaliate to a slave escape by massacring five Indians in Rancheria Tulea. 5 [62]
1847 March 29 Kern and Sutter massacres Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California In response to a plea from White settlers to put an end to raids, U.S. Army Captain Edward Kern and rancher John Sutter led 50 men in attacks on three Indian villages. 20 [62]
1847 late June/early July Konkow Maidu slaver massacre Chico in Butte County, Northern California Slavers kill 12–20 Konkow Maidu Indians in the process of capturing 30 members of the tribe for the purpose of forced slavery. 12–20 [62]
1850 May 15 Bloody Island massacre Clear Lake in Lake County, Northern California Nathaniel Lyon and his U.S. Army detachment of cavalry killed 60–100 Pomo people on Bo-no-po-ti island near Clear Lake, (Lake Co., California); they believed the Pomo had killed two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people. (The Island Pomo had no connections to the enslaved Pomo.) This incident led to a general outbreak of settler attacks against and mass killing of native people all over Northern California. The site is now California Registered Historical Landmark #427. 60–100 [64][65][66]
1851 January 11 Mariposa War Various sites in Mariposa County, Northern California The gold rush increased pressure on the Native Americans of California, because miners forced Native Americans off their gold-rich lands. Many were pressed into service in the mines; others had their villages raided by the army and volunteer militia. Some Native American tribes fought back, beginning with the Ahwahnechees and the Chowchilla in the Sierra Nevada and San Joaquin Valley leading a raid on the Fresno River post of James D. Savage, in December 1850. In retaliation Mariposa County Sheriff James Burney led local militia in an indecisive clash with the natives on January 11, 1851, on a mountainside near present-day Oakhurst, California. 40+
1851 Old Shasta Town Massacre Shasta in Shasta County, Northern California Miners killed 300 Wintu Indians near Old Shasta, California and burned down their tribal council meeting house. 300 [67]
1852 April 23 Bridge Gulch massacre Hayfork Creek in Trinity County, Northern California 70 American men led by Trinity County sheriff William H. Dixon killed more than 150 Wintu people in the Hayfork Valley of California, in retaliation for the killing of Col. John Anderson. 150 [68]
1853 Howonquet massacre Smith River in Del Norte County, Northern California Californian settlers attacked and burned the Tolowa village of Howonquet, massacring 70 people. 70 [69]
1853 Yontoket Massacre Yontocket in Del Norte County, Northern California A posse of settlers attacked and burned a Tolowa rancheria at Yontocket, California, killing 450 Tolowa during a prayer ceremony. 450 [70][71]
1853 Achulet Massacre Lake Earl in Del Norte County, Northern California White settlers launched an attack on a Tolowa village near Lake Earl in California, killing between 65 and 150 Indians at dawn. 65–150 [72]
1853 Before December 31 "Ox" incident Visalia in Tulare County, Central Valley U.S. forces attacked and killed an unreported number of Indians in the Four Creeks area (Tulare County, California) in what was referred to by officers as "our little difficulty" and "the chastisement they have received". [73]
1855 January 22 Klamath River massacres Klamath River in Del Norte County, Northern California In retaliation for the murder of six settlers and the theft of some cattle, whites commenced a "war of extermination against the Indians" in Humboldt County, California. [74]
1856 March Shingletown Shingleton in Shasta County, Northern California In reprisal for Indian stock theft, white settlers massacred at least 20 Yana men, women, and children near Shingletown, California. 20 [75]
1856–1859 Round Valley Settler Massacres Round Valley in Mendocino County, Northern California White settlers killed over a thousand Yuki Indians in Round Valley over the course of three years in an uncountable number of separate massacres. 1,000+ [76][77]
1859–1860 Mendocino War Various sites in Mendocino County, Northern California White settlers calling themselves the "Eel River Rangers", led by Walter Jarboe, killed at least 283 Indian men and countless women and children in 23 engagements over the course of six months. They were reimbursed by the U.S. government for their campaign. 283+ [76]
1859 September Pit River Pit River in Northern California White settlers massacred 70 Achomawi Indians (10 men and 60 women and children) in their village on the Pit River in California. 70 [78]
1859 Chico Creek Big Chico Creek in Butte County, Northern California White settlers attacked a Maidu camp near Chico Creek in California, killing indiscriminately 40 Indians. 40 [79]
1860 Exact date unknown Massacre at Bloody Rock Mendocino National Forest in Mendocino County, Northern California A group of 65 Yuki Indians were surrounded and massacred by white settlers at Bloody Rock, in Mendocino County, California. 65
1860 February 26 1860 Wiyot massacre Tuluwat Island in Humboldt County, Northern California In three nearly simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot, at Indian Island, Eureka, Rio Dell, and near Hydesville, California, white settlers killed between 80 and 250 Wiyot in Humboldt County, California. Victims were mostly women, children, and elders, as reported by Bret Harte at Arcata newspaper. Other villages were massacred within two days. The main site is National Register of Historic Places in the United States #66000208. 80–250 [80][81][82][83]
1863 April 19 Keyesville massacre Keyesville in Kern County, Central Valley American militia and members of the California Volunteers cavalry killed 35 Tübatulabal men in Kern County, California. 35 [84]
1863 August 28 Konkow Trail of Tears Chico in Butte County to Covelo in Mendocino County, Northern California In August 1863 all Konkow Maidu were to be sent to the Bidwell Ranch in Chico and then be taken to the Round Valley Reservation at Covelo in Mendocino County. Any Indians remaining in the area were to be shot. Maidu were rounded up and marched under guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range. 461 Native Americans started the trek, 277 finished.[85] They reached the Round Valley on September 18, 1863. 184 [85]
1864 Oak Run massacre Oak Run in Shasta County, Northern California California settlers massacred 300 Yana Indians who had gathered near the head of Oak Run, California, for a spiritual ceremony. 300 [86]
1865 Owens Lake massacre Owens Lake in Inyo County, Northern California To avenge the killing of a woman and child at Haiwai Meadows, White vigilantes attacked a Paiute camp on Owens Lake in California, killing about 40 men, women, and children. 40 [87]
1865 Three Knolls massacre Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California White settlers massacred a Yana community at Three Knolls on the Mill Creek, California. [88]
1868 Campo Seco Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California A posse of white settlers massacred 33 Yahis in a cave north of Mill Creek, California. 33 [89][90]
1871 Kingsley Cave massacre Ishi Wilderness in Tehama County, Northern California 4 settlers killed 30 Yahi Indians in Tehama County, California about two miles from Wild Horse Corral in the Ishi Wilderness. It is estimated that this massacre left only 15 members of the Yahi tribe alive. 30 [91]

Population decline edit

Further information: Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
 
Estimated native California population based on Handbook of the Indians of California (1925) (Cook 1978)
Groups Population by year
All minimum sources below cite:[15][unreliable source?]
1770 1910
Yurok 2,500
(up to 3,100[92]) 		700
Karok 1,500
(up to 2,000 to 2,700[93][94] ) 		800
Wiyot 1,000 100
Tolowa 1,000 150
Hupa 1,000 500
Chilula, Whilkut 1,000 (*)
Mattole 500
(up to 2,476[95]) 		(*)
Nongatl, Sinkyone, Lassik 2,000
(up to 7,957[95]) 		100
Wailaki 1,000
(up to 2,760[95]) 		200
Kato 500
(up to 1,100[92]) 		(*)
Yuki 2,000
(up to 6,000 to 20,000[96]) 		100
Huchnom 500 (*)
Coast Yuki 500 (*)
Wappo 1,000
(up to 1,650[97]) 		(*)
Pomo 8,000
(up to 10,000[98] to 18,000[98]) 		1,200
Lake Miwok 500 (*)
Coast Miwok 1,500 (*)
Shasta 2,000
(up to 5,600[99] to 10,000[100]) 		100
Chimariko, New River, Konomihu, Oakwanuchu 1,000 (*)
Achomawi, Atsugawi 3,000 1,100
Modoc in California 500 (*)
Yana/Yahi 1,500 (*)
Wintun 12,000 1,000
Maidu 9,000
(up to 9,500[101]) 		1,100
Miwok (Plains and Sierra) 9,000 700
Yokuts 18,000
(up to 70,000[102]) 		600
Costanoan 7,000
(up 10,000[103] to 26,000 combined with Salinan[104]) 		(*)
Esselen 500 (*)
Salinan 3,000 (*)
Chumash 10,000
(up to 13,650[105] to 20,400[105][106]) 		(*)
Washo in California 500 300
Northern Paiute in California 500 300
Eastern and Western Mono 4,000 1,500
Tübatulabal 1,000 150
Koso, Chemehuevi, Kawaiisu 1,500 500
Serrano, Vanyume, Kitanemuk, Alliklik 3,500 150
Gabrielino, Fernandeño, San Nicoleño 5,000 (*)
Luiseño 4,000
(up to 10,000[107]) 		500
Juaneño 1,000
(up 3,340[108]) 		(*)
Cupeño 500
(up to 750[109]) 		150
Cahuilla 2,500
(up to 6,000[110] to 15,000[110]) 		800
Diegueño, Kamia 3,000
(up to 6,000[111] to 19,000[112]) 		800
Mohave (total) 3,000 1,050
Halchidhoma (emigrated since 1800) 1,000
(up to 2,500[113]) 		........
Yuma (Total) 2,500 750
Total of groups marked (*) .......... 450
15,850
Less river Yumans in Arizona 3,000
(up to 4,000[114]) 		850
Non-Californian Indians now in California .......... 350
Affiliation doubtful or not reported .......... 1,000
Total 133,000
(up to 230,407 to 301,233) 		16,350

Select ethnic groups targeted edit

While many groups were targeted in the genocide the circumstances of individual groups can be illustrative of the on the ground happenings of the killings.

Yuki edit

More than 1,000 Yuki are estimated to have been killed in the Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856–1859 and 400 in the Mendocino War; many others were enslaved and only 300 survived. The intent of the massacres was to exterminate the Yuki and gain control of the land they inhabited. U.S. Army soldiers deployed to the valley stopped most of the killings and in 1862 the California legislature revoked a law which permitted the kidnapping and enslavement of Native Americans in the state.

A few specific attacks of which there is witness testimony are:

  • A local paper reported 55 Indians killed in Clinton Valley on October 8, 1856.[115]
  • A White farmer, John Lawson, admitted an attack killing 8 Indians, 3 by shooting and 5 by hanging, after some of his hogs were stolen. He stated that these killings were a common practice.[116]
  • A White farmer, Isaac Shanon, testified to killing 14 Indians in a revenge attack after a White man was killed in early 1858.[117]
  • White persons from the Sacramento Valley came into Round Valley and killed 4 Yuki Indians with the help of locals in June 1858, despite having been warned against it by Indian Agents.[118]
  • White settlers attacked and killed 9 Indians in the mountains edging the valley on November 1858.[119]
  • Former Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Thomas Henley (fired two months earlier for embezzling funds), led a massacre of 11 Yuki Indians in August 1859.[120]

Due to the overwhelming number of killings, an exact death toll is unknowable. The following estimates were made by government agents and newspapers at the time:

1856: 300 total killed over the course of the year.[115]

Winter 1856–57: About 75 Yuki Indians killed over the course of the winter.[121]

March–April 1858: 300–400 male Yukis killed in three weeks.[122]

November 1858 – January 1859: 150+[123] or 170[124] Yuki Indians killed between November and January

March–May 1859: 240 Yuki killed in assaults led by H.L. Hall in revenge for the slaughter of Judge Hasting's horse[125][126] and a total of 600 men, women, and children killed within the previous year.[127]

These estimates suggest well over 1,000 Yuki deaths at the hands of White settlers. (See Cook, Sherburne; "The California Indian and White Civilization" Part III, pg 7, for an argument in favor of the approximate reliability of figures of Indians killed at this time.)

Yahi edit

The Yahi were the first of the Yana people to suffer from the Californian Gold Rush, for their lands were the closest to the gold fields.[128] They suffered great population losses from the loss of their traditional food supplies and fought with the settlers over territory. They lacked firearms, and armed white settlers intentionally committed genocide against them in multiple raids..[129] These raids took place as part of the California genocide, during which the U.S. Army and vigilante militias carried out killings as well as the relocation of thousands of indigenous peoples in California.[130] The massacre reduced the Yahi, who were already suffering from starvation, to a population of less than 100.[128]

On August 6, 1865, seventeen settlers raided a Yahi village at dawn. In 1866, more Yahis were massacred when they were caught by surprise in a ravine. Circa 1867, 33 Yahis were killed after being tracked to a cave north of Mill Creek. Circa 1871, four cowboys trapped and killed about 30 Yahis in Kingsley cave.[129]

The last known survivor of the Yahi was named Ishi by American anthropologists. Ishi had spent most of his life hiding with his tribe members in the Sierra wilderness, emerging at the age of about 49, after the deaths of his mother and remaining relatives. He was the only Yahi known to Americans.

Tolowa edit

In 1770 the Tolowa had a population of 1,000;[15] their population soon dropped to 150[15] in 1910; this was almost entirely due to deliberate mass murder in what has been called genocide[131] which has been recognized by the state of California.[132] In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That’s what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that’s the way it needs to be described in the history books."[132] Among these killings the Yontoket Massacre left 150[131] to 500[131] Tolowa people recorded dead. Because their homes had burned down, the place received the name "Burnt Ranch". The Yontoket massacre decimated the cultural center of the Tolowa peoples. The natives from the surrounding areas would gather there for their celebrations and discussions. The survivors of the massacre were forced to move to the village north of Smith's River called Howonquet. The slaughtering of the Tolowa people continued for some years. They were seemingly always caught at their Needash celebrations. These massacres caused some unrest which led in part to the Rogue River Indian war. Many Tolowa people were incarcerated at Battery Point in 1855 to withhold them from joining an uprising led by their chief. In 1860, after the Chetco/Rogue River War, 600 Tolowa were forcibly relocated to Indian reservations in Oregon, including what is now known as the Siletz Reservation in the Central Coastal Range. Later, some were moved to the Hoopa Valley Reservation in California. Adding to the number of dead from the Yontoket Massacre and the Battery Point Attack are many more in the following years. These massacres included the Chetko Massacre with 24[131] dead, the Smith creek massacre with 7[131] dead, the Howonquet Massacre with 70[131] dead, the Achulet massacre with 65 dead[133] (not including those whose bodies were left in the lake) and the Stundossun Massacre with 300[131] dead. In total, 902 Tolowa Native Americans were killed in 7 years. There are no records that any of the perpetrators were ever held accountable.[131] This means over 90% of the entire Tolowa population was killed in deliberate massacres.

Economic aspects of genocide in Southern California edit

At the outset, the Euro-American population of Los Angeles County identified a practical application for the utilization of Native labor within an economy that was experiencing a shortage of laborers due to the mass migration of individuals to the gold fields. During the 1850s, Caucasians in the United States of America depended on individuals of Native American descent to cultivate vast areas of land in return for minimal or non-existent monetary compensation. During the period of the Gold Rush, numerous rancho owners were able to reap significant benefits by driving their livestock into the Central Valley and Sierra foothills, thereby capitalizing on the relatively prosperous years of gold mining.[134]

Legacy edit

Land theft and value edit

According to M. Kat Anderson, an ecologist and lecturer at University of California, Davis, and Jon Keeley, a fire ecologist and research scientist with the U.S. Geological Survey, after decades of being disconnected from the land and their culture, due to Spanish and U.S. colonial violence, Native peoples are slowly starting to be able to practice traditions that enhance the environment around them, by directly taking care of the land. Anderson and Keeley write, "The outcomes that Indigenous people were aiming for when burning chaparral, such as increased water flow, enhanced wildlife habitat, and the maintenance of many kinds of flowering plants and animals, are congruent and dovetail with the values that public land agencies, non-profit organizations, and private landowners wish to preserve and enhance through wildland management".[135] Through these returned practices, they are able to commit and practice their culture, while also helping the other people in the area that will benefit from the ecological differences.

California Landmark 427, built in 2005 represents the Bloody Island Massacre of the Pomo people that took place on May 15, 1850.[136] The monument is used as a center point of an annual festival beginning in 1999 held by Pomo descendants. Candles and tobacco are burned in honor of their ancestors.

Call for tribunals edit

Native American scholar Gerald Vizenor has argued in the early 21st century for universities to be authorized to assemble tribunals to investigate these events. He notes that United States federal law contains no statute of limitations on war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide. He says:

Genocide tribunals would provide venues of judicial reason and equity that reveal continental ethnic cleansing, mass murder, torture, and religious persecution, past and present, and would justly expose, in the context of legal competition for evidence, the inciters, falsifiers, and deniers of genocide and state crimes against Native American Indians. Genocide tribunals would surely enhance the moot court programs in law schools and provide more serious consideration of human rights and international criminal cases by substantive testimony, motivated historical depositions, documentary evidence, contentious narratives, and ethical accountability.[137]

Vizenor believes that, in accordance with international law, the universities of South Dakota, Minnesota, and California Berkeley ought to establish tribunals to hear evidence and adjudicate crimes against humanity alleged to have taken place in their individual states.[138] Attorney Lindsay Glauner has also argued for such tribunals.[139]

Apologies and name changes edit

In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June, 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom referring to the proposed California Truth and Healing Council said, "California must reckon with our dark history. California Native American peoples suffered violence, discrimination and exploitation sanctioned by state government throughout its history .... It's called genocide. That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books. We can never undo the wrongs inflicted on the peoples who have lived on this land that we now call California since time immemorial, but we can work together to build bridges, tell the truth about our past and begin to heal deep wounds."[140][141] After hearing testimony, a Truth and Healing Council will clarify the historical record on the relationship between the state and California Native Americans.[142]

In November 2021, the board of directors of the University of California Hastings College of Law voted to change the name of the institution because of namesake S. C. Hastings' involvement in the killing and dispossessing of Yuki people in the 1850s.[143][144]

Academic debate on the term "genocide" edit

There is vigorous debate over the scale of Native American losses after the discovery of gold in California and whether to characterize them as genocide.[145][146] The application of the term "genocide", in particular, has been controversial.[147] According to historian Jeffrey Ostler, the debate mostly rests on disagreements regarding the definition of the term.[146] He writes that by a strict ("intentionalist"[58]) definition, genocide "requir[es] a federal or state government intention to kill all California Indians and an outcome in which the majority of deaths were from direct killing", while by a less strict ("structuralist"[58]) definition, it "requir[es] only settler intention to destroy a substantial portion of California Indians using a variety of means ranging from dispossession to systematic killing".[146] Under the former definition, Ostler argues that "genocide does not seem applicable," whereas under the latter definition, "genocide seems apt."

In 1948, Article 2 of the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide defined genocide as

... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
— Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 2[148]

For edit

 
National Park Service information sign at the Presidio of San Francisco describing the California genocide.

Historians who argue the term "genocide" is appropriate point out that the Indian population of California fell quickly and argue that extreme violence was integral to this process.[146] Benjamin Madley, a UCLA historian, is one of the most prominent historians espousing this view, writing that "[i]t was genocide, sanctioned and facilitated by California officials" who, according to him, "established a state-sponsored killing machine".[149] Historian Brendan C. Lindsay, argued that "rather than a government orchestrating a population to bring about the genocide of a group, [in California] the population orchestrated a government to destroy a group",[150] while William T. Hagen wrote that "[genocide] is a term of awful significance, but one which has application to the story of California's Native Americans".[151] James J. Rawls argued that Californian whites "advocated and carried out a program of genocide that was popularly called 'extermination'".[152] Militias were called out by the governors of California for "expeditions against the Indians" on a number of occasions.[153]: 18 

Supporters of the use of the term "genocide" stress the involvement and complicity of federal and state authorities in perpetrating atrocities against the indigenous Californians, and point to their statements and policies as evidence of direct genocidal intent. For example, historian Richard White, in a review of Madley's An American Genocide, argues that "no reader of his book can seriously contend that what happened in California doesn't meet the current definition of "genocide"," citing the "relentless attacks by federal troops, state militia, vigilantes, and mercenaries [that] made the enslavement of Indians possible and starvation and disease inevitable".[154] White continues, "in California, what Americans have often called "war" was nothing of the sort. For every American who died, 100 Indians perished. They died horribly—men, women, and children. The men who killed them were brutal. Nor did the killings result from a moment of rage; they were systematic." White stresses the complicity of the US federal government, noting that "the funding that the US government provided for California's militia expeditions made attacking Indians possible and profitable".[154] Writing about the experience of indigenous Californian women during this period, Women's studies scholar Gail Ukockis argues that "government officials were quite explicit about their genocidal intent,"[155] citing the 1851 State of the State address given by the 1st Governor of California, Peter Burnett, in which he said: "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected."[156]

Jeffrey Ostler, too, endorsed the usage of the term, writing that it "rests on a substantial body of scholarship".[58] Ostler argues that there is a "general consensus" that genocide took place in at least "some times and places in the state's early history".[58] Responding to critics of the "genocide" charge that have argued that epidemics were the primary cause of Native mortality,[157] Ostler writes that "depopulation from disease more often resulted from conditions created by colonialism—in California, loss of land, destruction of resources and food stores, lack of clean water, captive taking, sexual violence, and massacre—that encouraged the spread of pathogens and increased communities' vulnerability through malnutrition, exposure, social stress, and destruction of sources of medicine and capacities for palliative care".[58] He continues, "since the United States' colonization of California was intended to dispossess Indigenous peoples and since that intention had the predictable consequence of making communities vulnerable to multiple diseases which led to massive population loss, disease in this case qualifies as a crucial factor contributing to genocide".[58]

Karl Jacoby, in his review of An American Genocide, argues that the book removes "any doubt that genocide against Native people took place in the most populous and prosperous state in the US" and that it establishes "conclusively the reality of genocide in the Golden State".[158] He also notes that Madley "illuminates the ways that federal and state policies facilitated popular violence against Indians".[158] William Bauer Jr. argues that Benjamin Madley "has settled the issue on whether or not genocide occurred in California".[159] He writes also that "federal and state governments, those bodies that could or should have protected California Indians from the devastating violence, condoned and perpetrated genocides" and that "civilian leaders in California passed legislation that enabled genocide".[159] Margaret Jacobs writes that Madley has made it "nearly impossible to deny that a genocide took place against Native peoples in at least one location and one time period in American history" and that he shows how "the genocide started out as the work of vigilante groups but soon gained state funding and federal support".[160] Jacobs points out, for example, that "in 1854, Congress agreed to pay off California's war debt, and by the end of 1856, the federal government had given California more than $800,000 to distribute to bond holders who had financed the genocidal killing in the state."[160]

In his book The Rediscovery of America, historian Ned Blackhawk argues that "historians have located genocide across Native American history" and cites California as a specific example.[161] Blackhawk writes that in California, "settlers used informal and state-sanctioned violence to shatter Native worlds and legitimate their own" and also notes that "in February 1852, for example, the state legislature appropriated $500,000 to fund anti-Indian state militias".[162] Regarding the role of the federal government, he writes that they had "earlier attempted an alternate scenario to the genocide at hand. In 1851 and 1852, officials negotiated eighteen treaties across the state; however, bowing to California representatives, the Senate rejected these treaties, essentially authorizing the continued use of settler violence to aid colonization."[163]

Against edit

Other scholars and historians dispute the accuracy of the term "genocide" to describe what occurred in California, as well as the blame which has been placed directly on the federal government and the state government of California,[1] pointing to the fact that disease was the primary factor in the depopulation of California Indians and arguing that mass violence was undertaken primarily by settlers and that the state and federal governments did not establish a policy of physically killing all Indians.[146] One of the most prominent historians espousing such a view is Gary Clayton Anderson,[164] a University of Oklahoma professor of history who describes the events in California as "ethnic cleansing",[1][165] arguing that "If we get to the point where the mass murder of 50 Indians in California is considered genocide, then genocide has no more meaning".[1] Historian William Henry Hutchinson, wrote that "the record of history disproves these charges [of genocide]",[166] while historian Tom Henry Watkins stated that "it is a poor use of the term" since the killings were not systematic or planned.[167] Michael F. Magliari also criticizes the term, writing that "[Sherburne] Cook never described the terrible events of 1846–1873 as a genocide, and neither have any of his leading successors in California Indian history" and describing the term's application (especially under the UN Genocide Convention) "highly problematic".[2] In a subsequent review of Benjamin Madley's An American Genocide, Magliari states that the case for genocide is "overwhelming and compelling" and that genocide played a "significant role in the US conquest and subjugation of Native California".[157] However, he also notes that Madley's use of the UN Genocide Convention's "overly broad and elastic definition" may be rejected by certain scholars, that the evidence of genocide "varies considerably from place to place and is far stronger in some cases", and that Madley's case against the federal government is "not nearly so strong" as that against "frontier miners, farmers, and ranchers".[157] Magliari also argues that "epidemics, not violence, still remained by far the greater factor in Native mortality".[157]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Aboriginal Americans. Quote: "Dr. MacGowan, in a lecture delivered at New York, estimated the present number of Indians in the United States to be about 250,000, and said that unless something prevented the oppression and cruelty of the white man, these people would gradually become reduced, and finally extinct. He predicted the total extermination of the Digger Indians of California and the tribes of other states within ten years, if something were not done for their relief. The lecturer concluded by strongly urging the establishment of a Protective Aborigines Society, something similar to the society in England to prevent cruelty to animals. By this means he thought the condition of the Indian might be improved and the race longer perpetuated." The British Medical Journal, Vol. 1, No. 274 (March 31, 1866), p. 350

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December 20, 2023
california, genocide, conflicts, during, settling, california, united, states, california, indian, wars, system, forced, labor, indigenous, people, during, forced, labor, california, series, systematized, killings, thousands, indigenous, peoples, california, u. For the conflicts during the settling of California by the United States see California Indian Wars For the system of forced labor for Indigenous people during the California genocide see Forced labor in California The California genocide was a series of systematized killings of thousands of Indigenous peoples of California by United States government agents and private citizens in the 19th century It began following the American Conquest of California from Mexico and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Rush which accelerated the decline of the Indigenous population of California Between 1846 and 1873 it is estimated that non Natives killed between 9 492 and 16 094 California Natives Hundreds to thousands were additionally starved or worked to death 4 Acts of enslavement kidnapping rape child separation and forced displacement were widespread These acts were encouraged tolerated and carried out by state authorities and militias 8 California genocidePart of the California Indian Wars Protecting The Settlers illustration by J R Browne in The Indians Of California 1864LocationCaliforniaDate1846 1873TargetIndigenous CaliforniansAttack typeGenocide ethnic cleansing human hunting slavery rape Indian removalDeathsNo more than 2 000 per Anderson 1 4 300 per Cook 2 4 500 per California Secretary of State 3 9 492 16 094 per Madley 4 100 000 per Castillo California Native American Heritage Commission 5 Injured10 000 27 000 6 7 taken as forced laborers by white settlers 4 000 7 000 of them children 7 PerpetratorsUnited States Army California State Militia White American settlersThe 1925 book Handbook of the Indians of California estimated that the Indigenous population of California decreased from perhaps as many as 150 000 in 1848 to 30 000 in 1870 and fell further to 16 000 in 1900 The decline was caused by disease low birth rates starvation killings and massacres California Natives particularly during the Gold Rush were targeted in killings 9 10 11 Between 10 000 6 and 27 000 7 were also taken as forced labor by settlers The state of California used its institutions to favor white settlers rights over Indigenous rights dispossessing natives 12 Since the 2000s several American academics and activist organizations both Native American and European American have characterized the period immediately following the U S Conquest of California as one in which the state and federal governments waged genocide against the Native Americans in the territory In 2019 California s governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide and called for a research group to be formed to better understand the topic and inform future generations 13 Contents 1 Background 1 1 Indigenous peoples 1 2 Contact 1 3 Timeline 1 3 1 1769 1 3 2 1821 1823 1 3 3 1846 48 1 3 4 1848 1 3 5 1850 1 3 6 1851 52 1 3 7 1851 69 1 3 8 1860s 1 3 9 Late 1800s early 1900s 1 3 10 1909 2 Response following statehood 2 1 Violence statistics 2 2 Archaeological evidence of violence and refugeeism in California 2 3 List of recorded massacres 2 4 Population decline 3 Select ethnic groups targeted 3 1 Yuki 3 2 Yahi 3 3 Tolowa 4 Economic aspects of genocide in Southern California 5 Legacy 5 1 Land theft and value 5 2 Call for tribunals 5 3 Apologies and name changes 6 Academic debate on the term genocide 6 1 For 6 2 Against 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Citations 10 ReferencesBackground editIndigenous peoples edit nbsp Indigenous ethnic and inset linguistic groups of California prior to European arrivalPrior to Spanish arrival California was home to an Indigenous population thought to have been as high as 300 000 14 The largest group were the Chumash people with a population around 10 000 15 The region was highly diverse with numerous distinct languages spoken While there was great diversity in the area archeological findings show little evidence of intertribal conflicts 11 The various tribal groups appear to have adapted to particular areas and territories According to journalist Nathan Gilles because of traditions practiced by the Native people of Northern California they were able to manage the threat of wildfires and cultivate traditional plants 16 For example traditional use of fire by Californian and Pacific Northwest tribes allowed them to cultivate plants and fungi that adapted to regular burning The list runs from fiber sources such as bear grass and willow to foodstuffs such as berries mushrooms and acorns from oak trees that once made up sprawling orchards 16 Because of traditional practices of Native Californian tribes they were able to support habitats and climates that would then support an abundance of wildlife including rabbits deer varieties of fish fruit roots and acorns The natives largely followed a hunter gatherer lifestyle moving around their area through the seasons as different types of food were available 17 The Native people of California according to sociologist Kari Norgaard were hunting and fishing for their food weaving baskets using traditional techniques and carrying out important ceremonies to keep the world intact 18 It was also recorded that the Indigenous people in California and across the continent had and continue to use fire to enhance specific plant species optimize hunting conditions maintain open travel routes and generally support the flourishing of the species upon which they depend according to scholars 19 like the United States Forest Service ecologist and Karuk descendent Frank Lake 18 Contact edit California was one of the last regions in the Americas to be colonized Catholic Spanish missionaries led by Franciscan administrator Junipero Serra and military forces under the command of Gaspar de Portola did not reach this area until 1769 The mission was intended to spread the Catholic faith among the region s Native peoples and establish and expand the reach of the Spanish Empire 17 The Spanish built San Diego de Alcala the first of 21 missions at what developed as present day San Diego in the southern part of the state along the Pacific Military outposts were constructed alongside the missions to house the soldiers sent to protect the missionaries citation needed Spanish and Mexican rule were devastating for native populations As the missions grew California s native population of Indians began a catastrophic decline 20 Gregory Orfalea estimates that pre contact population was reduced by 33 during the Spanish and Mexican regimes Most of the decline stemmed from imported diseases low birth rates and the disruption of traditional ways of life but violence was common and some historians have charged that life in the missions was close to slavery 10 21 However according to George Tinker a Native scholar The Native American population of coastal population was reduced by some 90 percent during seventy years under the sole proprietorship of Serra s mission system 22 According to journalist Ed Castillo Serra spread the Christian faith among the Native population in a destructive way that caused their population to decline rapidly while he was in power Castillo writes that The Franciscans took it upon themselves to brutalize the Indians and to rejoice in their death They simply wanted the souls of these Indians so they baptized them and when they died from disease or beatings they were going to heaven which was a cause of celebration 17 According to Castillo the Native American population were forced to abandon their sustainable and complex civilization as well as their beliefs their faith and their way of life 17 Timeline edit The following is a rough timeline of some of the key events and policies that contributed to the genocide It is by no means comprehensive 1769 edit Spanish colonizers establish a mission system in California which leads to the forced conversion and enslavement of Native Americans 23 24 25 1821 1823 edit Mexico gains independence from Spain and takes control of California continuing the Spanish government s policies of forced labor and conversion of Indigenous peoples 26 25 1846 48 edit The Mexican American War led to the annexation of California by the United States The settlers and U S military formed an alliance and were joined by some Indigenous people although the military had murdered many natives 27 25 1848 edit The discovery of gold in California leads to the influx of a massive horde of settlers who form militias to kill and displace Indigenous peoples 28 29 25 1850 edit The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians is passed legalizing the enslavement of Native Americans and allowing settlers to capture and force them into labor 30 31 1851 52 edit The Mariposa War breaks out between white settlers and the Mariposa Battalion resulting in the displacement and killing of Native Americans in the Sierra Nevada region 32 1851 69 edit California pays bounties for the killing of Native Americans 33 34 35 1860s edit The federal government begins a policy of forced removal of Native Americans peoples to reservations which leads to violence and displacement 36 Late 1800s early 1900s edit Indigenous children are forcibly removed from their families by the California government and placed in boarding schools where they are subjected to abuse and forced assimilation 37 38 39 1909 edit The California state government establishes the California Eugenics Record Office which promotes the forced sterilization of people declared by the government to be unfit including Black Latino and Indigenous women who were incarcerated or in state institutions for disabilities 40 41 42 Response following statehood edit nbsp Map of California from Indian Land Cessions in the United StatesFollowing the American Conquest of California from Mexico and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Rush in 1849 California state and federal authorities incited aided and financed the violence against the Native Americans The California Natives were also sometimes contemptuously referred to as Diggers for their practice of digging up roots to eat 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 On January 6 1851 at his State of the State address to the California Senate 1st Governor Peter Burnett said That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected While we cannot anticipate this result but with painful regret the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power or wisdom of man to avert 50 51 52 During the California genocide reports of the decimation of Native Americans in California were made to the rest of the United States and internationally note 1 The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians was enacted in 1850 amended 1860 repealed 1863 This law provided for apprenticing or indenturing Indian children to Whites and also punished vagrant Indians by hiring them out to the highest bidder at a public auction if the Indian could not provide sufficient bond or bail This legalized a form of slavery in California 53 White settlers took 10 000 to 27 000 California Native Americans as forced laborers including 4 000 to 7 000 children 6 7 I have the honor to report to the general commanding the Department of the Pacific that I have been in this valley fifteen days carrying out my instructions to chastise these Indians or the Indians of Owens River that I have killed several taken eleven prisoners and destroyed a great many rancherias and a large quantity of seeds worms amp c that the Indians had gathered for food George S Evans Lieutenant Colonel Second Cavalry California Volunteers Commanding Owens River Expedition 1862 War of the Rebellion OPERATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST Chapter LXII 54 A notable early eyewitness testimony and account The Indians of California 1864 is from John Ross Browne Customs official and Inspector of Indian Affairs on the Pacific Coast He systematically described the fraud corruption land theft slavery rape and massacre perpetrated on a substantial portion of the aboriginal population 55 56 This was confirmed by a contemporary Superintendent Dorcas J Spencer 57 Violence statistics edit In 1943 a study by demographer Sherburne Cook estimated that there were 4 556 killings of California Indians between 1847 and 1865 4 3 Contemporary historian Benjamin Madley has documented the numbers of Californian Indians killed between 1846 and 1873 he estimates that during this period at least 9 492 to 16 092 Californian Indians were killed by non Indians including between 1 680 and 3 741 killed by the U S Army Most of the deaths took place in what he defined as more than 370 massacres defined as the intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants including women children and prisoners whether in the context of a battle or otherwise Madley also estimates that fewer than 1 400 non Indians were killed by Indians during this period 4 The Native American activist and former Sonoma State University Professor Ed Castillo was asked by The State of California s Native American Heritage Commission to write the state s official history of the genocide he wrote that well armed death squads combined with the widespread random killing of Indians by individual miners resulted in the death of 100 000 Indians in 1848 and 1849 5 Another contemporary historian Gary Clayton Anderson estimated that no more than 2 000 Native Americans were killed in California 1 Jeffrey Ostler has critiqued Anderson s estimate calling it unsubstantiated and at least five times too low 58 Archaeological evidence of violence and refugeeism in California edit Research made in 2015 on native burial mounds in the San Francisco Bay area found that natives would move to different places in order to avoid genocide The movement can be traced by the dating of the burial mounds since multiple native tribes found these burial mound spaces as places of religious and cultural freedom 59 The Amah Mutsun are a group of Indigenous peoples who were reported to be unable to pass on their traditions during this time their practices remained untold for a number of years People of this group descendants and archaeologists participate in conducting collaborative ethnographic research to bring light to previous practices like burial practices and vegetation patterns 60 List of recorded massacres edit Year Date Name Current location Description Reported casualties References1846 April 6 Sacramento River massacre Sacramento River in Shasta County Northern California Captain John C Fremont s men attacked a band of Indians probably Wintun on the Sacramento River in California killing between 120 and 200 Indians 120 200 61 1846 June Sutter Buttes massacre Sutter Buttes in Sutter County Northern California Captain John C Fremont s men attacked a rancheria on the banks of the Sacramento River near Sutter Buttes killing several Patwin people 14 62 1846 December Pauma massacre Pauma Valley in San Diego County Southern California 11 Californios captured at Rancho Pauma were killed as horse thieves by Indians at Warner Springs California leading to the Temecula massacre 11 settlers 63 1846 December Temecula massacre Temecula in Riverside County Southern California 33 to 40 Luiseno Indians killed in an ambush in revenge for the Pauma Massacre east of Temecula California 33 40 63 1847 March Rancheria Tulea massacre Napa Valley in Napa County Northern California White slavers retaliate to a slave escape by massacring five Indians in Rancheria Tulea 5 62 1847 March 29 Kern and Sutter massacres Mill Creek in Tehama County Northern California In response to a plea from White settlers to put an end to raids U S Army Captain Edward Kern and rancher John Sutter led 50 men in attacks on three Indian villages 20 62 1847 late June early July Konkow Maidu slaver massacre Chico in Butte County Northern California Slavers kill 12 20 Konkow Maidu Indians in the process of capturing 30 members of the tribe for the purpose of forced slavery 12 20 62 1850 May 15 Bloody Island massacre Clear Lake in Lake County Northern California Nathaniel Lyon and his U S Army detachment of cavalry killed 60 100 Pomo people on Bo no po ti island near Clear Lake Lake Co California they believed the Pomo had killed two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people The Island Pomo had no connections to the enslaved Pomo This incident led to a general outbreak of settler attacks against and mass killing of native people all over Northern California The site is now California Registered Historical Landmark 427 60 100 64 65 66 1851 January 11 Mariposa War Various sites in Mariposa County Northern California The gold rush increased pressure on the Native Americans of California because miners forced Native Americans off their gold rich lands Many were pressed into service in the mines others had their villages raided by the army and volunteer militia Some Native American tribes fought back beginning with the Ahwahnechees and the Chowchilla in the Sierra Nevada and San Joaquin Valley leading a raid on the Fresno River post of James D Savage in December 1850 In retaliation Mariposa County Sheriff James Burney led local militia in an indecisive clash with the natives on January 11 1851 on a mountainside near present day Oakhurst California 40 1851 Old Shasta Town Massacre Shasta in Shasta County Northern California Miners killed 300 Wintu Indians near Old Shasta California and burned down their tribal council meeting house 300 67 1852 April 23 Bridge Gulch massacre Hayfork Creek in Trinity County Northern California 70 American men led by Trinity County sheriff William H Dixon killed more than 150 Wintu people in the Hayfork Valley of California in retaliation for the killing of Col John Anderson 150 68 1853 Howonquet massacre Smith River in Del Norte County Northern California Californian settlers attacked and burned the Tolowa village of Howonquet massacring 70 people 70 69 1853 Yontoket Massacre Yontocket in Del Norte County Northern California A posse of settlers attacked and burned a Tolowa rancheria at Yontocket California killing 450 Tolowa during a prayer ceremony 450 70 71 1853 Achulet Massacre Lake Earl in Del Norte County Northern California White settlers launched an attack on a Tolowa village near Lake Earl in California killing between 65 and 150 Indians at dawn 65 150 72 1853 Before December 31 Ox incident Visalia in Tulare County Central Valley U S forces attacked and killed an unreported number of Indians in the Four Creeks area Tulare County California in what was referred to by officers as our little difficulty and the chastisement they have received 73 1855 January 22 Klamath River massacres Klamath River in Del Norte County Northern California In retaliation for the murder of six settlers and the theft of some cattle whites commenced a war of extermination against the Indians in Humboldt County California 74 1856 March Shingletown Shingleton in Shasta County Northern California In reprisal for Indian stock theft white settlers massacred at least 20 Yana men women and children near Shingletown California 20 75 1856 1859 Round Valley Settler Massacres Round Valley in Mendocino County Northern California White settlers killed over a thousand Yuki Indians in Round Valley over the course of three years in an uncountable number of separate massacres 1 000 76 77 1859 1860 Mendocino War Various sites in Mendocino County Northern California White settlers calling themselves the Eel River Rangers led by Walter Jarboe killed at least 283 Indian men and countless women and children in 23 engagements over the course of six months They were reimbursed by the U S government for their campaign 283 76 1859 September Pit River Pit River in Northern California White settlers massacred 70 Achomawi Indians 10 men and 60 women and children in their village on the Pit River in California 70 78 1859 Chico Creek Big Chico Creek in Butte County Northern California White settlers attacked a Maidu camp near Chico Creek in California killing indiscriminately 40 Indians 40 79 1860 Exact date unknown Massacre at Bloody Rock Mendocino National Forest in Mendocino County Northern California A group of 65 Yuki Indians were surrounded and massacred by white settlers at Bloody Rock in Mendocino County California 651860 February 26 1860 Wiyot massacre Tuluwat Island in Humboldt County Northern California In three nearly simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot at Indian Island Eureka Rio Dell and near Hydesville California white settlers killed between 80 and 250 Wiyot in Humboldt County California Victims were mostly women children and elders as reported by Bret Harte at Arcata newspaper Other villages were massacred within two days The main site is National Register of Historic Places in the United States 66000208 80 250 80 81 82 83 1863 April 19 Keyesville massacre Keyesville in Kern County Central Valley American militia and members of the California Volunteers cavalry killed 35 Tubatulabal men in Kern County California 35 84 1863 August 28 Konkow Trail of Tears Chico in Butte County to Covelo in Mendocino County Northern California In August 1863 all Konkow Maidu were to be sent to the Bidwell Ranch in Chico and then be taken to the Round Valley Reservation at Covelo in Mendocino County Any Indians remaining in the area were to be shot Maidu were rounded up and marched under guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range 461 Native Americans started the trek 277 finished 85 They reached the Round Valley on September 18 1863 184 85 1864 Oak Run massacre Oak Run in Shasta County Northern California California settlers massacred 300 Yana Indians who had gathered near the head of Oak Run California for a spiritual ceremony 300 86 1865 Owens Lake massacre Owens Lake in Inyo County Northern California To avenge the killing of a woman and child at Haiwai Meadows White vigilantes attacked a Paiute camp on Owens Lake in California killing about 40 men women and children 40 87 1865 Three Knolls massacre Mill Creek in Tehama County Northern California White settlers massacred a Yana community at Three Knolls on the Mill Creek California 88 1868 Campo Seco Mill Creek in Tehama County Northern California A posse of white settlers massacred 33 Yahis in a cave north of Mill Creek California 33 89 90 1871 Kingsley Cave massacre Ishi Wilderness in Tehama County Northern California 4 settlers killed 30 Yahi Indians in Tehama County California about two miles from Wild Horse Corral in the Ishi Wilderness It is estimated that this massacre left only 15 members of the Yahi tribe alive 30 91 Population decline edit Further information Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas nbsp Estimated native California population based on Handbook of the Indians of California 1925 Cook 1978 Groups Population by yearAll minimum sources below cite 15 unreliable source 1770 1910Yurok 2 500 up to 3 100 92 700Karok 1 500 up to 2 000 to 2 700 93 94 800Wiyot 1 000 100Tolowa 1 000 150Hupa 1 000 500Chilula Whilkut 1 000 Mattole 500 up to 2 476 95 Nongatl Sinkyone Lassik 2 000 up to 7 957 95 100Wailaki 1 000 up to 2 760 95 200Kato 500 up to 1 100 92 Yuki 2 000 up to 6 000 to 20 000 96 100Huchnom 500 Coast Yuki 500 Wappo 1 000 up to 1 650 97 Pomo 8 000 up to 10 000 98 to 18 000 98 1 200Lake Miwok 500 Coast Miwok 1 500 Shasta 2 000 up to 5 600 99 to 10 000 100 100Chimariko New River Konomihu Oakwanuchu 1 000 Achomawi Atsugawi 3 000 1 100Modoc in California 500 Yana Yahi 1 500 Wintun 12 000 1 000Maidu 9 000 up to 9 500 101 1 100Miwok Plains and Sierra 9 000 700Yokuts 18 000 up to 70 000 102 600Costanoan 7 000 up 10 000 103 to 26 000 combined with Salinan 104 Esselen 500 Salinan 3 000 Chumash 10 000 up to 13 650 105 to 20 400 105 106 Washo in California 500 300Northern Paiute in California 500 300Eastern and Western Mono 4 000 1 500Tubatulabal 1 000 150Koso Chemehuevi Kawaiisu 1 500 500Serrano Vanyume Kitanemuk Alliklik 3 500 150Gabrielino Fernandeno San Nicoleno 5 000 Luiseno 4 000 up to 10 000 107 500Juaneno 1 000 up 3 340 108 Cupeno 500 up to 750 109 150Cahuilla 2 500 up to 6 000 110 to 15 000 110 800Diegueno Kamia 3 000 up to 6 000 111 to 19 000 112 800Mohave total 3 000 1 050Halchidhoma emigrated since 1800 1 000 up to 2 500 113 Yuma Total 2 500 750Total of groups marked 45015 850Less river Yumans in Arizona 3 000 up to 4 000 114 850Non Californian Indians now in California 350Affiliation doubtful or not reported 1 000Total 133 000 up to 230 407 to 301 233 16 350Select ethnic groups targeted editWhile many groups were targeted in the genocide the circumstances of individual groups can be illustrative of the on the ground happenings of the killings Yuki edit More than 1 000 Yuki are estimated to have been killed in the Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856 1859 and 400 in the Mendocino War many others were enslaved and only 300 survived The intent of the massacres was to exterminate the Yuki and gain control of the land they inhabited U S Army soldiers deployed to the valley stopped most of the killings and in 1862 the California legislature revoked a law which permitted the kidnapping and enslavement of Native Americans in the state A few specific attacks of which there is witness testimony are A local paper reported 55 Indians killed in Clinton Valley on October 8 1856 115 A White farmer John Lawson admitted an attack killing 8 Indians 3 by shooting and 5 by hanging after some of his hogs were stolen He stated that these killings were a common practice 116 A White farmer Isaac Shanon testified to killing 14 Indians in a revenge attack after a White man was killed in early 1858 117 White persons from the Sacramento Valley came into Round Valley and killed 4 Yuki Indians with the help of locals in June 1858 despite having been warned against it by Indian Agents 118 White settlers attacked and killed 9 Indians in the mountains edging the valley on November 1858 119 Former Superintendent of Indian Affairs Thomas Henley fired two months earlier for embezzling funds led a massacre of 11 Yuki Indians in August 1859 120 Due to the overwhelming number of killings an exact death toll is unknowable The following estimates were made by government agents and newspapers at the time 1856 300 total killed over the course of the year 115 Winter 1856 57 About 75 Yuki Indians killed over the course of the winter 121 March April 1858 300 400 male Yukis killed in three weeks 122 November 1858 January 1859 150 123 or 170 124 Yuki Indians killed between November and JanuaryMarch May 1859 240 Yuki killed in assaults led by H L Hall in revenge for the slaughter of Judge Hasting s horse 125 126 and a total of 600 men women and children killed within the previous year 127 These estimates suggest well over 1 000 Yuki deaths at the hands of White settlers See Cook Sherburne The California Indian and White Civilization Part III pg 7 for an argument in favor of the approximate reliability of figures of Indians killed at this time Yahi edit The Yahi were the first of the Yana people to suffer from the Californian Gold Rush for their lands were the closest to the gold fields 128 They suffered great population losses from the loss of their traditional food supplies and fought with the settlers over territory They lacked firearms and armed white settlers intentionally committed genocide against them in multiple raids 129 These raids took place as part of the California genocide during which the U S Army and vigilante militias carried out killings as well as the relocation of thousands of indigenous peoples in California 130 The massacre reduced the Yahi who were already suffering from starvation to a population of less than 100 128 On August 6 1865 seventeen settlers raided a Yahi village at dawn In 1866 more Yahis were massacred when they were caught by surprise in a ravine Circa 1867 33 Yahis were killed after being tracked to a cave north of Mill Creek Circa 1871 four cowboys trapped and killed about 30 Yahis in Kingsley cave 129 The last known survivor of the Yahi was named Ishi by American anthropologists Ishi had spent most of his life hiding with his tribe members in the Sierra wilderness emerging at the age of about 49 after the deaths of his mother and remaining relatives He was the only Yahi known to Americans Tolowa edit In 1770 the Tolowa had a population of 1 000 15 their population soon dropped to 150 15 in 1910 this was almost entirely due to deliberate mass murder in what has been called genocide 131 which has been recognized by the state of California 132 In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019 California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide Newsom said That s what it was a genocide No other way to describe it And that s the way it needs to be described in the history books 132 Among these killings the Yontoket Massacre left 150 131 to 500 131 Tolowa people recorded dead Because their homes had burned down the place received the name Burnt Ranch The Yontoket massacre decimated the cultural center of the Tolowa peoples The natives from the surrounding areas would gather there for their celebrations and discussions The survivors of the massacre were forced to move to the village north of Smith s River called Howonquet The slaughtering of the Tolowa people continued for some years They were seemingly always caught at their Needash celebrations These massacres caused some unrest which led in part to the Rogue River Indian war Many Tolowa people were incarcerated at Battery Point in 1855 to withhold them from joining an uprising led by their chief In 1860 after the Chetco Rogue River War 600 Tolowa were forcibly relocated to Indian reservations in Oregon including what is now known as the Siletz Reservation in the Central Coastal Range Later some were moved to the Hoopa Valley Reservation in California Adding to the number of dead from the Yontoket Massacre and the Battery Point Attack are many more in the following years These massacres included the Chetko Massacre with 24 131 dead the Smith creek massacre with 7 131 dead the Howonquet Massacre with 70 131 dead the Achulet massacre with 65 dead 133 not including those whose bodies were left in the lake and the Stundossun Massacre with 300 131 dead In total 902 Tolowa Native Americans were killed in 7 years There are no records that any of the perpetrators were ever held accountable 131 This means over 90 of the entire Tolowa population was killed in deliberate massacres Economic aspects of genocide in Southern California editAt the outset the Euro American population of Los Angeles County identified a practical application for the utilization of Native labor within an economy that was experiencing a shortage of laborers due to the mass migration of individuals to the gold fields During the 1850s Caucasians in the United States of America depended on individuals of Native American descent to cultivate vast areas of land in return for minimal or non existent monetary compensation During the period of the Gold Rush numerous rancho owners were able to reap significant benefits by driving their livestock into the Central Valley and Sierra foothills thereby capitalizing on the relatively prosperous years of gold mining 134 Legacy editLand theft and value edit According to M Kat Anderson an ecologist and lecturer at University of California Davis and Jon Keeley a fire ecologist and research scientist with the U S Geological Survey after decades of being disconnected from the land and their culture due to Spanish and U S colonial violence Native peoples are slowly starting to be able to practice traditions that enhance the environment around them by directly taking care of the land Anderson and Keeley write The outcomes that Indigenous people were aiming for when burning chaparral such as increased water flow enhanced wildlife habitat and the maintenance of many kinds of flowering plants and animals are congruent and dovetail with the values that public land agencies non profit organizations and private landowners wish to preserve and enhance through wildland management 135 Through these returned practices they are able to commit and practice their culture while also helping the other people in the area that will benefit from the ecological differences California Landmark 427 built in 2005 represents the Bloody Island Massacre of the Pomo people that took place on May 15 1850 136 The monument is used as a center point of an annual festival beginning in 1999 held by Pomo descendants Candles and tobacco are burned in honor of their ancestors Call for tribunals edit Native American scholar Gerald Vizenor has argued in the early 21st century for universities to be authorized to assemble tribunals to investigate these events He notes that United States federal law contains no statute of limitations on war crimes and crimes against humanity including genocide He says Genocide tribunals would provide venues of judicial reason and equity that reveal continental ethnic cleansing mass murder torture and religious persecution past and present and would justly expose in the context of legal competition for evidence the inciters falsifiers and deniers of genocide and state crimes against Native American Indians Genocide tribunals would surely enhance the moot court programs in law schools and provide more serious consideration of human rights and international criminal cases by substantive testimony motivated historical depositions documentary evidence contentious narratives and ethical accountability 137 Vizenor believes that in accordance with international law the universities of South Dakota Minnesota and California Berkeley ought to establish tribunals to hear evidence and adjudicate crimes against humanity alleged to have taken place in their individual states 138 Attorney Lindsay Glauner has also argued for such tribunals 139 Apologies and name changes edit In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019 California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide Newsom referring to the proposed California Truth and Healing Council said California must reckon with our dark history California Native American peoples suffered violence discrimination and exploitation sanctioned by state government throughout its history It s called genocide That s what it was a genocide No other way to describe it And that s the way it needs to be described in the history books We can never undo the wrongs inflicted on the peoples who have lived on this land that we now call California since time immemorial but we can work together to build bridges tell the truth about our past and begin to heal deep wounds 140 141 After hearing testimony a Truth and Healing Council will clarify the historical record on the relationship between the state and California Native Americans 142 In November 2021 the board of directors of the University of California Hastings College of Law voted to change the name of the institution because of namesake S C Hastings involvement in the killing and dispossessing of Yuki people in the 1850s 143 144 Academic debate on the term genocide editThere is vigorous debate over the scale of Native American losses after the discovery of gold in California and whether to characterize them as genocide 145 146 The application of the term genocide in particular has been controversial 147 According to historian Jeffrey Ostler the debate mostly rests on disagreements regarding the definition of the term 146 He writes that by a strict intentionalist 58 definition genocide requir es a federal or state government intention to kill all California Indians and an outcome in which the majority of deaths were from direct killing while by a less strict structuralist 58 definition it requir es only settler intention to destroy a substantial portion of California Indians using a variety of means ranging from dispossession to systematic killing 146 Under the former definition Ostler argues that genocide does not seem applicable whereas under the latter definition genocide seems apt In 1948 Article 2 of the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide defined genocide as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy in whole or in part a national ethnic racial or religious group as such a Killing members of the group b Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group c Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part d Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group e Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Article 2 148 For edit nbsp National Park Service information sign at the Presidio of San Francisco describing the California genocide Historians who argue the term genocide is appropriate point out that the Indian population of California fell quickly and argue that extreme violence was integral to this process 146 Benjamin Madley a UCLA historian is one of the most prominent historians espousing this view writing that i t was genocide sanctioned and facilitated by California officials who according to him established a state sponsored killing machine 149 Historian Brendan C Lindsay argued that rather than a government orchestrating a population to bring about the genocide of a group in California the population orchestrated a government to destroy a group 150 while William T Hagen wrote that genocide is a term of awful significance but one which has application to the story of California s Native Americans 151 James J Rawls argued that Californian whites advocated and carried out a program of genocide that was popularly called extermination 152 Militias were called out by the governors of California for expeditions against the Indians on a number of occasions 153 18 Supporters of the use of the term genocide stress the involvement and complicity of federal and state authorities in perpetrating atrocities against the indigenous Californians and point to their statements and policies as evidence of direct genocidal intent For example historian Richard White in a review of Madley s An American Genocide argues that no reader of his book can seriously contend that what happened in California doesn t meet the current definition of genocide citing the relentless attacks by federal troops state militia vigilantes and mercenaries that made the enslavement of Indians possible and starvation and disease inevitable 154 White continues in California what Americans have often called war was nothing of the sort For every American who died 100 Indians perished They died horribly men women and children The men who killed them were brutal Nor did the killings result from a moment of rage they were systematic White stresses the complicity of the US federal government noting that the funding that the US government provided for California s militia expeditions made attacking Indians possible and profitable 154 Writing about the experience of indigenous Californian women during this period Women s studies scholar Gail Ukockis argues that government officials were quite explicit about their genocidal intent 155 citing the 1851 State of the State address given by the 1st Governor of California Peter Burnett in which he said That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected 156 Jeffrey Ostler too endorsed the usage of the term writing that it rests on a substantial body of scholarship 58 Ostler argues that there is a general consensus that genocide took place in at least some times and places in the state s early history 58 Responding to critics of the genocide charge that have argued that epidemics were the primary cause of Native mortality 157 Ostler writes that depopulation from disease more often resulted from conditions created by colonialism in California loss of land destruction of resources and food stores lack of clean water captive taking sexual violence and massacre that encouraged the spread of pathogens and increased communities vulnerability through malnutrition exposure social stress and destruction of sources of medicine and capacities for palliative care 58 He continues since the United States colonization of California was intended to dispossess Indigenous peoples and since that intention had the predictable consequence of making communities vulnerable to multiple diseases which led to massive population loss disease in this case qualifies as a crucial factor contributing to genocide 58 Karl Jacoby in his review of An American Genocide argues that the book removes any doubt that genocide against Native people took place in the most populous and prosperous state in the US and that it establishes conclusively the reality of genocide in the Golden State 158 He also notes that Madley illuminates the ways that federal and state policies facilitated popular violence against Indians 158 William Bauer Jr argues that Benjamin Madley has settled the issue on whether or not genocide occurred in California 159 He writes also that federal and state governments those bodies that could or should have protected California Indians from the devastating violence condoned and perpetrated genocides and that civilian leaders in California passed legislation that enabled genocide 159 Margaret Jacobs writes that Madley has made it nearly impossible to deny that a genocide took place against Native peoples in at least one location and one time period in American history and that he shows how the genocide started out as the work of vigilante groups but soon gained state funding and federal support 160 Jacobs points out for example that in 1854 Congress agreed to pay off California s war debt and by the end of 1856 the federal government had given California more than 800 000 to distribute to bond holders who had financed the genocidal killing in the state 160 In his book The Rediscovery of America historian Ned Blackhawk argues that historians have located genocide across Native American history and cites California as a specific example 161 Blackhawk writes that in California settlers used informal and state sanctioned violence to shatter Native worlds and legitimate their own and also notes that in February 1852 for example the state legislature appropriated 500 000 to fund anti Indian state militias 162 Regarding the role of the federal government he writes that they had earlier attempted an alternate scenario to the genocide at hand In 1851 and 1852 officials negotiated eighteen treaties across the state however bowing to California representatives the Senate rejected these treaties essentially authorizing the continued use of settler violence to aid colonization 163 Against edit Other scholars and historians dispute the accuracy of the term genocide to describe what occurred in California as well as the blame which has been placed directly on the federal government and the state government of California 1 pointing to the fact that disease was the primary factor in the depopulation of California Indians and arguing that mass violence was undertaken primarily by settlers and that the state and federal governments did not establish a policy of physically killing all Indians 146 One of the most prominent historians espousing such a view is Gary Clayton Anderson 164 a University of Oklahoma professor of history who describes the events in California as ethnic cleansing 1 165 arguing that If we get to the point where the mass murder of 50 Indians in California is considered genocide then genocide has no more meaning 1 Historian William Henry Hutchinson wrote that the record of history disproves these charges of genocide 166 while historian Tom Henry Watkins stated that it is a poor use of the term since the killings were not systematic or planned 167 Michael F Magliari also criticizes the term writing that Sherburne Cook never described the terrible events of 1846 1873 as a genocide and neither have any of his leading successors in California Indian history and describing the term s application especially under the UN Genocide Convention highly problematic 2 In a subsequent review of Benjamin Madley s An American Genocide Magliari states that the case for genocide is overwhelming and compelling and that genocide played a significant role in the US conquest and subjugation of Native California 157 However he also notes that Madley s use of the UN Genocide Convention s overly broad and elastic definition may be rejected by certain scholars that the evidence of genocide varies considerably from place to place and is far stronger in some cases and that Madley s case against the federal government is not nearly so strong as that against frontier miners farmers and ranchers 157 Magliari also argues that epidemics not violence still remained by far the greater factor in Native mortality 157 See also editBibliography of California history American Indian Wars California Indian Reservations and Cessions California Indian Wars California mission clash of cultures Comanche campaign Cupeno trail of tears Genocides in history Genocide of Indigenous peoples 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic History of California List of genocides List of Indian massacres Long Walk of the Navajo Northern Cheyenne Exodus Serranus Clinton Hastings Trail of Tears Yavapai WarsNotes edit Aboriginal Americans Quote Dr MacGowan in a lecture delivered at New York estimated the present number of Indians in the United States to be about 250 000 and said that unless something prevented the oppression and cruelty of the white man these people would gradually become reduced and finally extinct He predicted the total extermination of the Digger Indians of California and the tribes of other states within ten years if something were not done for their relief The lecturer concluded by strongly urging the establishment of a Protective Aborigines Society something similar to the society in England to prevent cruelty to animals By this means he thought the condition of the Indian might be improved and the race longer perpetuated The British Medical Journal Vol 1 No 274 March 31 1866 p 350Citations edit a b c d e Alexander Nazaryan August 17 2016 California s state sanctioned genocide of Native Americans Newsweek Archived from the original on May 14 2022 Retrieved May 14 2022 a b Magliari Michael F August 1 2013 Review Murder State California s Native American Genocide 1846 1873 by Brendan C Lindsay Pacific Historical Review 82 3 448 449 doi 10 1525 phr 2013 82 3 448 ISSN 0030 8684 Archived from the original on July 10 2023 Retrieved January 14 2023 a b Minorities During the Gold Rush California Secretary of State Archived from the original on February 1 2014 a b c d Madley Benjamin 2016 An American Genocide The United States and the California Catastrophe 1846 1873 Yale University Press pp 11 351 ISBN 978 0 300 18136 4 a b Castillo Edward D California Indian History California Native American Heritage Commission Archived from the original on June 1 2019 a b c Pritzker Barry 2000 A Native American Encyclopedia History Culture and Peoples Oxford University Press p 114 a b c d Exchange Team The Jefferson NorCal Native Writes Of California Genocide JPR Jefferson Public Radio Info is in the podcast Archived from the original on November 14 2019 Adhikari Mohamed July 25 2022 Destroying to Replace Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples Indianapolis Hackett Publishing Company pp 72 115 ISBN 978 1647920548 Archived from the original on March 26 2023 Retrieved March 21 2023 Madley Benjamin 2016 An American Genocide The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe 1846 1873 a b Krell Dorothy ed 1979 The California Missions A Pictorial History Menlo Park California Sunset Publishing Corporation p 316 ISBN 0 376 05172 8 a b California Genocide Indian Country Diaries PBS September 2006 Archived from the original on May 6 2007 Lindsay Brendan C 2012 Murder State California s Native American Genocide 1846 1873 United States University of Nebraska Press pp 2 3 ISBN 978 0 8032 6966 8 Governor Newsom Issues Apology to Native Americans for State s Historical Wrongdoings Establishes Truth and Healing Council California Governor June 18 2019 Retrieved October 14 2023 The First Peoples of California Early California History An Overview Articles and Essays California as I Saw It First Person Narratives of California s Early Years 1849 1900 Digital Collections Library of Congress Library of Congress Archived from the original on August 16 2021 Retrieved May 21 2021 a b c d Kroeber A L 1925 Handbook of the Indians of California United States Bureau of American 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Mendocino War Sacramento a href Template Citation html title Template Citation citation a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Carranco Lynwood Beard Estle 1981 Genocide and Vendetta the Round Valley Wars of North California Norman University of Oklahoma Chapman Charles E 1921 A History of California The Spanish Period New York The MacMillan Company Engelhardt Zephyrin 1922 San Juan Capistrano Mission Los Angeles California Standard Printing Co Heizer Robert F 1993 The Destruction of California Indians Lincoln and London University of Nebraska Press ISBN 978 0 8032 7262 0 Heizer Robert 1974b They Were Only Diggers A Collection of Articles from California Newspapers 1851 1866 Hinton Alexander Laban Woolford Andrew Benvenuto Jeff eds 2014 Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America Duke University Press doi 10 2307 j ctv11sn770 Kelsey Harry 1993 Mission San Juan Capistrano A Pocket History Altadena California Interdisciplinary Research Inc ISBN 978 0 9785881 0 6 Luomala Katharine 1978 Tipai Ipai In Heizer Robert F ed Handbook of North American Indians Vol 8 California Washington DC Smithsonian Institution pp 592 609 ISBN 978 0 16004 574 5 Madley Benjamin 2012 The Genocide of California s Yana Indians In Totten Samuel Parsons Williams S eds Centuries of Genocide Essays and Eyewitness Accounts Routledge pp 16 53 ISBN 978 0 415871 921 Michno Gregory F 2003 Encyclopedia of Indian Wars Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850 1890 Mountain Press Publishing Co ISBN 978 0 87842 468 9 Norton Jack 1979 Genocide in Northwestern California when our worlds cried San Francisco Indian Historian Press ISBN 0 913436 26 2 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint ignored ISBN errors link Paddison Joshua ed 1999 A World Transformed Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush Berkeley California Heyday Books ISBN 978 1 890771 13 3 Rowley Gavin 2020 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California The Devastation of Humboldt and Del Norte County s Indigenous Peoples Humboldt Journal of Social Relations No 42 Special Issue 42 California Indian Genocide and Healing pp 86 105 Ruscin Terry 1999 Mission Memoirs San Diego California Sunbelt Publications ISBN 978 0 932653 30 7 untitled article San Francisco Alta California September 20 1859 Scheper Hughes Nancy 2003 Violence in War and Peace An Anthology Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 22349 8 Secrest William B 1988 Jarboe s War Californians 6 6 16 22 Shipek Florence C 1986 The Impact of Europeans upon Kumeyaay Culture In Starr Raymond ed The Impact of European Exploration and Settlement on Local Native Americans San Diego Cabrillo Historical Association pp 13 25 OCLC 17346424 Thornton Russell 1990 American Indian Holocaust and Survival A Population History since 1492 Norman Johnson to Mackall 21 August 1859 Indian War Papers Sacramento Adjutant General s Office Military Department Adjutant General F3753 378 August 21 1859 Simmon Storms to Tho Henley 23 November 1858 Letters Received Records of the Office of Indian Affairs 1824 1881 Washington DC National Archives RG 75 M234 reel 36 987 November 23 1858 Tassin A G 1887 Chronicles of Camp Wright Part I Overland Monthly 10 25 Thos Henley to Chas Mix 19 June 1858 Records of the Office of Indian Affairs 1824 1881 Washington DC National Archives RG 75 M234 reel 36 814 15 June 19 1858 California genocide at Wikipedia s sister projects nbsp Media from Commons nbsp Quotations from Wikiquote nbsp Data from Wikidata Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title California genocide amp oldid 1189712532, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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