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Wikipedia

Water quality

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage.[1][2] It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to monitor and assess water quality convey the health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, extent of water pollution and condition of drinking water. Water quality has a significant impact on water supply and oftentimes determines supply options.[3]

A rosette sampler is used for collecting water samples in deep water, such as the Great Lakes or oceans, for water quality testing.

Impacts on public health edit

Over time, there has been increasing recognition of the importance of drinking water quality and its impact on public health. This has led to increasing protection and management of water quality.[4]

The understanding of the links between water quality and health continues to grow and highlight new potential health crises: from the chronic impacts of infectious diseases on child development through stunting to new evidence on the harms from known contaminants, such as manganese with growing evidence of neurotoxicity in children.[4] In addition, there are many emerging water quality issues—such as microplastics, perfluorinated compounds, and antimicrobial resistance.[4]

Categories edit

The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for potability, industrial/domestic use, or restoration (of an environment/ecosystem, generally for health of human/aquatic life).[5]

Human consumption edit

 
Regional and national contamination of drinking water by chemical type and population size at risk of exposure

Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water).[citation needed]

The United States Environmental Protection Agency[6] (EPA) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards:

  • primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health;[7][8]
  • secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or appearance.[9]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water. [10] Drinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. The presence of these contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk.

In urbanized areas around the world, water purification technology is used in municipal water systems to remove contaminants from the source water (surface water or groundwater) before it is distributed to homes, businesses, schools and other recipients. Water drawn directly from a stream, lake, or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of uncertain quality in terms of potability.[3]

The burden of polluted drinking water disproportionally effects under-represented and vulnerable populations.[11] Communities that lack these clean drinking-water services are at risk of contracting water-borne and pollution-related illnesses like Cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio.[12] These communities are often in low-income areas, where human wastewater is discharged into a nearby drainage channel or surface water drain without sufficient treatment, or is used in agricultural irrigation.

Industrial and domestic use edit

Dissolved ions may affect the suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) that interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers.[13] Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations.[14] For certain populations, hard water may be preferable to soft water because health problems have been associated with calcium deficiencies and with excess sodium.[15] The necessity for additional calcium and magnesium in water depends on the population in question because people generally satisfy their recommended amounts through food.[3]: 99, 115, 377 

Environmental water quality edit

 
Sign in Sandymount, Ireland, describing water quality, giving levels of faecal coliform E. coli and Enterococcus faecalis.
 
Urban runoff discharging to coastal waters

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans.[16] Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard[17] for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. According to the EPA, water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality standards.[18] In some locations, desired water quality conditions include high dissolved oxygen concentrations, low chlorophyll-a concentrations, and high water clarity.[19]

There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial conditions.[20] Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Given the landscape changes (e.g., land development, urbanization, clearcutting in forested areas) in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human health.

Sampling and measurement edit

Sample collection edit

 
An automated sampling station installed along the East Branch Milwaukee River, New Fane, Wisconsin. The cover of the 24-bottle autosampler (center) is partially raised, showing the sample bottles inside. The autosampler collects samples at time intervals, or proportionate to flow over a specified period. The data logger (white cabinet) records temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels.

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Sampling methods include for example simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic and grid sampling, adaptive cluster sampling, grab samples, semi-continuous monitoring and continuous, passive sampling, remote surveillance, remote sensing, and biomonitoring. The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location.

Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels.[21] Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.

More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location.

Issues edit

The process of water sampling introduces two significant problems:

  • The first problem is the extent to which the sample may be representative of the water source of interest. Water sources vary with time and with location. The measurement of interest may vary seasonally or from day to night or in response to some activity of man or natural populations of aquatic plants and animals.[22] The measurement of interest may vary with distances from the water boundary with overlying atmosphere and underlying or confining soil. The sampler must determine if a single time and location meets the needs of the investigation, or if the water use of interest can be satisfactorily assessed by averaged values of sampling over time and location, or if critical maxima and minima require individual measurements over a range of times, locations or events. The sample collection procedure must assure correct weighting of individual sampling times and locations where averaging is appropriate.[23]: 39–40  Where critical maximum or minimum values exist, statistical methods must be applied to observed variation to determine an adequate number of samples to assess the probability of exceeding those critical values.[24]
  • The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from the water source and begins to establish chemical equilibrium with its new surroundings – the sample container. Sample containers must be made of materials with minimal reactivity with substances to be measured; pre-cleaning of sample containers is important. The water sample may dissolve part of the sample container and any residue on that container, and chemicals dissolved in the water sample may sorb onto the sample container and remain there when the water is poured out for analysis.[23]: 4  Similar physical and chemical interactions may take place with any pumps, piping, or intermediate devices used to transfer the water sample into the sample container. Water collected from depths below the surface will normally be held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere; so gas dissolved in the water will collect at the top of the container. Atmospheric gas above the water may also dissolve into the water sample. Other chemical reaction equilibria may change if the water sample changes temperature. Finely divided solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence may settle to the bottom of the sample container, or a solid phase may form from biological growth or chemical precipitation. Microorganisms within the water sample may biochemically alter concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic compounds. Changing carbon dioxide concentrations may alter pH and change solubility of chemicals of interest. These problems are of special concern during measurement of chemicals assumed to be significant at very low concentrations.[22]
 
Filtering a manually collected water sample (grab sample) for analysis

Sample preservation may partially resolve the second problem. A common procedure is keeping samples cold to slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and analyzing the sample as soon as possible; but this merely minimizes the changes rather than preventing them.[23]: 43–45  A useful procedure for determining influence of sample containers during delay between sample collection and analysis involves preparation for two artificial samples in advance of the sampling event. One sample container is filled with water known from previous analysis to contain no detectable amount of the chemical of interest. This sample, called a "blank", is opened for exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected, then resealed and transported to the laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample collection or holding procedures introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest. The second artificial sample is collected with the sample of interest, but then "spiked" with a measured additional amount of the chemical of interest at the time of collection. The blank (negative control) and spiked sample (positive control) are carried with the sample of interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times to determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the elapsed time between collection and analysis.[25]

Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies edit

 
Testing water in the Gulf of Mexico after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill

After events such as earthquakes and tsunamis, there is an immediate response by the aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subsequent recovery.[26] The threat of disease increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together, often in squalid conditions, and without proper sanitation.[27]

After a natural disaster, as far as water quality testing is concerned, there are widespread views on the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. The key basic water quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, free chlorine residual, pH, turbidity and possibly conductivity/total dissolved solids. There are many decontamination methods.[28][29]

After major natural disasters, a considerable length of time might pass before water quality returns to pre-disaster levels. For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami the Colombo-based International Water Management Institute (IWMI) monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event.[30] IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.[31]

Chemical analysis edit

 
A gas chromatograph-
mass spectrometer
measures pesticides and other organic pollutants

The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements without respect to their form. Elemental analysis for oxygen, as an example, would indicate a concentration of 890 g/L (grams per litre) of water sample because oxygen (O) has 89% mass of the water molecule (H2O). The method selected to measure dissolved oxygen should differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other elements. The comparative simplicity of elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data and water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as heavy metals. Water analysis for heavy metals must consider soil particles suspended in the water sample. These suspended soil particles may contain measurable amounts of metal. Although the particles are not dissolved in the water, they may be consumed by people drinking the water. Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto the sample container may dissolve more metals from suspended soil particles. Filtration of soil particles from the water sample before acid addition, however, may cause loss of dissolved metals onto the filter.[32] The complexities of differentiating similar organic molecules are even more challenging.

 
Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy is used to measure mercury and other heavy metals

Making these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct measurements of water quality can be expensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted and results released by government agencies. However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general assessment.[33] Tools available to the general public include on-site test kits, commonly used for home fish tanks, and biological assessment procedures.

Biosensors edit

Biosensors have the potential for "high sensitivity, selectivity, reliability, simplicity, low-cost and real-time response".[34] For instance, bionanotechnologists reported the development of ROSALIND 2.0, that can detect levels of diverse water pollutants.[35][36]

Real-time monitoring edit

Although water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories, since the late 20th century there has been increasing public interest in the quality of drinking water provided by municipal systems. Many water utilities have developed systems to collect real-time data about source water quality. In the early 21st century, a variety of sensors and remote monitoring systems have been deployed for measuring water pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen and other parameters.[37] Some remote sensing systems have also been developed for monitoring ambient water quality in riverine, estuarine and coastal water bodies.[38][39]

 
An electrical conductivity meter is used to measure total dissolved solids

The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:

Environmental indicators edit

Physical indicators edit

Chemical indicators edit

Biological indicators edit

Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used family of measurements for freshwater is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) (of benthic macroinvertebrates whose common names are, respectively, mayfly, stonefly and caddisfly). EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region, but generally, within a region, the greater the number of taxa from these orders, the better the water quality. Organisations in the United States, such as EPA. offer guidance on developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic insect orders. Many US wastewater dischargers (e.g., factories, power plants, refineries, mines, municipal sewage treatment plants) are required to conduct periodic whole effluent toxicity (WET) tests.[40][41]

Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale analysis can also use biological indicators to get a general reading of water quality. One example is the IOWATER volunteer water monitoring program of Iowa, which includes an EPT indicator key.[42]

Bivalve molluscs are largely used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments. Their population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the state of contamination status of the ecosystem. They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed. A typical project is the U.S. Mussel Watch Programme,[43] but today they are used worldwide.

The Southern African Scoring System (SASS) method is a biological water quality monitoring system based on the presence of benthic macroinvertebrates (EPT). The SASS aquatic biomonitoring tool has been refined over the past 30 years and is now on the fifth version (SASS5) which has been specifically modified in accordance with international standards, namely the ISO/IEC 17025 protocol.[44] The SASS5 method is used by the South African Department of Water Affairs as a standard method for River Health Assessment, which feeds the national River Health Programme and the national Rivers Database.

Climate change impacts edit

Weather and its related shocks can affect water quality in several ways. These depend on the local climate and context.[45] Shocks that are linked to weather include water shortages, heavy rain and temperature extremes. They can damage water infrastructure through erosion under heavy rainfall and floods, cause loss of water sources in droughts, and make water quality deteriorate.[45]

Climate change can reduce lower water quality in several ways:[46]: 582 

  • Heavy rainfall can rapidly reduce the water quality in rivers and shallow groundwater. It can affect water quality in reservoirs even if these effects can be slow.[47] Heavy rainfall also impacts groundwater in deeper, unfractured aquifers. But these impacts are less pronounced. Rainfall can increase fecal contamination of water sources.[45]
  • Floods after heavy rainfalls can mix floodwater with wastewater. Also pollutants can reach water bodies by increased surface runoff.
  • Groundwater quality may deteriorate due to droughts. The pollution in rivers that feed groundwater becomes less diluted. As groundwater levels drop, rivers may lose direct contact with groundwater.[48]
  • In coastal regions, more saltwater may mix into freshwater aquifers due to sea level rise and more intense storms.[49]: 16 [50] This process is called saltwater intrusion.
  • Warmer water in lakes, oceans, reservoirs and rivers can cause more eutrophication. This results in more frequent harmful algal blooms.[46]: 140  Higher temperatures cause problems for water bodies and aquatic ecosystems because warmer water contains less oxygen.[51]
  • Permafrost thawing leads to an increased flux of contaminants.[52]
  • Increased meltwater from glaciers may release contaminants.[53] As glaciers shrink or disappear, the positive effect of seasonal meltwater on downstream water quality through dilution is disappearing.[54]

Standards and reports edit

In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions based on how the water will be used.[55] In the case of natural water bodies, agencies also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water bodies will vary in response to a region's environmental conditions, whereby water composition is influenced by the surrounding geological features, sediments, and rock types, topography, hydrology, and climate.[56] Environmental scientists and aqueous geochemists work to interpret the parameters and environmental conditions that impact the water quality of a region, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use.

Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology, geology, and anthropogenic activities of a region. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage.[citation needed]

International edit

  • The World Health Organization (WHO) published updated guidelines for drinking-water quality (GDWQ) in 2017.[3]
  • The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published[when?] regulation of water quality in the section of ICS 13.060,[57] ranging from water sampling, drinking water, industrial class water, sewage, and examination of water for chemical, physical or biological properties. ICS 91.140.60 covers the standards of water supply systems.[58]

National specifications for ambient water and drinking water edit

European Union edit

The water policy of the European Union is primarily codified in three directives:

India edit

South Africa edit

Water quality guidelines for South Africa are grouped according to potential user types (e.g. domestic, industrial) in the 1996 Water Quality Guidelines.[59] Drinking water quality is subject to the South African National Standard (SANS) 241 Drinking Water Specification.[60]

United Kingdom edit

In England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in the "Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000."[61]

United States edit

In the United States, Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use).[62] The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and 305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA.[63] These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a state environmental agency. EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state.[64] The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition.[65] The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses.[66]

Drinking water standards, which are applicable to public water systems, are issued by EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act.[8]

See also edit

References edit

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  2. ^ Johnson, D. L.; Ambrose, S. H.; Bassett, T. J.; Bowen, M. L.; Crummey, D. E.; Isaacson, J. S.; Johnson, D. N.; Lamb, P.; Saul, M.; Winter-Nelson, A. E. (1997). "Meanings of Environmental Terms". Journal of Environmental Quality. 26 (3): 581–589. doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030002x.
  3. ^ a b c d Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum (Report). Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO). 2017. hdl:10665/254637. ISBN 9789241549950.
  4. ^ a b c Khan, Nameerah; Charles, Katrina J. (2023). "When Water Quality Crises Drive Change: A Comparative Analysis of the Policy Processes Behind Major Water Contamination Events". Exposure and Health. 15 (3): 519–537. doi:10.1007/s12403-022-00505-0. ISSN 2451-9766. PMC 9522453. PMID 36196073.   Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  5. ^ "Other Uses and Types of Water". Atlanta, GA: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 10 August 2021.
  6. ^ "What is water quality? Eight key characteristics". Water Rangers. Retrieved 10 November 2022.
  7. ^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, D.C. "National Primary Drinking Water Regulations." Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR 141.
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  9. ^ "Secondary Drinking Water Standards: Guidance for Nuisance Chemicals". EPA. 17 February 2022.
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  33. ^ An example of a local government-sponsored volunteer monitoring program: "Monitoring Our Waters". Watershed Restoration. Rockville, MD: Montgomery County Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved 11 November 2018..
  34. ^ Ejeian, Fatemeh; Etedali, Parisa; Mansouri-Tehrani, Hajar-Alsadat; Soozanipour, Asieh; Low, Ze-Xian; Asadnia, Mohsen; Taheri-Kafrani, Asghar; Razmjou, Amir (30 October 2018). "Biosensors for wastewater monitoring: A review". Biosensors & Bioelectronics. 118: 66–79. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2018.07.019. ISSN 1873-4235. PMID 30056302. S2CID 51889142.
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  46. ^ a b Caretta, M.A., A. Mukherji, M. Arfanuzzaman, R.A. Betts, A. Gelfan, Y. Hirabayashi, T.K. Lissner, J. Liu, E. Lopez Gunn, R. Morgan, S. Mwanga, and S. Supratid, 2022: Chapter 4: Water. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 551–712, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.006.
  47. ^ Brookes, Justin D.; Antenucci, Jason; Hipsey, Matthew; Burch, Michael D.; Ashbolt, Nicholas J.; Ferguson, Christobel (1 July 2004). "Fate and transport of pathogens in lakes and reservoirs". Environment International. 30 (5): 741–759. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2003.11.006. PMID 15051248.
  48. ^ Kløve, Bjørn; Ala-Aho, Pertti; Bertrand, Guillaume; Gurdak, Jason J.; Kupfersberger, Hans; Kværner, Jens; Muotka, Timo; Mykrä, Heikki; Preda, Elena; Rossi, Pekka; Uvo, Cintia Bertacchi; Velasco, Elzie; Pulido-Velazquez, Manuel (2014). "Climate change impacts on groundwater and dependent ecosystems". Journal of Hydrology. Climatic change impact on water: Overcoming data and science gaps. 518: 250–266. Bibcode:2014JHyd..518..250K. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.06.037. hdl:10251/45180. ISSN 0022-1694.
  49. ^ UN-Water (2013) Water Security & the Global Water Agenda - A UN-Water Analytical Brief, ISBN 978-92-808-6038-2, United Nations University
  50. ^ Hoekstra, Arjen Y; Buurman, Joost; van Ginkel, Kees C H (2018). "Urban water security: A review". Environmental Research Letters. 13 (5): 053002. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aaba52.   Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  51. ^ Chapra, Steven C.; Camacho, Luis A.; McBride, Graham B. (January 2021). "Impact of Global Warming on Dissolved Oxygen and BOD Assimilative Capacity of the World's Rivers: Modeling Analysis". Water. 13 (17): 2408. doi:10.3390/w13172408. ISSN 2073-4441.
  52. ^ Miner, Kimberley R.; D'Andrilli, Juliana; Mackelprang, Rachel; Edwards, Arwyn; Malaska, Michael J.; Waldrop, Mark P.; Miller, Charles E. (2021). "Emergent biogeochemical risks from Arctic permafrost degradation". Nature Climate Change. 11 (10): 809–819. Bibcode:2021NatCC..11..809M. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01162-y. ISSN 1758-678X. S2CID 238234156.
  53. ^ Milner, Alexander M.; Khamis, Kieran; Battin, Tom J.; Brittain, John E.; Barrand, Nicholas E.; Füreder, Leopold; Cauvy-Fraunié, Sophie; Gíslason, Gísli Már; Jacobsen, Dean; Hannah, David M.; Hodson, Andrew J.; Hood, Eran; Lencioni, Valeria; Ólafsson, Jón S.; Robinson, Christopher T. (2017). "Glacier shrinkage driving global changes in downstream systems". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (37): 9770–9778. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.9770M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1619807114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5603989. PMID 28874558.
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  57. ^ International Organization for Standardization (ISO). "13.060: Water quality". Geneva. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
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  59. ^ Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs, Pretoria (1996). "Water quality guidelines for South Africa: First Edition 1996."
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  64. ^ "Overview of Listing Impaired Waters under CWA Section 303(d)". Impaired Waters and TMDLs. EPA. 31 August 2022.
  65. ^ "National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress". Water Data and Tools. EPA. 7 December 2021.
  66. ^ More information about water quality in the United States is available on EPA's "How's My Waterway" website.

External links edit

  • Global Freshwater Quality Database (GEMStat) – United Nations environment program
  • Water policy in the European Union
  • U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – Drinking water quality and testing (United States)
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – Water Data and Tools of the USEPA
  • U.S. Geological Survey – National Water Quality Assessment Program of the USGS

24 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine – Professional association

water, quality, refers, chemical, physical, biological, characteristics, water, based, standards, usage, most, frequently, used, reference, standards, against, which, compliance, generally, achieved, through, treatment, water, assessed, most, common, standards. Water quality refers to the chemical physical and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage 1 2 It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance generally achieved through treatment of the water can be assessed The most common standards used to monitor and assess water quality convey the health of ecosystems safety of human contact extent of water pollution and condition of drinking water Water quality has a significant impact on water supply and oftentimes determines supply options 3 A rosette sampler is used for collecting water samples in deep water such as the Great Lakes or oceans for water quality testing Contents 1 Impacts on public health 2 Categories 2 1 Human consumption 2 2 Industrial and domestic use 2 3 Environmental water quality 3 Sampling and measurement 3 1 Sample collection 3 1 1 Issues 3 2 Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies 3 3 Chemical analysis 3 4 Biosensors 3 5 Real time monitoring 3 6 Environmental indicators 3 6 1 Physical indicators 3 6 2 Chemical indicators 3 6 3 Biological indicators 4 Climate change impacts 5 Standards and reports 5 1 International 5 2 National specifications for ambient water and drinking water 5 2 1 European Union 5 2 2 India 5 2 3 South Africa 5 2 4 United Kingdom 5 2 5 United States 6 See also 7 References 8 External linksImpacts on public health editSee also Drinking water Quality Over time there has been increasing recognition of the importance of drinking water quality and its impact on public health This has led to increasing protection and management of water quality 4 The understanding of the links between water quality and health continues to grow and highlight new potential health crises from the chronic impacts of infectious diseases on child development through stunting to new evidence on the harms from known contaminants such as manganese with growing evidence of neurotoxicity in children 4 In addition there are many emerging water quality issues such as microplastics perfluorinated compounds and antimicrobial resistance 4 Categories editThe parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for potability industrial domestic use or restoration of an environment ecosystem generally for health of human aquatic life 5 Human consumption edit nbsp Regional and national contamination of drinking water by chemical type and population size at risk of exposureContaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses protozoa and bacteria inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use pesticides and herbicides and radioactive contaminants Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion industrial pollution use of water bodies as a heat sink and overuse which may lower the level of the water citation needed The United States Environmental Protection Agency 6 EPA limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health 7 8 secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities those that affect taste odor or appearance 9 The U S Food and Drug Administration FDA regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water 10 Drinking water including bottled water may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants The presence of these contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk In urbanized areas around the world water purification technology is used in municipal water systems to remove contaminants from the source water surface water or groundwater before it is distributed to homes businesses schools and other recipients Water drawn directly from a stream lake or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of uncertain quality in terms of potability 3 The burden of polluted drinking water disproportionally effects under represented and vulnerable populations 11 Communities that lack these clean drinking water services are at risk of contracting water borne and pollution related illnesses like Cholera diarrhea dysentery hepatitis A typhoid and polio 12 These communities are often in low income areas where human wastewater is discharged into a nearby drainage channel or surface water drain without sufficient treatment or is used in agricultural irrigation Industrial and domestic use edit Dissolved ions may affect the suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes The most familiar of these is probably the presence of calcium Ca2 and magnesium Mg2 that interfere with the cleaning action of soap and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers 13 Hard water may be softened to remove these ions The softening process often substitutes sodium cations 14 For certain populations hard water may be preferable to soft water because health problems have been associated with calcium deficiencies and with excess sodium 15 The necessity for additional calcium and magnesium in water depends on the population in question because people generally satisfy their recommended amounts through food 3 99 115 377 Environmental water quality edit nbsp Sign in Sandymount Ireland describing water quality giving levels of faecal coliform E coli and Enterococcus faecalis nbsp Urban runoff discharging to coastal waters See also Environmental monitoring and Freshwater environmental quality parameters Environmental water quality also called ambient water quality relates to water bodies such as lakes rivers and oceans 16 Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different environmental conditions ecosystems and intended human uses Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard 17 for non drinking purposes such as irrigation swimming fishing rafting boating and industrial uses These conditions may also affect wildlife which use the water for drinking or as a habitat According to the EPA water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require as a minimum retention of current quality standards 18 In some locations desired water quality conditions include high dissolved oxygen concentrations low chlorophyll a concentrations and high water clarity 19 There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine or pre industrial conditions 20 Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a water body In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses Given the landscape changes e g land development urbanization clearcutting in forested areas in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge In these cases environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human health Sampling and measurement editSee also Analysis of water chemistry analytical chemistry Water sampling station and Regulation and monitoring of pollution Water pollution Sample collection edit See also Environmental monitoring Sampling methods nbsp An automated sampling station installed along the East Branch Milwaukee River New Fane Wisconsin The cover of the 24 bottle autosampler center is partially raised showing the sample bottles inside The autosampler collects samples at time intervals or proportionate to flow over a specified period The data logger white cabinet records temperature specific conductance and dissolved oxygen levels The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on site because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings Measurements commonly made on site and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature pH dissolved oxygen conductivity oxygen reduction potential ORP turbidity and Secchi disk depth Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant Sampling methods include for example simple random sampling stratified sampling systematic and grid sampling adaptive cluster sampling grab samples semi continuous monitoring and continuous passive sampling remote surveillance remote sensing and biomonitoring The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time most commonly in association with rain events For this reason grab samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels 21 Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to be collected preserved transported and analyzed at another location Issues edit The process of water sampling introduces two significant problems The first problem is the extent to which the sample may be representative of the water source of interest Water sources vary with time and with location The measurement of interest may vary seasonally or from day to night or in response to some activity of man or natural populations of aquatic plants and animals 22 The measurement of interest may vary with distances from the water boundary with overlying atmosphere and underlying or confining soil The sampler must determine if a single time and location meets the needs of the investigation or if the water use of interest can be satisfactorily assessed by averaged values of sampling over time and location or if critical maxima and minima require individual measurements over a range of times locations or events The sample collection procedure must assure correct weighting of individual sampling times and locations where averaging is appropriate 23 39 40 Where critical maximum or minimum values exist statistical methods must be applied to observed variation to determine an adequate number of samples to assess the probability of exceeding those critical values 24 The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from the water source and begins to establish chemical equilibrium with its new surroundings the sample container Sample containers must be made of materials with minimal reactivity with substances to be measured pre cleaning of sample containers is important The water sample may dissolve part of the sample container and any residue on that container and chemicals dissolved in the water sample may sorb onto the sample container and remain there when the water is poured out for analysis 23 4 Similar physical and chemical interactions may take place with any pumps piping or intermediate devices used to transfer the water sample into the sample container Water collected from depths below the surface will normally be held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere so gas dissolved in the water will collect at the top of the container Atmospheric gas above the water may also dissolve into the water sample Other chemical reaction equilibria may change if the water sample changes temperature Finely divided solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence may settle to the bottom of the sample container or a solid phase may form from biological growth or chemical precipitation Microorganisms within the water sample may biochemically alter concentrations of oxygen carbon dioxide and organic compounds Changing carbon dioxide concentrations may alter pH and change solubility of chemicals of interest These problems are of special concern during measurement of chemicals assumed to be significant at very low concentrations 22 nbsp Filtering a manually collected water sample grab sample for analysisSample preservation may partially resolve the second problem A common procedure is keeping samples cold to slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change and analyzing the sample as soon as possible but this merely minimizes the changes rather than preventing them 23 43 45 A useful procedure for determining influence of sample containers during delay between sample collection and analysis involves preparation for two artificial samples in advance of the sampling event One sample container is filled with water known from previous analysis to contain no detectable amount of the chemical of interest This sample called a blank is opened for exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected then resealed and transported to the laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample collection or holding procedures introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest The second artificial sample is collected with the sample of interest but then spiked with a measured additional amount of the chemical of interest at the time of collection The blank negative control and spiked sample positive control are carried with the sample of interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times to determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the elapsed time between collection and analysis 25 Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies edit nbsp Testing water in the Gulf of Mexico after the Deepwater Horizon oil spillAfter events such as earthquakes and tsunamis there is an immediate response by the aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subsequent recovery 26 The threat of disease increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together often in squalid conditions and without proper sanitation 27 After a natural disaster as far as water quality testing is concerned there are widespread views on the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed The key basic water quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination free chlorine residual pH turbidity and possibly conductivity total dissolved solids There are many decontamination methods 28 29 After major natural disasters a considerable length of time might pass before water quality returns to pre disaster levels For example following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami the Colombo based International Water Management Institute IWMI monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event 30 IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines 31 Chemical analysis edit nbsp A gas chromatograph mass spectrometer measures pesticides and other organic pollutantsThe simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements without respect to their form Elemental analysis for oxygen as an example would indicate a concentration of 890 g L grams per litre of water sample because oxygen O has 89 mass of the water molecule H2O The method selected to measure dissolved oxygen should differentiate between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other elements The comparative simplicity of elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data and water quality criteria for elements sometimes identified as heavy metals Water analysis for heavy metals must consider soil particles suspended in the water sample These suspended soil particles may contain measurable amounts of metal Although the particles are not dissolved in the water they may be consumed by people drinking the water Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of dissolved metals onto the sample container may dissolve more metals from suspended soil particles Filtration of soil particles from the water sample before acid addition however may cause loss of dissolved metals onto the filter 32 The complexities of differentiating similar organic molecules are even more challenging nbsp Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy is used to measure mercury and other heavy metalsMaking these complex measurements can be expensive Because direct measurements of water quality can be expensive ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted and results released by government agencies However there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general assessment 33 Tools available to the general public include on site test kits commonly used for home fish tanks and biological assessment procedures Biosensors edit Biosensors have the potential for high sensitivity selectivity reliability simplicity low cost and real time response 34 For instance bionanotechnologists reported the development of ROSALIND 2 0 that can detect levels of diverse water pollutants 35 36 Real time monitoring edit Although water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories since the late 20th century there has been increasing public interest in the quality of drinking water provided by municipal systems Many water utilities have developed systems to collect real time data about source water quality In the early 21st century a variety of sensors and remote monitoring systems have been deployed for measuring water pH turbidity dissolved oxygen and other parameters 37 Some remote sensing systems have also been developed for monitoring ambient water quality in riverine estuarine and coastal water bodies 38 39 nbsp An electrical conductivity meter is used to measure total dissolved solidsThe following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category Alkalinity Color of water pH Taste and odor geosmin 2 Methylisoborneol MIB etc Dissolved metals and salts sodium chloride potassium calcium manganese magnesium Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria Escherichia coli Cryptosporidium and Giardia lamblia see Bacteriological water analysis Dissolved metals and metalloids lead mercury arsenic etc Dissolved organics colored dissolved organic matter CDOM dissolved organic carbon DOC Radon Heavy metals Pharmaceuticals Hormone analogsEnvironmental indicators edit See also Environmental indicator Wastewater quality indicators and Salinity Physical indicators edit Water temperature Specific conductance or electrical conductance EC or conductivity Total suspended solids TSS Transparency or turbidity Water clarity Total dissolved solids TDS Odour of water Color of water such as Forel Ule scale or Pt Co scale Taste of water Chemical indicators edit Alkalinity Biochemical oxygen demand BOD Chemical oxygen demand COD Dissolved oxygen DO Total hardness TH Heavy metals Nitrate Orthophosphates pH Pesticides Residual sodium carbonate index RSC Sodium adsorption ratio SAR Surfactants Biological indicators edit See also Biological integrity and Index of biological integrity Ephemeroptera Plecoptera Mollusca Trichoptera Escherichia coli E coli Coliform bacteria Pimephales promelas fathead minnow Americamysis bahia Mysid shrimp Sea urchin Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places and one widely used family of measurements for freshwater is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera Plecoptera and Trichoptera EPT of benthic macroinvertebrates whose common names are respectively mayfly stonefly and caddisfly EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region but generally within a region the greater the number of taxa from these orders the better the water quality Organisations in the United States such as EPA offer guidance on developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic insect orders Many US wastewater dischargers e g factories power plants refineries mines municipal sewage treatment plants are required to conduct periodic whole effluent toxicity WET tests 40 41 Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale analysis can also use biological indicators to get a general reading of water quality One example is the IOWATER volunteer water monitoring program of Iowa which includes an EPT indicator key 42 Bivalve molluscs are largely used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments Their population status or structure physiology behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the state of contamination status of the ecosystem They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed A typical project is the U S Mussel Watch Programme 43 but today they are used worldwide The Southern African Scoring System SASS method is a biological water quality monitoring system based on the presence of benthic macroinvertebrates EPT The SASS aquatic biomonitoring tool has been refined over the past 30 years and is now on the fifth version SASS5 which has been specifically modified in accordance with international standards namely the ISO IEC 17025 protocol 44 The SASS5 method is used by the South African Department of Water Affairs as a standard method for River Health Assessment which feeds the national River Health Programme and the national Rivers Database Climate change impacts editThis section is an excerpt from Water security Reduced water quality due to climate change edit Weather and its related shocks can affect water quality in several ways These depend on the local climate and context 45 Shocks that are linked to weather include water shortages heavy rain and temperature extremes They can damage water infrastructure through erosion under heavy rainfall and floods cause loss of water sources in droughts and make water quality deteriorate 45 Climate change can reduce lower water quality in several ways 46 582 Heavy rainfall can rapidly reduce the water quality in rivers and shallow groundwater It can affect water quality in reservoirs even if these effects can be slow 47 Heavy rainfall also impacts groundwater in deeper unfractured aquifers But these impacts are less pronounced Rainfall can increase fecal contamination of water sources 45 Floods after heavy rainfalls can mix floodwater with wastewater Also pollutants can reach water bodies by increased surface runoff Groundwater quality may deteriorate due to droughts The pollution in rivers that feed groundwater becomes less diluted As groundwater levels drop rivers may lose direct contact with groundwater 48 In coastal regions more saltwater may mix into freshwater aquifers due to sea level rise and more intense storms 49 16 50 This process is called saltwater intrusion Warmer water in lakes oceans reservoirs and rivers can cause more eutrophication This results in more frequent harmful algal blooms 46 140 Higher temperatures cause problems for water bodies and aquatic ecosystems because warmer water contains less oxygen 51 Permafrost thawing leads to an increased flux of contaminants 52 Increased meltwater from glaciers may release contaminants 53 As glaciers shrink or disappear the positive effect of seasonal meltwater on downstream water quality through dilution is disappearing 54 Standards and reports editIn the setting of standards agencies make political and technical scientific decisions based on how the water will be used 55 In the case of natural water bodies agencies also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions Natural water bodies will vary in response to a region s environmental conditions whereby water composition is influenced by the surrounding geological features sediments and rock types topography hydrology and climate 56 Environmental scientists and aqueous geochemists work to interpret the parameters and environmental conditions that impact the water quality of a region which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not In fact water quality is a complex subject in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology geology and anthropogenic activities of a region Industrial and commercial activities e g manufacturing mining construction transport are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage citation needed See also Drinking water quality standards International edit The World Health Organization WHO published updated guidelines for drinking water quality GDWQ in 2017 3 The International Organization for Standardization ISO published when regulation of water quality in the section of ICS 13 060 57 ranging from water sampling drinking water industrial class water sewage and examination of water for chemical physical or biological properties ICS 91 140 60 covers the standards of water supply systems 58 National specifications for ambient water and drinking water edit European Union edit Further information Water supply and sanitation in the European Union The water policy of the European Union is primarily codified in three directives Directive on Urban Waste Water Treatment 91 271 EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning discharges of municipal and some industrial wastewaters The Drinking Water Directive 98 83 EC of 3 November 1998 concerning potable water quality Water Framework Directive 2000 60 EC of 23 October 2000 concerning water resources management India edit Indian Council of Medical Research ICMR Standards for Drinking Water South Africa edit Further information Water supply and sanitation in South Africa Water quality guidelines for South Africa are grouped according to potential user types e g domestic industrial in the 1996 Water Quality Guidelines 59 Drinking water quality is subject to the South African National Standard SANS 241 Drinking Water Specification 60 United Kingdom edit In England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in the Water Supply Water Quality Regulations 2000 61 United States edit Main articles Drinking water quality in the United States Drinking water quality legislation of the United States and Water supply and sanitation in the United States In the United States Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies guided by the desired uses for the water body e g fish habitat drinking water supply recreational use 62 The Clean Water Act CWA requires each governing jurisdiction states territories and covered tribal entities to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area These reports are known as the 303 d and 305 b reports named for their respective CWA provisions and are submitted to and approved by EPA 63 These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction typically a state environmental agency EPA recommends that each state submit a single Integrated Report comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state 64 The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition 65 The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters Should evidence suggest or document that a stream river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses it is placed on a list of impaired waters Once a state has placed a water body on this list it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads TMDLs for the pollutant s impairing the use of the water These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses 66 Drinking water standards which are applicable to public water systems are issued by EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act 8 See also edit nbsp Environment portal nbsp Water portalAquatic toxicology Permanganate index Stiff diagram a graphical representation of chemical analyses Water clarity Water quality modelling Water testing Water treatmentReferences edit Cordy Gail E March 2001 A Primer on Water Quality Reston VA U S Geological Survey USGS FS 027 01 Johnson D L Ambrose S H Bassett T J Bowen M L Crummey D E Isaacson J S Johnson D N Lamb P Saul M Winter Nelson A E 1997 Meanings of Environmental Terms Journal of Environmental Quality 26 3 581 589 doi 10 2134 jeq1997 00472425002600030002x a b c d Guidelines for Drinking water Quality Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum Report Geneva World Health Organization WHO 2017 hdl 10665 254637 ISBN 9789241549950 a b c Khan Nameerah Charles Katrina J 2023 When Water Quality Crises Drive Change A Comparative Analysis of the Policy Processes Behind Major Water Contamination Events Exposure and Health 15 3 519 537 doi 10 1007 s12403 022 00505 0 ISSN 2451 9766 PMC 9522453 PMID 36196073 nbsp Text was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Other Uses and Types of Water Atlanta GA US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC 10 August 2021 What is water quality Eight key characteristics Water Rangers Retrieved 10 November 2022 U S Environmental Protection Agency EPA Washington D C National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Code of Federal Regulations 40 CFR 141 a b Drinking Water Regulations Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems EPA 20 September 2022 Secondary Drinking Water Standards Guidance for Nuisance Chemicals EPA 17 February 2022 FDA Regulates the Safety of Bottled Water Beverages Including Flavored Water and Nutrient Added Water Beverages Food Facts for Consumers Silver Spring MD U S Food and Drug Administration 22 September 2018 Katner A L Brown K Pieper K Edwards M Lambrinidou Y Subra W 2018 America s Path to Drinking Water Infrastructure Inequality and Environmental Injustice The Case of Flint Michigan In Brinkmann R Garren S eds The Palgrave Handbook of Sustainability London Palgrave Macmillan pp 79 97 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 71389 2 5 ISBN 978 3 319 71388 5 Drinking water WHO 21 March 2022 Fact sheet Babbitt Harold E Doland James J 1949 Water Supply Engineering New York McGraw Hill p 388 ASIN B000OORYE2 Linsley Ray K Franzini Joseph B 1972 Water Resources Engineering McGraw Hill pp 454 456 ISBN 0 07 037959 9 WHO 2004 Consensus of the Meeting Nutrient minerals in drinking water and the potential health consequences of long term consumption of demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking waters Rolling Revision of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality draft From 11 13 November 2003 meeting in Rome Italy at the WHO European Centre for Environment and Health Supplemental Module Human Health Ambient Water Quality Criteria EPA 28 June 2022 Adlish John I Costa Davide Mainardi Enrico Neuhold Piero Surrente Riccardo Tagliapietra Luca J 31 October 2020 Polyethylene Identification in Ocean Water Samples by Means of 50 keV Energy Electron Beam Instruments 4 4 32 arXiv 2009 03763 doi 10 3390 instruments4040032 Plastic is the most common type of marine debris found in oceans and it is the most widespread problem affecting the marine environment It also threatens ocean health food safety and quality human health and coastal tourism and it contributes to climate change Water Quality Standards Handbook Chapter 3 Water Quality Criteria PDF EPA 2017 EPA 823 B 17 001 Tango Peter J Batiuk Richard A 4 September 2013 Deriving Chesapeake Bay Water Quality Standards JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association Wiley 49 5 1007 1024 Bibcode 2013JAWRA 49 1007T doi 10 1111 jawr 12108 ISSN 1093 474X S2CID 102492027 Watershed Restoration Program Washington DC US Forest Service Retrieved 5 October 2022 Sampling KFUPM School nature is us Forums Tunza Eco Generation tunza eco generation org Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 Retrieved 19 September 2021 a b Goldman Charles R Horne Alexander J 1983 6 Chemicals and Growth Factors Limnology McGraw Hill ISBN 0 07 023651 8 a b c Franson Mary Ann 1975 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 14th ed Washington DC American Public Health Association American Water Works Association amp Water Pollution Control Federation ISBN 0 87553 078 8 Chapter 8 Data Analysis Handbook for Monitoring Industrial Wastewater Report EPA August 1973 EPA 625 6 73 002 Definitions of Quality Assurance Data Denver CO USGS Quality Systems Branch 28 August 2009 Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 Retrieved 5 October 2022 Natural Disasters and Severe Weather 13 August 2014 Tsunamis Water Quality CDC Furusawa Takuro Maki Norio Suzuki Shingo 1 January 2008 Bacterial contamination of drinking water and nutritional quality of diet in the areas of the western Solomon Islands devastated by the April 2 2007 earthquake tsunami Tropical Medicine and Health 36 2 65 74 doi 10 2149 tmh 2007 63 Hanaor Dorian A H Sorrell Charles C 2014 Sand Supported Mixed Phase TiO2 Photocatalysts for Water Decontamination Applications Advanced Engineering Materials 16 2 248 254 arXiv 1404 2652 doi 10 1002 adem 201300259 S2CID 118571942 Method 1680 Fecal Coliforms in Sewage Sludge Biosolids by Multiple Tube Fermentation using Lauryl Tryptose Broth LTB and EC Medium Report EPA April 2010 EPA 821 R 10 003 International Water Management Institute Colombo Sri Lanka 2010 Helping restore the quality of drinking water after the tsunami Success Stories Issue 7 doi 10 5337 2011 0030 WHO 2011 WHO technical notes for emergencies Archived 12 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Water Engineering Development Centre Loughborough University Leicestershire UK State of California Environmental Protection Agency Representative Sampling of Ground Water for Hazardous Substances 1994 pp 23 24 An example of a local government sponsored volunteer monitoring program Monitoring Our Waters Watershed Restoration Rockville MD Montgomery County Department of Environmental Protection Retrieved 11 November 2018 Ejeian Fatemeh Etedali Parisa Mansouri Tehrani Hajar 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Toxicity Methods Clean Water Act Analytical Methods EPA 1 August 2020 Methods for Measuring the Acute Toxicity of Effluents and Receiving Waters to Freshwater and Marine Organisms Report EPA October 2002 EPA 821 R 02 012 IOWATER Iowa Department of Natural Resources Iowa City IA 2005 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Key Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment Mussel Watch Contaminant Monitoring Ccma nos noaa gov 14 January 2014 Archived from the original on 7 September 2015 Retrieved 4 September 2015 Dickens CWS and Graham PM 2002 The Southern Africa Scoring System SASS version 5 rapid bioassessment for rivers African Journal of Aquatic Science 27 1 10 a b c Charles Katrina J Howard Guy Villalobos Prats Elena Gruber Joshua Alam Sadekul Alamgir A S M Baidya Manish Flora Meerjady Sabrina Haque Farhana Hassan S M Quamrul Islam Saiful 2022 Infrastructure alone cannot ensure resilience to weather events in drinking water supplies Science of the Total Environment 813 151876 Bibcode 2022ScTEn 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Central Asia A review of the current status Journal of Hydrology Regional Studies 38 100960 doi 10 1016 j ejrh 2021 100960 S2CID 243980977 What Are Water Quality Standards Standards for Water Body Health EPA 14 April 2022 Daniels Mike Scott Thad Haggard Brian Sharpley Andrew Daniel Tommy 2009 What is Water Quality PDF University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture Archived from the original PDF on 1 December 2020 Retrieved 2 December 2020 International Organization for Standardization ISO 13 060 Water quality Geneva Retrieved 4 July 2011 ISO 91 140 60 Water supply systems Retrieved 4 July 2011 Republic of South Africa Department of Water Affairs Pretoria 1996 Water quality guidelines for South Africa First Edition 1996 Hodgson K Manus L A drinking water quality framework for South Africa Water SA 2006 32 5 673 678 1 National Archives London UK The Water Supply Water Quality Regulations 2000 2000 No 3184 2000 12 08 U S Clean Water Act Section 303 33 U S C 1313 U S Clean Water Act Section 303 d 33 U S C 1313 Section 305 b 33 U S C 1315 b Overview of Listing Impaired Waters under CWA Section 303 d Impaired Waters and TMDLs EPA 31 August 2022 National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress Water Data and Tools EPA 7 December 2021 More information about water quality in the United States is available on EPA s How s My Waterway website External links editGlobal Freshwater Quality Database GEMStat United Nations environment program Water policy in the European Union U S Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC Drinking water quality and testing United States U S Environmental Protection Agency Water Data and Tools of the USEPA U S Geological Survey National Water Quality Assessment Program of the USGSArchived 24 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine Professional association Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Water quality amp oldid 1203694620, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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