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Vietnamese Americans

Vietnamese Americans (Vietnamese: Người Mỹ gốc Việt) are Americans of Vietnamese ancestry.[5] They comprise approximately half of all overseas Vietnamese and are the fourth-largest Asian American ethnic group following Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, and Indian Americans. There are approximately 2.2 million people of Vietnamese descent residing in the U.S.

Vietnamese Americans
Người Mỹ gốc Việt
Total population
2,183,000[1]
0.7% of the total U.S. population (2018)
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Vietnamese, English
Religion
Buddhism (43%)  • Catholicism (30%)
Unaffiliated (20%)  • Protestantism (6%)[3][4]
Vietnamese folk religion  • Caodaism  • Hòa Hảo
Related ethnic groups
Vietnamese people, Overseas Vietnamese, Vietnamese Canadians, Vietnamese Australians, Asian Americans, Chinese Americans, Hmong Americans
Spread of the Vietnamese language in the United States

The Vietnamese community in the United States was minimal until the exodus of South Vietnamese refugees to the country following the end of Vietnam War in 1975. More than half of Vietnamese Americans reside in the two most populous states of California and Texas, primarily their large urban areas.[6]

Demographics edit

Income edit

In 2019, the median household income for U.S.-born Vietnamese Americans was $82,400[7] As a relatively-recent immigrant group, most Vietnamese Americans are either first or second generation Americans. As many as one million people five years of age and older speak Vietnamese at home, making it the fifth-most-spoken language in the U.S. In the 2012 American Community Survey (ACS), 76 percent of foreign-born Vietnamese are naturalized U.S. citizens (compared to 67 percent of people from Southeast Asia and 46 percent of the total U.S. foreign-born population). Of those born outside the United States, 73.1 percent entered before 2000, 21.2 percent from 2000 and 2009 and 5.7 percent after 2010.[8]

In 2018, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated the total population of Vietnamese Americans was 2,162,610 (92.1% reporting one race, 7.2% reporting two races, 0.7% reporting three races, and 0.1% reporting four or more races).[9] California and Texas had the highest concentrations of Vietnamese Americans: 40 and 12 percent of Vietnamese immigrants, respectively. Other states with concentrations of Vietnamese Americans were Washington, Florida (four percent each) and Virginia (three percent).[10] The largest number of Vietnamese outside Vietnam is in Orange County, California (184,153, or 6.1 percent of the county's population),[11] followed by Los Angeles and Santa Clara counties; the three counties accounted for 26 percent of the Vietnamese immigrant population in the United States.[10] Many Vietnamese American businesses exist in the Little Saigon of Westminster and Garden Grove, where Vietnamese Americans make up 40.2 and 27.7 percent of the population respectively. About 41 percent of the Vietnamese immigrant population lives in five major metropolitan areas: in descending order, Los Angeles, San Jose, Houston, San Francisco and Dallas-Fort Worth.[10] The Vietnamese immigration pattern has shifted to other cities, including Denver, Boston, Chicago, Oklahoma (Oklahoma City and Tulsa in particular) and Oregon (Portland in particular).[citation needed]

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1980261,729—    
1990614,517+134.8%
20001,122,528+82.7%
20101,548,449+37.9%

Vietnamese Americans are more likely to be Christians than the Vietnamese in Vietnam. Christians (mainly Roman Catholics) make up about six percent of Vietnam's population and about 23 percent of the Vietnamese American population.[13] Due to hostility between Communists and Catholics in Vietnam, many Catholics fled the country after the Communist takeover, and many Catholic Churches had sponsored them to America.[14]

According to the Migration Policy Institute[15] using data from the American Community Survey for 2017 to 2021, there were 1,347,300 immigrants from Vietnam nationally. The top counties in which they resided were as follows:

1) Orange County, California ............ 148,900

2) Santa Clara County, California ..... 101,700

3) Los Angeles County, California ..... 95,100

4) Harris County, Texas ...................... 74,800

5) King County, Washington ............... 34,800

6) San Diego County, California ......... 34,600

7) Alameda County, California ........... 28,300

8) Sacramento County, California ..... 25,800

9) Tarrant County, Texas ..................... 23,600

10) Fairfax County, Virginia ................ 22,600

11) Dallas County, Texas .................... 22,100

12) Gwinnett County, Georgia ............. 17,400

13) Maricopa County, Arizona ........... 15,600

14) San Francisco City, California ...... 14,900

15) Fort Bend County, Texas ............... 13,900

16) Multnomah County, Oregon ......... 13,300

17) Cook County, Illinois ...................... 13,100

18) Riverside County, California .......... 12,000

19) Orange County, Florida .................. 10,800

20) Snohomish County, Washington ... 10,500

21) Montgomery County, Maryland ..... 10,000

22) San Bernardino County, California ..10,000

23) Clark County, Nevada ...................... 9,900

24) Suffolk County, Massachusetts ...... 9,200

25) Travis County, Texas ........................ 9,000

26) Collin County, Texas .......................... 8,900

27) Contra Costa County, California ....... 8,800

28) Norfolk County, Massachusetts ....... 8,700

Economics edit

In 2019, the median household income for all Vietnamese Americans was $69,800. Broken down by birth, the income was $82,400 for U.S.-born and $66,000 for foreign-born Vietnamese Americans.[7]

In 2019, Pew Research Center published a study stating that 12% of Vietnamese Americans lived under the poverty line, which was higher than the average for all Asian Americans.[16]

Employment edit

The U.S. Census Bureau reports in 2016 among working Vietnamese Americans (civilian employed population 16 years and over): 32.9% had management, business, science, and arts occupations; 30.9% had service occupations; 17.0% had sales and office occupations, 4.3% had reported natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations; and 15% had natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations.[9]

Though Vietnamese immigration has continued at a fairly steady pace since the 1980s, the pathway to immigration for Vietnamese today has shifted entirely. As opposed to the earlier history of Vietnamese migration that stemmed predominantly from refugees, an overwhelming majority of Vietnamese are now granted LPR on the basis of family sponsored preferences or by way of immediate relatives to U.S. citizens, at 53% and 44% respectively. This marks a complete about face, as in 1982, 99% of Vietnamese who received green cards obtained them on humanitarian grounds, while in 2019 only 1% of Vietnamese who received LPR status did so through this channel.[17]

Education edit

In 2019, 55% of U.S.-born Vietnamese Americans had attained a bachelor's degree or higher.[16] Coming from different waves of immigration, Vietnamese Americans have a lower educational attainment than overall total Asian American population but it is higher than other Southeast Asian groups and is also trending upward.[18]

English proficiency edit

In 2019, 90% of U.S.-born Vietnamese Americans but only 35% of foreign-born Vietnamese were English proficient.[16]

View of education edit

Vietnam's traditional Confucianist society values education and learning, and many Vietnamese Americans have worked their way up from menial labor to have their second-generation children attend college and become successful.[citation needed]

History edit

The history of Vietnamese Americans is fairly recent. Before 1975, most Vietnamese residing in the U.S. were the wives and children of American servicemen or academics. Records[19][20] indicate that a few Vietnamese (including Ho Chi Minh) arrived and performed menial work during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 650 Vietnamese arrived as immigrants between 1950 and 1974, but the figure excludes students, diplomats, and military trainees. The April 30, 1975, fall of Saigon, which ended the Vietnam War, prompted the first large-scale wave of immigration; many with close ties to America or the South Vietnam government feared communist reprisals. Most of the first-wave immigrants were well-educated, financially comfortable, and proficient in English.[21] According to 1975 U.S. State Department data, more than 30 percent of the heads of first-wave households were medical professionals or technical managers, 16.9 percent worked in transportation, and 11.7 percent had clerical or sales jobs in Vietnam. Less than 5 percent were fishermen or farmers.[22]

 
Vietnamese refugees at Fort Chaffee, Arkansas, during the late 1970s

The evacuation of the immigrants was organized in three major ways. The week before Saigon fell, 15,000 people left on scheduled flights followed by an additional 80,000 also evacuated by air. The last group was carried on U.S. Navy ships.[23] During the spring of 1975 125,000 people left South Vietnam, followed by more than 5,000 in 1976–1977.[22] They arrived at reception camps in the Philippines and Guam before being transferred to temporary housing at U.S. military bases, including Camp Pendleton (California), Fort Chaffee (Arkansas), Eglin Air Force Base (Florida) and Fort Indiantown Gap (Pennsylvania). After preparations for resettlement, they were assigned to one of nine voluntary agencies (VOLAGs) to help them find financial and personal support from sponsors in the U.S.[21][23]

South Vietnamese refugees were initially resented by Americans, since the memory of defeat was fresh; according to a 1975 poll, only 36 percent of Americans favored Vietnamese immigration. However, the U.S. government informed public opinion as it felt that it had a moral obligation to the refugees, and President Gerald Ford and Congress both agreed to pass the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act in 1975, which allowed Vietnamese refugees to enter the United States under a special status and allocated $405 million in resettlement aid. To prevent the refugees from forming ethnic enclaves and minimize their impact on local communities, they were distributed throughout the country,[21] but within a few years, many resettled in California and Texas.

 
Crewmen of the USS Durham (LKA-114) take Vietnamese refugees from a small craft in 1975.

A second wave of Vietnamese refugees from the former South Vietnam arrived from 1978 to the mid-1980s. South Vietnamese, particularly former military officers and government employees, were sent to "re-education camps," which were really concentration camps, for intensive political indoctrination. Chinese-Vietnamese relations soured when China became Vietnam's adversary in the brief Sino-Vietnamese War.[21] To escape, many South Vietnamese fled on small, unsafe, crowded fishing boats. Over 70 percent of the first immigrants were from urban areas, but the "boat people" were generally lower socioeconomically, as most were peasant farmers or fishermen, small-town merchants or former military officials. Survivors were picked up by foreign ships and brought to asylum camps in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Hong Kong, and the Philippines from which they entered countries that agreed to accept them.[21][22][23]

The plight of the boat people compelled the U.S. to act, and the Refugee Act of 1980 eased restrictions on the entry of Vietnamese refugees. From 1978 to 1982, 280,500 Vietnamese refugees were admitted[21] In 1979, the Orderly Departure Program (ODP) was established under the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to allow emigration from Vietnam to the U.S. and other countries. Additional legislation permitted Amerasian children and former political prisoners and their families to enter the United States. Vietnamese immigration peaked in 1992, when many re-education-camp inmates were released and sponsored by their families in the U.S. Between 1981 and 2000, the country accepted 531,310 Vietnamese political refugees and asylum-seekers.

 
Congregation Of The Mother Coredemptrix in Carthage, Missouri

By the early 1980s, a secondary resettlement was underway. Vietnamese refugees were initially scattered throughout the country in wherever they could find sponsorship. The majority (27,199) settled in California, followed by 9,130 in Texas and 3,500 to 7,000 each in Pennsylvania, Florida, Washington, Illinois, New York, and Louisiana. Economic and social factors, many then moved to warmer states, such as California and Texas, with larger Vietnamese communities, better jobs, and social safety nets.[21][22][23][sentence fragment]

Though Vietnamese immigration has continued at a fairly steady pace since the 1980s, the pathway to immigration for Vietnamese today has shifted entirely. As opposed to the earlier history of Vietnamese migration that stemmed predominantly from refugees, an overwhelming majority of Vietnamese are now granted lawful permanent residence (LPR) on the basis of family sponsored preferences or by way of immediate relatives to U.S. citizens, at 53% and 44% respectively. This marks a complete about face, in 1982, 99% of Vietnamese that were granted LPR were refugees, while today that group is a mere 1% of the Vietnamese population.[10]

Vietnamese Fishermen's Association Antitrust Suit edit

Vietnamese refugees in the Gulf Coast faced discrimination as they arrived throughout the 1970s and 1980s. White fishermen complained about unfair competition from their Vietnamese American counterparts. "Non-Vietnamese docks refused to allow Vietnamese American boats to dock, [and] wholesalers refused to buy shrimp from Vietnamese Americans." The Ku Klux Klan attempted to intimidate Vietnamese American shrimp fishermen, at one time having plans to burn Vietnamese shrimp boats.[24] The Vietnamese Fishermen's Association, with the aid of the Southern Poverty Law Center, won a 1981 antitrust suit against the Klan, disbanding the "private army of white supremacists."[25]

Community issues edit

Language barrier edit

Language was the first barrier Vietnamese refugees with limited English proficiency had to overcome. English uses tonal inflection sparingly (primarily for questions); Vietnamese, a tonal language, uses variations in tone to differentiate between meanings of a sound. Ma can have one of seven meanings, depending on tone: "mother", "ghost", "but", "code", "rice plant", "cheek" or "tomb".[21] Another difference between Vietnamese and English is the former's widespread use of status-related pronouns. You is the widely used second-person singular pronoun in American English, but the Vietnamese second-person singular pronoun varies by gender (anh or chị), social status (ông or ) and relationship (bạn, cậu or mày).[22]

Employment edit

Vietnamese Americans' income and social classes are diverse. In contrast to Vietnamese refugees who settled in France or Germany, and similar to their counterparts who arrived in Canada, The Czech Republic, The United Kingdom, Poland and Australia, refugees arriving in the United States often had a lower socioeconomic standing in their home country and more difficulty integrating due to greater linguistic and cultural barriers.

Vietnamese Americans have arrived in the U.S. primarily as refugees, with little or no money. While not as academically or financially accomplished collectively as their East Asian counterparts, census data indicates that Vietnamese Americans are an upwardly-mobile group; their economic status improved substantially between 1989 and 1999.[10]

Most first-wave Vietnamese immigrants initially worked at low-paying jobs in small services or industries.[26] Finding work was more difficult for second-wave and subsequent immigrants, due to their limited educational background and job skills. They were employed in blue-collar jobs, such as electrical engineering and machine assembling.[22] In San Jose, California, the economic difference can be seen in the Vietnamese American neighborhoods of Santa Clara County. In downtown San Jose, many Vietnamese work as restaurant cooks, repairmen and movers. The Evergreen and Berryessa sections of the city are middle- to upper-middle-class neighborhoods with large Vietnamese American populations, many of whom work in Silicon Valley's computer, networking and aerospace industries.

Many Vietnamese Americans have established businesses in Little Saigons and Chinatowns throughout North America, and have initiated the development and revitalization of older Chinatowns. Many Vietnamese Americans are small business owners. According to a 2002 Census Bureau survey of Vietnamese-owned firms, more than 50 percent of the businesses are personal services or repair and maintenance. The period from 1997 to 2002 saw substantial growth in the number of Vietnamese-owned business.[27] Throughout the country, many Vietnamese (especially first or second-generation immigrants) have opened supermarkets, restaurants, bánh mì bakeries, beauty salons, barber shops and auto-repair businesses. Restaurants owned by Vietnamese Americans tend to serve Vietnamese cuisine, Vietnamized Chinese cuisine or both, and have popularized phở and chả giò in the U.S. In 2002 34.2 percent of Vietnamese-owned businesses were in California, followed by Texas with 16.5 percent.[27]

 
Phước Lộc Thọ (Asian Garden Mall), the first Vietnamese American business center in Little Saigon, California

Young Vietnamese Americans adults are well educated, and often provide professional services. Since older Vietnamese Americans have difficulty interacting with the non-Vietnamese professional class, many Vietnamese Americans provide specialized professional services to fellow immigrants.[citation needed] Of these, a small number are owned by Vietnamese Americans of Hoa ethnicity. In the Gulf Coast region (Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi and Alabama), Vietnamese Americans are involved with the fishing industry and account for 45 to 85 percent of the region's shrimp business. However, the dumping of imported shrimp from Vietnam has impacted their livelihood.[28] Many remain employed in Silicon Valley's computer and networking industry, despite layoffs following the closure of various high-tech companies. Recent immigrants not yet proficient in English work in assembly, restaurants, shops and nail and hair salons. Eighty percent of California's nail technicians and 43 percent nationwide are Vietnamese Americans.[29] Nail-salon work is skilled manual labor which requires limited English-speaking ability. Some Vietnamese Americans see the work as a way to accumulate wealth quickly, and many send remittances to family members in Vietnam.[citation needed] Vietnamese entrepreneurs in Canada and Europe have adopted the U.S. model and opened nail salons in their country of residence, where few nail salons previously existed.[citation needed]

Political leanings edit

 
Vietnamese Americans marching with the old South Vietnamese flag during Tết

According to a 2008 Manhattan Institute study, Vietnamese Americans are among the most-assimilated immigrant groups in the United States.[30] Although their rates of cultural and economic assimilation were comparable to other groups (perhaps due to language differences between English and Vietnamese), their rates of civic assimilation were the highest of the large immigrant groups.[30] As many were refugees from South Vietnam, Vietnamese Americans viewed their stay in the United States as permanent and became involved in the political process at a higher rate than other groups. Vietnamese Americans have the highest rate of naturalization among all immigrant groups: in 2015, 86% of Vietnamese immigrants in the United States who were eligible for citizenship already became citizens.[31] However, there are "substantive within-group differences among Vietnamese Americans and that the classical linear assimilation hypothesis does not adequately explain political incorporation. Although naturalization does appear to increase steadily over time, with earlier waves more likely to have acquired citizenship, the same pattern of associations does not appear for our analysis of registration and voting. Notably, it was the third wave of Vietnamese immigrants who were most likely to cast ballots in the last presidential election".[32] According to a 1995 study, the relationship between Vietnam and the United States has been the most important issue for most Vietnamese Americans.[22] As many are refugees from South Vietnam, many are strongly opposed to communism; this attitude could also take root during and after the Indochina Wars, injustice in reeducation camps as well as other issues with the communist government.[33] In a 2000 Orange County Register poll, 71 percent of respondents ranked fighting communism as a "top priority" or "very important."[34] Vietnamese Americans stage protests against the Vietnamese government's policies.[35] In 1999, opposition to a video-store owner in Westminster, California who displayed the flag of Vietnam and a photo of Ho Chi Minh peaked when 15,000 people held a nighttime vigil in front of the store;[36] this raised free speech issues. Although few Vietnamese Americans enrolled in the Democratic Party because it was seen as more sympathetic to communism than the Republican Party, Republican support has eroded in the second generation and among newer, poorer refugees.[37] However, the Republican Party still has strong support; in 2007, in Orange County, Vietnamese Americans registered as Republicans outnumbered registered Democrats (55 and 22 percent, respectively).[38] According to the 2008 National Asian American Survey, 22 percent identified with the Democratic Party and 29 percent with the Republican Party.[39] Exit polls during the 2004 presidential election indicated that 72 percent of Vietnamese American voters in eight eastern states polled voted for Republican incumbent George W. Bush, compared to the 28 percent voting for Democratic challenger John Kerry.[40] In a poll conducted before the 2008 presidential election, two-thirds of Vietnamese Americans who had decided said that they would vote for Republican candidate John McCain.[39] The party's vocal anti-communism is attractive to older and first-generation Vietnamese Americans who arrived during the Reagan administration. Although most Vietnamese overall are registered Republicans, most young Vietnamese lean toward the Democratic Party because some Vietnamese are members of labor unions. An Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund (AALDEF) poll found that Vietnamese Americans aged 18–29 favored Democrat Barack Obama by 60 percentage points during the 2008 presidential election.[41] According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 47% of registered Vietnamese American voters leaned Republican and 32% Democratic; among Vietnamese Americans overall (including non-registered voters), 36% leaned Democratic and 35% Republican.[42]

Vietnamese Americans have exercised political power in Orange County, Silicon Valley, and other areas, and have attained public office at the local and statewide levels in California and Texas. Janet Nguyen is a member of the California State Assembly; Andrew Do is part of the five-member Orange County Board of Supervisors; Bao Nguyen was mayor of Garden Grove, California, and Vietnamese Americans have also been the mayors of Rosemead and Westminster, California. Several serve (or have served) on the city councils of Westminster,[43] Garden Grove and San Jose, California,[44] and Hubert Vo is a member of the Texas state legislature.[45] In 2008, Westminster became the first city with a majority Vietnamese American city council.[46] In 2004, Van Tran was elected to the California state legislature. Viet Dinh was the Assistant Attorney General of the United States from 2001 to 2003 and the chief architect of the Patriot Act. In 2006, 15 Vietnamese Americans were running for elective office in California.[47] In August 2014, Fort Hood Col. Viet Xuan Luong became the first Vietnamese American general in U.S. history.[48] Four Vietnamese Americans have run for a seat in the United States House of Representatives as their party's endorsed candidate.[49][50][51] In 2008, Katrina activist Anh "Joseph" Cao won Louisiana's 2nd congressional district seat in the House of Representatives; Cao was the first Vietnamese American elected to Congress.[52]

Some Vietnamese Americans have lobbied city and state governments to make the flag of South Vietnam (rather than the flag of Vietnam) the symbol of the Vietnamese in the United States, and objections were raised by the Vietnamese government.[53] The California and Ohio state governments enacted laws adopting the South Vietnamese flag in August 2006. Since June 2002, 13 states, seven counties and 85 cities had adopted resolutions recognizing the South Vietnamese flag as the Vietnamese Heritage and Freedom Flag.[54][55]

During the months following Hurricane Katrina, the Vietnamese American community in New Orleans (among the first to return to the city) rallied against a landfill used to dump debris near their community.[56] After months of legal wrangling, the landfill was closed.[57][58]

Since the onset of Hong Kong protests in June 2019, Vietnamese Americans have been the most active Asian Americans rallying in favor of the pro-democracy (pro-Labor Union) Hongkongers, organizing vocal marches in California, where their largest community exists. They clashed with pro-communist Mainland Chinese immigrants.[59][60][61] Trúc Hồ, a famed Vietnamese American singer, wrote a song in July 2019 to praise the Hong Kong protesters. The song went viral among Vietnamese and Hong Kong citizens.[62]

Among Asian Americans, Vietnamese Americans have been the most supportive of Donald Trump since his 2016 presidential election, and have as well at the same time been the most supportive of Ukraine since the Russian invasion of Ukraine began in 2022. According to a AAPI.org survey, 46% of Vietnamese Americans supported Trump in the 2020 presidential election, compared to 36% for Joe Biden. The reasons credited for the strong support of Trump by Vietnamese Americans is his strong stances against socialism and communism in particular and the left wing of politics as a whole; supporting conservative-oriented freedom; and disliking mainland China's trade policies and alleged currency manipulation. Many pro-Trump rallies were organized by Andy Ngo to support his re-election during the 2020 campaign throughout the country.[63][64] Many Vietnamese Americans gained headlines for participating in the January 6 United States Capitol attack by waving the South Vietnamese flags and marching alongside neo-Nazi and white nationalist supporters.[65][66] Some Vietnamese Americans, especially younger ones have expressed that they feel "disappointed" about the display of the flag at the Capitol riot, mainly "to see it be associated with hate, with racism, with supremacy"; that "The ideas of authoritarianism, of overturning the people's will, are not the principles that this flag stands for", and that the incident made them "look like clowns". It was reported that due to the incident, "many younger people started questioning their elders' unyielding loyalty to and interpretation of the banner's [South Vietnam Flag] values".[67][68]

Student associations edit

A number of colleges have a Vietnamese Student Association, and an annual conference is hosted by the Union of North American Vietnamese Student Associations for current or future members.[69]

Culture edit

 
Tết in Little Saigon, Orange County, California
 
Vietnamese Americans celebrating the Tết Trung Thu

While adapting to a new country, Vietnamese Americans have tried to preserve their traditional culture by teaching their children the Vietnamese language, wearing Vietnamese traditional dress for special occasions and showcasing their cuisine in restaurants throughout the country. Family loyalty is the most important Vietnamese cultural characteristic, and more than two generations traditionally lived under one roof. The Vietnamese view a family as including maternal and paternal grandparents, uncles, aunts and cousins. In adapting to American culture, most Vietnamese American families have adopted the nuclear pattern while trying to maintain close ties with their extended families.[22]

Vietnamese family culture is reflected in veneration of the dead. On the anniversary of an ancestor's death (ngày giỗ), relatives gather for a festive meal and to share stories about the person's children, works or community.[21] In a typical Vietnamese family, parents see themselves with a vital role in their children's lives; according to a survey, 71 percent of Vietnamese American parents said that being a good parent is one of the most important things in their lives.[70] Generations of Vietnamese were taught to help their families without question, and many Vietnamese Americans send American goods and money and sponsor relatives' trips or immigration to the U.S. In 2013, remittances sent to Vietnam via formal channels totaled $11 billion, a tenfold increase from the late 1990s.[10]

 
Vietnamese community float at the Portland Rose Festival parade

Vietnamese Americans observe holidays based on their lunisolar calendar, with Tết Nguyên Đán (commonly known as Tết) the most important. Falling in late January or early February, Tết marks the lunar new year. Although the full holiday lasts for seven days, the first three days are celebrated with visits to relatives, teachers and friends. For Tết, the Vietnamese commemorate their ancestors with memorial feasts (including traditional foods such as square and round sticky-rice cakes: bánh chưng and bánh giầy) and visits to their ancestors' graves.[21][22][23] For Vietnamese Americans, the celebration of Tết is simpler. In California, Texas and other states with substantial Vietnamese communities, Vietnamese Americans celebrate Tết by visiting their relatives and friends, watching community-sponsored dragon dances and visiting temples or churches.[22][23]

Tết Trung Nguyên (Wandering Souls' Day, on the 15th day of the seventh lunar month) and Tết Trung Thu (Children's Day or the Mid-Autumn Festival, on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month) are also celebrated by many Vietnamese Americans. For Tết Trung Nguyên, food, money and clothes made of special paper are prepared to worship the wandering souls of ancestors. Along with Tết Nguyên Đán, Tết Trung Thu is a favorite children's holiday; children holding colorful lanterns form a procession and follow a parade of lion dances and drums.[21][22][23]

Religion edit

Religious Makeup of Vietnamese-Americans (2012)[71]

  Buddhism (43%)
  Catholicism (30%)
  Unaffiliated (20%)
  Religion not stated (1%)

Forty-three percent of Vietnamese Americans are Buddhists.[3] Many practice Mahayana Buddhism,[21][22] Taoism, Confucianism and animist practices (including ancestor veneration) influenced by Chinese folk religion.[72] According to Pew Research Center, thirty percent of Vietnamese Americans identify as Catholic, and six percent identify as Protestant.[72] Vietnamese are a major ethnic group notable among Asian American Catholics.[73] Hòa Hảo and Caodaism are two of the other religions of Vietnamese Americans.

There are 150 to 165 Vietnamese Buddhist temples in the United States, with most observing a mixture of Pure Land (Tịnh Độ Tông) and Zen (Thiền) doctrines and practices.[74][75] Most temples are small, consisting of a converted house with one or two resident monks or nuns.[74] Two of the most prominent figures in Vietnamese American Buddhism are Thich Thien-An and Thich Nhat Hanh.[75] There are also Theravada-based Vietnamese temples like Chua Buu Mon in Port Arthur, Texas.

Ethnic subgroups edit

Although census data counts those who identify as ethnically Vietnamese, how Vietnamese ethnic groups view themselves may affect that reporting.

Hoa edit

The Hoa people are Han Chinese who migrated to Vietnam. In 2013, they made up 11.5 percent of the Vietnamese American population, and in majority, identified itself as Vietnamese.[76] Some Hoa Vietnamese Americans also speak a dialect of Yue Chinese, generally code-switching between Cantonese and Vietnamese to speak to both Hoa immigrants from Vietnam and ethnic Vietnamese. Teochew, a variety of Southern Min which had virtually no speakers in the US before the 1980s, is spoken by another group of Hoa immigrants. A small number of Vietnamese Americans may also speak Mandarin as a third (or fourth) language in business and other interaction.

Eurasians and Amerasians edit

Some Vietnamese Americans are Eurasians: people of European and Asian descent. They are descendants of ethnic Vietnamese and French settlers and soldiers (and sometimes Hoa) during the French colonial period (1883–1945) or the First Indochina War (1946–1954).

Amerasians are descendants of an ethnic Vietnamese (or Hoa) parent and an American parent, most commonly white or black. The first substantial generation of Amerasian Vietnamese Americans were born to American personnel, primarily military men, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1975. Many Amerasians were ignored by their American parent; in Vietnam, the fatherless children of foreign men were called con lai ("mixed race") or the pejorative bụi đời ("dust of life").[77] Since 1982, Amerasians and their families have come to the United States under the Orderly Departure Program. Many could not be reunited with their fathers, and commonly arrived with their mothers. In some cases, they were part of false families that were created to escape from Vietnam.[23] Many of the first-generation Amerasians and their mothers experienced significant social and institutional discrimination in Vietnam, where they were denied the right to education; discrimination worsening after the 1973 American withdrawal, and by the U.S. government, which discouraged American military personnel from marrying Vietnamese nationals and frequently refused claims of U.S. citizenship that were lodged by Amerasians born in Vietnam if their mothers were not married to their American fathers.[78][79][80]

Discrimination was even greater for children of black servicemen than for children of white fathers.[81] Subsequent generations of Amerasians (children born in the United States) and Vietnamese-born Amerasians whose American paternity was documented by their parents' marriage or their subsequent legitimization have had an arguably more favorable outlook.[82]

The 1988 American Homecoming Act helped over 25,000 Amerasians and their 67,000 relatives in Vietnam, to emigrate to the United States. Although they received permanent-resident status, many have been unable to obtain citizenship and express a lack of belonging or acceptance in the US because of differences in culture, language and citizenship status.[83][84]

Ethnic Tai-Lao edit

The Thái peoples, including the Laotians, Nungs and other Tai ethnicities who migrated to the United States were majority from Northern Vietnam. The community, overall, do not develop a separate ethnic identity sentiment due to long friendly relations with the Vietnamese rulers, thus the community don't regard itself Thai Americans or Laotian Americans, and see itself part of Vietnamese American diaspora.[85][86][87]

Cham edit

Cham are an ethnic minority of Vietnam and Cambodia, and a small number of them came to the United States as refugees fleeing the Cambodian Genocide. Today, the Chams are polarized between, though few embraced Vietnamese identity but rather attach their identity with the fallen kingdom of Champa, while still working with most Vietnamese American groups. The main Cham populations in the United States are located in Orange County, California, Portland, and Seattle.[88][89]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  • Chan, Sucheng, ed. (2006). The Vietnamese American 1.5 Generation: Stories of War, Revolution, Flight, and New Beginnings 323pp
  • Tran, Tuyen Ngoc. Behind the Smoke and Mirrors: The Vietnamese in California, 1975–1994 (PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2007).
  • Min Zhou and Carl L. Bankston (1998). Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States. New York: Russell Sage Foundation
  • Ho Peché, Linda; Vo, Alex-Thai Dinh; Vu, Tuong, eds. (2023). Toward a Framework for Vietnamese American Studies: History, Community, and Memory. Temple University Press.

External links edit

  • Vietnamese American Heritage Project, Vietnam Center & Sam Johnson Vietnam Archive, Texas Tech University.
  • Viet Stories: Vietnamese American Oral History Project at University of California, Irvine.
  • Other oral history projects about Vietnamese Americans.
  • Vietnamese in the Diaspora Digital Archive.
  • Vietnamese Heritage Museum.
  • US–Vietnam Research Center at University of Oregon.

vietnamese, americans, vietnamese, người, mỹ, gốc, việt, americans, vietnamese, ancestry, they, comprise, approximately, half, overseas, vietnamese, fourth, largest, asian, american, ethnic, group, following, chinese, americans, filipino, americans, indian, am. Vietnamese Americans Vietnamese Người Mỹ gốc Việt are Americans of Vietnamese ancestry 5 They comprise approximately half of all overseas Vietnamese and are the fourth largest Asian American ethnic group following Chinese Americans Filipino Americans and Indian Americans There are approximately 2 2 million people of Vietnamese descent residing in the U S Vietnamese AmericansNgười Mỹ gốc ViệtTotal population2 183 000 1 0 7 of the total U S population 2018 Regions with significant populationsLos Angeles and Orange CountySan Francisco Bay Area esp San Jose Sacramento CaliforniaGreater HoustonDallas Fort WorthTwin Cities metropolitan areaWashington metropolitan area Northern Virginia MarylandSeattle areaSan Diego CountyMetro AtlantaGreater BostonPhiladelphia areaNew York CityDenver ColoradoChicagolandHonolulu HawaiiGreater Orlando others 2 LanguagesVietnamese EnglishReligionBuddhism 43 Catholicism 30 Unaffiliated 20 Protestantism 6 3 4 Vietnamese folk religion Caodaism Hoa HảoRelated ethnic groupsVietnamese people Overseas Vietnamese Vietnamese Canadians Vietnamese Australians Asian Americans Chinese Americans Hmong Americans Spread of the Vietnamese language in the United StatesThe Vietnamese community in the United States was minimal until the exodus of South Vietnamese refugees to the country following the end of Vietnam War in 1975 More than half of Vietnamese Americans reside in the two most populous states of California and Texas primarily their large urban areas 6 Contents 1 Demographics 1 1 Income 1 2 Economics 1 3 Employment 1 4 Education 1 4 1 English proficiency 1 4 2 View of education 2 History 2 1 Vietnamese Fishermen s Association Antitrust Suit 3 Community issues 3 1 Language barrier 3 2 Employment 4 Political leanings 4 1 Student associations 5 Culture 6 Religion 7 Ethnic subgroups 7 1 Hoa 7 2 Eurasians and Amerasians 7 3 Ethnic Tai Lao 7 4 Cham 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External linksDemographics editIncome edit In 2019 the median household income for U S born Vietnamese Americans was 82 400 7 As a relatively recent immigrant group most Vietnamese Americans are either first or second generation Americans As many as one million people five years of age and older speak Vietnamese at home making it the fifth most spoken language in the U S In the 2012 American Community Survey ACS 76 percent of foreign born Vietnamese are naturalized U S citizens compared to 67 percent of people from Southeast Asia and 46 percent of the total U S foreign born population Of those born outside the United States 73 1 percent entered before 2000 21 2 percent from 2000 and 2009 and 5 7 percent after 2010 8 In 2018 the U S Census Bureau estimated the total population of Vietnamese Americans was 2 162 610 92 1 reporting one race 7 2 reporting two races 0 7 reporting three races and 0 1 reporting four or more races 9 California and Texas had the highest concentrations of Vietnamese Americans 40 and 12 percent of Vietnamese immigrants respectively Other states with concentrations of Vietnamese Americans were Washington Florida four percent each and Virginia three percent 10 The largest number of Vietnamese outside Vietnam is in Orange County California 184 153 or 6 1 percent of the county s population 11 followed by Los Angeles and Santa Clara counties the three counties accounted for 26 percent of the Vietnamese immigrant population in the United States 10 Many Vietnamese American businesses exist in the Little Saigon of Westminster and Garden Grove where Vietnamese Americans make up 40 2 and 27 7 percent of the population respectively About 41 percent of the Vietnamese immigrant population lives in five major metropolitan areas in descending order Los Angeles San Jose Houston San Francisco and Dallas Fort Worth 10 The Vietnamese immigration pattern has shifted to other cities including Denver Boston Chicago Oklahoma Oklahoma City and Tulsa in particular and Oregon Portland in particular citation needed Historical populationYearPop 1980261 729 1990614 517 134 8 20001 122 528 82 7 20101 548 449 37 9 Vietnamese Americans are more likely to be Christians than the Vietnamese in Vietnam Christians mainly Roman Catholics make up about six percent of Vietnam s population and about 23 percent of the Vietnamese American population 13 Due to hostility between Communists and Catholics in Vietnam many Catholics fled the country after the Communist takeover and many Catholic Churches had sponsored them to America 14 According to the Migration Policy Institute 15 using data from the American Community Survey for 2017 to 2021 there were 1 347 300 immigrants from Vietnam nationally The top counties in which they resided were as follows 1 Orange County California 148 9002 Santa Clara County California 101 7003 Los Angeles County California 95 1004 Harris County Texas 74 8005 King County Washington 34 8006 San Diego County California 34 6007 Alameda County California 28 3008 Sacramento County California 25 8009 Tarrant County Texas 23 60010 Fairfax County Virginia 22 60011 Dallas County Texas 22 10012 Gwinnett County Georgia 17 40013 Maricopa County Arizona 15 60014 San Francisco City California 14 90015 Fort Bend County Texas 13 90016 Multnomah County Oregon 13 30017 Cook County Illinois 13 10018 Riverside County California 12 00019 Orange County Florida 10 80020 Snohomish County Washington 10 50021 Montgomery County Maryland 10 00022 San Bernardino County California 10 00023 Clark County Nevada 9 90024 Suffolk County Massachusetts 9 20025 Travis County Texas 9 00026 Collin County Texas 8 90027 Contra Costa County California 8 80028 Norfolk County Massachusetts 8 700 Economics edit In 2019 the median household income for all Vietnamese Americans was 69 800 Broken down by birth the income was 82 400 for U S born and 66 000 for foreign born Vietnamese Americans 7 In 2019 Pew Research Center published a study stating that 12 of Vietnamese Americans lived under the poverty line which was higher than the average for all Asian Americans 16 Employment edit The U S Census Bureau reports in 2016 among working Vietnamese Americans civilian employed population 16 years and over 32 9 had management business science and arts occupations 30 9 had service occupations 17 0 had sales and office occupations 4 3 had reported natural resources construction and maintenance occupations and 15 had natural resources construction and maintenance occupations 9 Though Vietnamese immigration has continued at a fairly steady pace since the 1980s the pathway to immigration for Vietnamese today has shifted entirely As opposed to the earlier history of Vietnamese migration that stemmed predominantly from refugees an overwhelming majority of Vietnamese are now granted LPR on the basis of family sponsored preferences or by way of immediate relatives to U S citizens at 53 and 44 respectively This marks a complete about face as in 1982 99 of Vietnamese who received green cards obtained them on humanitarian grounds while in 2019 only 1 of Vietnamese who received LPR status did so through this channel 17 Education edit In 2019 55 of U S born Vietnamese Americans had attained a bachelor s degree or higher 16 Coming from different waves of immigration Vietnamese Americans have a lower educational attainment than overall total Asian American population but it is higher than other Southeast Asian groups and is also trending upward 18 English proficiency edit In 2019 90 of U S born Vietnamese Americans but only 35 of foreign born Vietnamese were English proficient 16 View of education edit Vietnam s traditional Confucianist society values education and learning and many Vietnamese Americans have worked their way up from menial labor to have their second generation children attend college and become successful citation needed History editThe history of Vietnamese Americans is fairly recent Before 1975 most Vietnamese residing in the U S were the wives and children of American servicemen or academics Records 19 20 indicate that a few Vietnamese including Ho Chi Minh arrived and performed menial work during the late 19th and early 20th centuries According to the Immigration and Naturalization Service 650 Vietnamese arrived as immigrants between 1950 and 1974 but the figure excludes students diplomats and military trainees The April 30 1975 fall of Saigon which ended the Vietnam War prompted the first large scale wave of immigration many with close ties to America or the South Vietnam government feared communist reprisals Most of the first wave immigrants were well educated financially comfortable and proficient in English 21 According to 1975 U S State Department data more than 30 percent of the heads of first wave households were medical professionals or technical managers 16 9 percent worked in transportation and 11 7 percent had clerical or sales jobs in Vietnam Less than 5 percent were fishermen or farmers 22 nbsp Vietnamese refugees at Fort Chaffee Arkansas during the late 1970sThe evacuation of the immigrants was organized in three major ways The week before Saigon fell 15 000 people left on scheduled flights followed by an additional 80 000 also evacuated by air The last group was carried on U S Navy ships 23 During the spring of 1975 125 000 people left South Vietnam followed by more than 5 000 in 1976 1977 22 They arrived at reception camps in the Philippines and Guam before being transferred to temporary housing at U S military bases including Camp Pendleton California Fort Chaffee Arkansas Eglin Air Force Base Florida and Fort Indiantown Gap Pennsylvania After preparations for resettlement they were assigned to one of nine voluntary agencies VOLAGs to help them find financial and personal support from sponsors in the U S 21 23 South Vietnamese refugees were initially resented by Americans since the memory of defeat was fresh according to a 1975 poll only 36 percent of Americans favored Vietnamese immigration However the U S government informed public opinion as it felt that it had a moral obligation to the refugees and President Gerald Ford and Congress both agreed to pass the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act in 1975 which allowed Vietnamese refugees to enter the United States under a special status and allocated 405 million in resettlement aid To prevent the refugees from forming ethnic enclaves and minimize their impact on local communities they were distributed throughout the country 21 but within a few years many resettled in California and Texas nbsp Crewmen of the USS Durham LKA 114 take Vietnamese refugees from a small craft in 1975 A second wave of Vietnamese refugees from the former South Vietnam arrived from 1978 to the mid 1980s South Vietnamese particularly former military officers and government employees were sent to re education camps which were really concentration camps for intensive political indoctrination Chinese Vietnamese relations soured when China became Vietnam s adversary in the brief Sino Vietnamese War 21 To escape many South Vietnamese fled on small unsafe crowded fishing boats Over 70 percent of the first immigrants were from urban areas but the boat people were generally lower socioeconomically as most were peasant farmers or fishermen small town merchants or former military officials Survivors were picked up by foreign ships and brought to asylum camps in Thailand Malaysia Singapore Indonesia Hong Kong and the Philippines from which they entered countries that agreed to accept them 21 22 23 The plight of the boat people compelled the U S to act and the Refugee Act of 1980 eased restrictions on the entry of Vietnamese refugees From 1978 to 1982 280 500 Vietnamese refugees were admitted 21 In 1979 the Orderly Departure Program ODP was established under the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR to allow emigration from Vietnam to the U S and other countries Additional legislation permitted Amerasian children and former political prisoners and their families to enter the United States Vietnamese immigration peaked in 1992 when many re education camp inmates were released and sponsored by their families in the U S Between 1981 and 2000 the country accepted 531 310 Vietnamese political refugees and asylum seekers nbsp Congregation Of The Mother Coredemptrix in Carthage MissouriBy the early 1980s a secondary resettlement was underway Vietnamese refugees were initially scattered throughout the country in wherever they could find sponsorship The majority 27 199 settled in California followed by 9 130 in Texas and 3 500 to 7 000 each in Pennsylvania Florida Washington Illinois New York and Louisiana Economic and social factors many then moved to warmer states such as California and Texas with larger Vietnamese communities better jobs and social safety nets 21 22 23 sentence fragment Though Vietnamese immigration has continued at a fairly steady pace since the 1980s the pathway to immigration for Vietnamese today has shifted entirely As opposed to the earlier history of Vietnamese migration that stemmed predominantly from refugees an overwhelming majority of Vietnamese are now granted lawful permanent residence LPR on the basis of family sponsored preferences or by way of immediate relatives to U S citizens at 53 and 44 respectively This marks a complete about face in 1982 99 of Vietnamese that were granted LPR were refugees while today that group is a mere 1 of the Vietnamese population 10 Vietnamese Fishermen s Association Antitrust Suit edit Vietnamese refugees in the Gulf Coast faced discrimination as they arrived throughout the 1970s and 1980s White fishermen complained about unfair competition from their Vietnamese American counterparts Non Vietnamese docks refused to allow Vietnamese American boats to dock and wholesalers refused to buy shrimp from Vietnamese Americans The Ku Klux Klan attempted to intimidate Vietnamese American shrimp fishermen at one time having plans to burn Vietnamese shrimp boats 24 The Vietnamese Fishermen s Association with the aid of the Southern Poverty Law Center won a 1981 antitrust suit against the Klan disbanding the private army of white supremacists 25 Community issues editLanguage barrier edit Language was the first barrier Vietnamese refugees with limited English proficiency had to overcome English uses tonal inflection sparingly primarily for questions Vietnamese a tonal language uses variations in tone to differentiate between meanings of a sound Ma can have one of seven meanings depending on tone mother ghost but code rice plant cheek or tomb 21 Another difference between Vietnamese and English is the former s widespread use of status related pronouns You is the widely used second person singular pronoun in American English but the Vietnamese second person singular pronoun varies by gender anh or chị social status ong or ba and relationship bạn cậu or may 22 Employment edit Vietnamese Americans income and social classes are diverse In contrast to Vietnamese refugees who settled in France or Germany and similar to their counterparts who arrived in Canada The Czech Republic The United Kingdom Poland and Australia refugees arriving in the United States often had a lower socioeconomic standing in their home country and more difficulty integrating due to greater linguistic and cultural barriers Vietnamese Americans have arrived in the U S primarily as refugees with little or no money While not as academically or financially accomplished collectively as their East Asian counterparts census data indicates that Vietnamese Americans are an upwardly mobile group their economic status improved substantially between 1989 and 1999 10 Most first wave Vietnamese immigrants initially worked at low paying jobs in small services or industries 26 Finding work was more difficult for second wave and subsequent immigrants due to their limited educational background and job skills They were employed in blue collar jobs such as electrical engineering and machine assembling 22 In San Jose California the economic difference can be seen in the Vietnamese American neighborhoods of Santa Clara County In downtown San Jose many Vietnamese work as restaurant cooks repairmen and movers The Evergreen and Berryessa sections of the city are middle to upper middle class neighborhoods with large Vietnamese American populations many of whom work in Silicon Valley s computer networking and aerospace industries Many Vietnamese Americans have established businesses in Little Saigons and Chinatowns throughout North America and have initiated the development and revitalization of older Chinatowns Many Vietnamese Americans are small business owners According to a 2002 Census Bureau survey of Vietnamese owned firms more than 50 percent of the businesses are personal services or repair and maintenance The period from 1997 to 2002 saw substantial growth in the number of Vietnamese owned business 27 Throughout the country many Vietnamese especially first or second generation immigrants have opened supermarkets restaurants banh mi bakeries beauty salons barber shops and auto repair businesses Restaurants owned by Vietnamese Americans tend to serve Vietnamese cuisine Vietnamized Chinese cuisine or both and have popularized phở and chả gio in the U S In 2002 34 2 percent of Vietnamese owned businesses were in California followed by Texas with 16 5 percent 27 nbsp Phước Lộc Thọ Asian Garden Mall the first Vietnamese American business center in Little Saigon CaliforniaYoung Vietnamese Americans adults are well educated and often provide professional services Since older Vietnamese Americans have difficulty interacting with the non Vietnamese professional class many Vietnamese Americans provide specialized professional services to fellow immigrants citation needed Of these a small number are owned by Vietnamese Americans of Hoa ethnicity In the Gulf Coast region Louisiana Texas Mississippi and Alabama Vietnamese Americans are involved with the fishing industry and account for 45 to 85 percent of the region s shrimp business However the dumping of imported shrimp from Vietnam has impacted their livelihood 28 Many remain employed in Silicon Valley s computer and networking industry despite layoffs following the closure of various high tech companies Recent immigrants not yet proficient in English work in assembly restaurants shops and nail and hair salons Eighty percent of California s nail technicians and 43 percent nationwide are Vietnamese Americans 29 Nail salon work is skilled manual labor which requires limited English speaking ability Some Vietnamese Americans see the work as a way to accumulate wealth quickly and many send remittances to family members in Vietnam citation needed Vietnamese entrepreneurs in Canada and Europe have adopted the U S model and opened nail salons in their country of residence where few nail salons previously existed citation needed Political leanings editFurther information Hi Tek incident nbsp Vietnamese Americans marching with the old South Vietnamese flag during TếtAccording to a 2008 Manhattan Institute study Vietnamese Americans are among the most assimilated immigrant groups in the United States 30 Although their rates of cultural and economic assimilation were comparable to other groups perhaps due to language differences between English and Vietnamese their rates of civic assimilation were the highest of the large immigrant groups 30 As many were refugees from South Vietnam Vietnamese Americans viewed their stay in the United States as permanent and became involved in the political process at a higher rate than other groups Vietnamese Americans have the highest rate of naturalization among all immigrant groups in 2015 86 of Vietnamese immigrants in the United States who were eligible for citizenship already became citizens 31 However there are substantive within group differences among Vietnamese Americans and that the classical linear assimilation hypothesis does not adequately explain political incorporation Although naturalization does appear to increase steadily over time with earlier waves more likely to have acquired citizenship the same pattern of associations does not appear for our analysis of registration and voting Notably it was the third wave of Vietnamese immigrants who were most likely to cast ballots in the last presidential election 32 According to a 1995 study the relationship between Vietnam and the United States has been the most important issue for most Vietnamese Americans 22 As many are refugees from South Vietnam many are strongly opposed to communism this attitude could also take root during and after the Indochina Wars injustice in reeducation camps as well as other issues with the communist government 33 In a 2000 Orange County Register poll 71 percent of respondents ranked fighting communism as a top priority or very important 34 Vietnamese Americans stage protests against the Vietnamese government s policies 35 In 1999 opposition to a video store owner in Westminster California who displayed the flag of Vietnam and a photo of Ho Chi Minh peaked when 15 000 people held a nighttime vigil in front of the store 36 this raised free speech issues Although few Vietnamese Americans enrolled in the Democratic Party because it was seen as more sympathetic to communism than the Republican Party Republican support has eroded in the second generation and among newer poorer refugees 37 However the Republican Party still has strong support in 2007 in Orange County Vietnamese Americans registered as Republicans outnumbered registered Democrats 55 and 22 percent respectively 38 According to the 2008 National Asian American Survey 22 percent identified with the Democratic Party and 29 percent with the Republican Party 39 Exit polls during the 2004 presidential election indicated that 72 percent of Vietnamese American voters in eight eastern states polled voted for Republican incumbent George W Bush compared to the 28 percent voting for Democratic challenger John Kerry 40 In a poll conducted before the 2008 presidential election two thirds of Vietnamese Americans who had decided said that they would vote for Republican candidate John McCain 39 The party s vocal anti communism is attractive to older and first generation Vietnamese Americans who arrived during the Reagan administration Although most Vietnamese overall are registered Republicans most young Vietnamese lean toward the Democratic Party because some Vietnamese are members of labor unions An Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund AALDEF poll found that Vietnamese Americans aged 18 29 favored Democrat Barack Obama by 60 percentage points during the 2008 presidential election 41 According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey 47 of registered Vietnamese American voters leaned Republican and 32 Democratic among Vietnamese Americans overall including non registered voters 36 leaned Democratic and 35 Republican 42 Vietnamese Americans have exercised political power in Orange County Silicon Valley and other areas and have attained public office at the local and statewide levels in California and Texas Janet Nguyen is a member of the California State Assembly Andrew Do is part of the five member Orange County Board of Supervisors Bao Nguyen was mayor of Garden Grove California and Vietnamese Americans have also been the mayors of Rosemead and Westminster California Several serve or have served on the city councils of Westminster 43 Garden Grove and San Jose California 44 and Hubert Vo is a member of the Texas state legislature 45 In 2008 Westminster became the first city with a majority Vietnamese American city council 46 In 2004 Van Tran was elected to the California state legislature Viet Dinh was the Assistant Attorney General of the United States from 2001 to 2003 and the chief architect of the Patriot Act In 2006 15 Vietnamese Americans were running for elective office in California 47 In August 2014 Fort Hood Col Viet Xuan Luong became the first Vietnamese American general in U S history 48 Four Vietnamese Americans have run for a seat in the United States House of Representatives as their party s endorsed candidate 49 50 51 In 2008 Katrina activist Anh Joseph Cao won Louisiana s 2nd congressional district seat in the House of Representatives Cao was the first Vietnamese American elected to Congress 52 Some Vietnamese Americans have lobbied city and state governments to make the flag of South Vietnam rather than the flag of Vietnam the symbol of the Vietnamese in the United States and objections were raised by the Vietnamese government 53 The California and Ohio state governments enacted laws adopting the South Vietnamese flag in August 2006 Since June 2002 13 states seven counties and 85 cities had adopted resolutions recognizing the South Vietnamese flag as the Vietnamese Heritage and Freedom Flag 54 55 During the months following Hurricane Katrina the Vietnamese American community in New Orleans among the first to return to the city rallied against a landfill used to dump debris near their community 56 After months of legal wrangling the landfill was closed 57 58 Since the onset of Hong Kong protests in June 2019 Vietnamese Americans have been the most active Asian Americans rallying in favor of the pro democracy pro Labor Union Hongkongers organizing vocal marches in California where their largest community exists They clashed with pro communist Mainland Chinese immigrants 59 60 61 Truc Hồ a famed Vietnamese American singer wrote a song in July 2019 to praise the Hong Kong protesters The song went viral among Vietnamese and Hong Kong citizens 62 Among Asian Americans Vietnamese Americans have been the most supportive of Donald Trump since his 2016 presidential election and have as well at the same time been the most supportive of Ukraine since the Russian invasion of Ukraine began in 2022 According to a AAPI org survey 46 of Vietnamese Americans supported Trump in the 2020 presidential election compared to 36 for Joe Biden The reasons credited for the strong support of Trump by Vietnamese Americans is his strong stances against socialism and communism in particular and the left wing of politics as a whole supporting conservative oriented freedom and disliking mainland China s trade policies and alleged currency manipulation Many pro Trump rallies were organized by Andy Ngo to support his re election during the 2020 campaign throughout the country 63 64 Many Vietnamese Americans gained headlines for participating in the January 6 United States Capitol attack by waving the South Vietnamese flags and marching alongside neo Nazi and white nationalist supporters 65 66 Some Vietnamese Americans especially younger ones have expressed that they feel disappointed about the display of the flag at the Capitol riot mainly to see it be associated with hate with racism with supremacy that The ideas of authoritarianism of overturning the people s will are not the principles that this flag stands for and that the incident made them look like clowns It was reported that due to the incident many younger people started questioning their elders unyielding loyalty to and interpretation of the banner s South Vietnam Flag values 67 68 Student associations edit A number of colleges have a Vietnamese Student Association and an annual conference is hosted by the Union of North American Vietnamese Student Associations for current or future members 69 Culture edit nbsp Tết in Little Saigon Orange County California nbsp Vietnamese Americans celebrating the Tết Trung ThuWhile adapting to a new country Vietnamese Americans have tried to preserve their traditional culture by teaching their children the Vietnamese language wearing Vietnamese traditional dress for special occasions and showcasing their cuisine in restaurants throughout the country Family loyalty is the most important Vietnamese cultural characteristic and more than two generations traditionally lived under one roof The Vietnamese view a family as including maternal and paternal grandparents uncles aunts and cousins In adapting to American culture most Vietnamese American families have adopted the nuclear pattern while trying to maintain close ties with their extended families 22 Vietnamese family culture is reflected in veneration of the dead On the anniversary of an ancestor s death ngay giỗ relatives gather for a festive meal and to share stories about the person s children works or community 21 In a typical Vietnamese family parents see themselves with a vital role in their children s lives according to a survey 71 percent of Vietnamese American parents said that being a good parent is one of the most important things in their lives 70 Generations of Vietnamese were taught to help their families without question and many Vietnamese Americans send American goods and money and sponsor relatives trips or immigration to the U S In 2013 remittances sent to Vietnam via formal channels totaled 11 billion a tenfold increase from the late 1990s 10 nbsp Vietnamese community float at the Portland Rose Festival paradeVietnamese Americans observe holidays based on their lunisolar calendar with Tết Nguyen Đan commonly known as Tết the most important Falling in late January or early February Tết marks the lunar new year Although the full holiday lasts for seven days the first three days are celebrated with visits to relatives teachers and friends For Tết the Vietnamese commemorate their ancestors with memorial feasts including traditional foods such as square and round sticky rice cakes banh chưng and banh giầy and visits to their ancestors graves 21 22 23 For Vietnamese Americans the celebration of Tết is simpler In California Texas and other states with substantial Vietnamese communities Vietnamese Americans celebrate Tết by visiting their relatives and friends watching community sponsored dragon dances and visiting temples or churches 22 23 Tết Trung Nguyen Wandering Souls Day on the 15th day of the seventh lunar month and Tết Trung Thu Children s Day or the Mid Autumn Festival on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month are also celebrated by many Vietnamese Americans For Tết Trung Nguyen food money and clothes made of special paper are prepared to worship the wandering souls of ancestors Along with Tết Nguyen Đan Tết Trung Thu is a favorite children s holiday children holding colorful lanterns form a procession and follow a parade of lion dances and drums 21 22 23 Religion editReligious Makeup of Vietnamese Americans 2012 71 Buddhism 43 Catholicism 30 Unaffiliated 20 Mainline Protestant 4 Evangelical Protestant 2 Religion not stated 1 Forty three percent of Vietnamese Americans are Buddhists 3 Many practice Mahayana Buddhism 21 22 Taoism Confucianism and animist practices including ancestor veneration influenced by Chinese folk religion 72 According to Pew Research Center thirty percent of Vietnamese Americans identify as Catholic and six percent identify as Protestant 72 Vietnamese are a major ethnic group notable among Asian American Catholics 73 Hoa Hảo and Caodaism are two of the other religions of Vietnamese Americans There are 150 to 165 Vietnamese Buddhist temples in the United States with most observing a mixture of Pure Land Tịnh Độ Tong and Zen Thiền doctrines and practices 74 75 Most temples are small consisting of a converted house with one or two resident monks or nuns 74 Two of the most prominent figures in Vietnamese American Buddhism are Thich Thien An and Thich Nhat Hanh 75 There are also Theravada based Vietnamese temples like Chua Buu Mon in Port Arthur Texas Ethnic subgroups editAlthough census data counts those who identify as ethnically Vietnamese how Vietnamese ethnic groups view themselves may affect that reporting Hoa edit The Hoa people are Han Chinese who migrated to Vietnam In 2013 they made up 11 5 percent of the Vietnamese American population and in majority identified itself as Vietnamese 76 Some Hoa Vietnamese Americans also speak a dialect of Yue Chinese generally code switching between Cantonese and Vietnamese to speak to both Hoa immigrants from Vietnam and ethnic Vietnamese Teochew a variety of Southern Min which had virtually no speakers in the US before the 1980s is spoken by another group of Hoa immigrants A small number of Vietnamese Americans may also speak Mandarin as a third or fourth language in business and other interaction Eurasians and Amerasians edit Some Vietnamese Americans are Eurasians people of European and Asian descent They are descendants of ethnic Vietnamese and French settlers and soldiers and sometimes Hoa during the French colonial period 1883 1945 or the First Indochina War 1946 1954 Amerasians are descendants of an ethnic Vietnamese or Hoa parent and an American parent most commonly white or black The first substantial generation of Amerasian Vietnamese Americans were born to American personnel primarily military men during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1975 Many Amerasians were ignored by their American parent in Vietnam the fatherless children of foreign men were called con lai mixed race or the pejorative bụi đời dust of life 77 Since 1982 Amerasians and their families have come to the United States under the Orderly Departure Program Many could not be reunited with their fathers and commonly arrived with their mothers In some cases they were part of false families that were created to escape from Vietnam 23 Many of the first generation Amerasians and their mothers experienced significant social and institutional discrimination in Vietnam where they were denied the right to education discrimination worsening after the 1973 American withdrawal and by the U S government which discouraged American military personnel from marrying Vietnamese nationals and frequently refused claims of U S citizenship that were lodged by Amerasians born in Vietnam if their mothers were not married to their American fathers 78 79 80 Discrimination was even greater for children of black servicemen than for children of white fathers 81 Subsequent generations of Amerasians children born in the United States and Vietnamese born Amerasians whose American paternity was documented by their parents marriage or their subsequent legitimization have had an arguably more favorable outlook 82 The 1988 American Homecoming Act helped over 25 000 Amerasians and their 67 000 relatives in Vietnam to emigrate to the United States Although they received permanent resident status many have been unable to obtain citizenship and express a lack of belonging or acceptance in the US because of differences in culture language and citizenship status 83 84 Ethnic Tai Lao edit The Thai peoples including the Laotians Nungs and other Tai ethnicities who migrated to the United States were majority from Northern Vietnam The community overall do not develop a separate ethnic identity sentiment due to long friendly relations with the Vietnamese rulers thus the community don t regard itself Thai Americans or Laotian Americans and see itself part of Vietnamese American diaspora 85 86 87 Cham edit Cham are an ethnic minority of Vietnam and Cambodia and a small number of them came to the United States as refugees fleeing the Cambodian Genocide Today the Chams are polarized between though few embraced Vietnamese identity but rather attach their identity with the fallen kingdom of Champa while still working with most Vietnamese American groups The main Cham populations in the United States are located in Orange County California Portland and Seattle 88 89 See also edit nbsp United States portal nbsp Vietnam portalList of Vietnamese Americans List of Vietnamese American groups List of U S cities with large Vietnamese American populations Vietnamese language in the United StatesReferences edit ACS Selected Population Profile in the United States 2018 ACS 1 Year Estimates U S Census Bureau Retrieved 1 August 2020 Vietnamese American Populations by Metro Area 2010 Census PDF Hmongstudies org Archived from the original PDF on 25 May 2017 Retrieved 9 January 2018 a b POLL July 19 2012 2012 07 19 Asian Americans A Mosaic of Faiths Pew Forum Retrieved 2013 07 06 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Pew Forum Vietnamese Americans Religions Projects pewforum org 2012 07 18 Archived from the original on 2013 09 09 Retrieved 2013 07 06 James M Freeman Vietnamese Americans Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2008 Archived from the original on 2009 04 04 Retrieved 2009 02 07 Southeast Asian Americans State Populations 2010 U S Census Archived from the original on 2014 01 03 Retrieved 2014 01 02 a b Vietnamese in the U S Fact Sheet Pewsocialtrends org 29 April 2021 Retrieved 30 April 2021 2012 American Community Survey Selected Population Profile in the United States United States Census Bureau Archived from the original on 2020 02 12 a b Bureau U S Census American FactFinder Results Factfinder census gov Archived from the original on 13 February 2020 Retrieved 8 December 2018 a b c d e f Vietnamese Immigrants in the United States Migrationpolicy org Migration Information Source 13 September 2018 ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES United States Census Bureau Archived from the original on 2020 02 12 The Vietnamese Population in the United States 2010 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2012 09 04 Retrieved 2013 07 06 Bankston Carl L III 2000 Vietnamese American Catholicism Transplanted and Flourishing U S Catholic Historian 18 1 36 53 Vietnamese American EveryCulture Migration Policy Institute https www migrationpolicy org programs data hub charts us immigrant population state and county a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a Missing or empty title help a b c Vietnamese Data on Asian Americans Harjanto Laura Batalova Jeanne Vietnamese Immigrants in the United States Migration Policy Institute Retrieved 11 May 2022 Tran Vinh Paik Susan Kula Stacy Garcia Iraise Saito Erika 2021 Vietnamese Americans History Education and Societal Context Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement 16 Truong Ancestry com Search ancestry com Retrieved 2013 07 06 Nguyen Ancestry com Search ancestry com Retrieved 2013 07 06 a b c d e f g h i j k l Wieder Rosalie Vietnamese American In Reference Library of Asian America vol I edited by Susan Gall and Irene Natividad 165 173 Detroit Gale Research Inc 1996 a b c d e f g h i j k l Bankston Carl L Vietnamese American In Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America vol 2 edited by Judy Galens Anna Sheets and Robyn V Young 1393 1407 Detroit Gale Research Inc 1995 a b c d e f g h Nguyen Hong Nhiem Lucy and Joel M Halpen Vietnamese In American Immigrant Cultures vol 2 edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember pp 923 930 New York Macmillan Reference USA 1998 1 Archived January 4 2006 at the Wayback Machine Chin Andrew The KKK and Vietnamese Fishermen University of North Carolina School of Law Archived from the original on March 7 2016 Retrieved September 18 2016 Anh Do May 1 2015 On anniversary Vietnamese Americans reflect on their journeys Los Angeles Times a b Survey of Business Owners Vietnamese Owned Firms 2002 United States Census Bureau Archived from the original on 2013 05 15 failed verification 2 Archived 2006 05 25 at the Wayback Machine Campi Alicia June 2005 FROM REFUGEES TO AMERICANS Thirty Years of Vietnamese Immigration to the United States PDF Immigration Policy Center Archived from the original on May 25 2006 Retrieved March 29 2022 My Thuan Tran 2008 05 05 Vietnamese nail down the U S manicure business Los Angeles Times Retrieved 2009 10 27 a b Vigdor Jacob May 2008 Civic Report No 53 Measuring Immigrant Assimilation in the United States Manhattan Institute for Policy Research Archived from the original on 2012 09 08 Retrieved December 31 2021 Gonzalez Barrera Ana Krogstad Jens Manuel 2018 01 18 Naturalization rate among U S immigrants up since 2005 with India among the biggest gainers Pew Research Center Retrieved 2018 03 13 Le L K amp Su P H 2016 Vietnamese Americans and Electoral Participation In K L Kreider amp T J Baldino Eds Minority Voting in the United States pp 363 365 349 368 Santa Barbara Praeger Press Hoang Tuan 2016 From Reeducation Camps to Little Saigons Historicizing Vietnamese Diasporic Anticommunism Journal of Vietnamese Studies 11 2 43 95 doi 10 1525 jvs 2016 11 2 43 Collet Christian May 26 2000 The Determinants of Vietnamese American Political Participation Findings from the January 2000 Orange County Register Poll PDF 2000 Annual Meeting of the Association of Asian American Scottsdale Arizona Archived from the original PDF on September 10 2008 Ong Nhu Ngoc T Meyer David S April 1 2004 Protest and Political Incorporation Vietnamese American Protests 1975 2001 Center for the Study of Democracy 04 8 Nancy Wride Harrison Sheppard February 27 1999 Little Saigon Vigil Protests Vietnam Human Rights Violations Los Angeles Times My Thuan Tran amp Christian Berthelsen 2008 02 29 Leaning left in Little Saigon Los Angeles Times Archived from the original on March 14 2008 Retrieved 2008 03 03 OC Blog Post Election Spinning Archived from the original on October 14 2007 Retrieved 2007 02 09 a b Jane Junn Taeku Lee S Karthick Ramakrishnan Janelle Wong 2008 10 06 National Asian American Survey Asian Americans and the 2008 Election PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2008 10 29 Retrieved 2008 10 06 Stephanie Ebbert April 26 2005 Asian Americans step up to ballot box The Boston Globe Retrieved 2007 05 25 Yzaguirre Mark GOP Losing Vietnamese American Voters Archived from the original on 12 July 2012 Retrieved 13 April 2012 Chapter 6 Political and Civic Life Pew Research Center s Social amp Demographic Trends Project 30 April 2014 Archived from the original on 30 April 2014 Retrieved 17 August 2018 Mayor Bao Nguyen City of Garden Grove 15 December 2014 Archived from the original on 15 December 2014 Retrieved 17 August 2018 San Jose Councilwoman Madison Nguyen Representatives Texas House of Texas House of Representatives house texas gov Retrieved 9 January 2018 My Thuan Tran 2008 12 02 Orange County s final vote tally puts 2 Vietnamese Americans in winners seats Los Angeles Times Retrieved 2008 12 02 Top 10 web hosting companies 2017 sites amp providers reviews NCM Online Archived from the original on 31 July 2012 Retrieved 9 January 2018 Jankowski Philip Fort Hood s Luong to become first Vietnamese American general Statesman com About this Collection United States Elections Web Archive The Library of Congress Retrieved 9 January 2018 3 Archived 2006 10 04 at the Wayback Machine Tan Nguyen for Congress 4 October 2006 Archived from the original on 4 October 2006 Retrieved 17 August 2018 Indicted Louisiana Rep William J Jefferson loses reelection bid Los Angeles Times Associated Press 2008 12 07 Retrieved 2008 12 07 Anh Do April 25 2015 Vietnamese immigrants mark Black April anniversary Los Angeles Times Resolution Recognizing The Yellow Flag With Three Red Stripes as The Official Flag of the Vietnamese American Archived October 14 2007 at the Wayback Machine List of states and cities that recognize the Vietnam Freedom and Heritage Flag Vatv org Archived from the original on 2015 10 18 Retrieved 2013 08 07 Leslie Eaton 2006 05 06 A New Landfill in New Orleans Sets Off a Battle The New York Times Retrieved 2008 09 02 Michael Kunzelman 2007 10 31 After Katrina Vietnamese become political force in New Orleans Associated Press Archived from the original on December 10 2008 Retrieved 2008 11 06 S Leo Chiang 2008 08 28 New Orleans A Village Called Versailles After tragedy a community finds its political voice Public Broadcasting Service Retrieved 2008 09 02 Pro Hong Kong demonstrations in U S met with China supporting counterprotesters NBC News 2019 09 05 Retrieved 2020 01 27 Hong Kong protests Vietnamese immigrants rally in L A Los Angeles Times 2019 12 15 Retrieved 2020 01 27 Vietnamese stand in solidarity with ongoing Hong Kong protests AsAm News 2019 12 16 Retrieved 2020 01 27 Video Vietnamese American musician s song in support of anti extradition protesters inspires Hongkongers Hong Kong Free Press 2019 07 24 Retrieved 2020 01 27 Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine Trump Journey MAGA 2020 Vietnamese American Voters For Trump tại Eden Center 10 11 20 12 October 2020 Retrieved 26 March 2021 via YouTube Vu Baoky 6 August 2020 Opinion The Asian American voters who could help Trump win a second term CNN Why the defunct South Vietnam flag was flown at the Capitol riot NBC News There s a reason the South Vietnamese flag flew during the Capitol riot The Washington Post The Washington Post Why the defunct South Vietnam flag was flown at the Capitol riot NBC News Retrieved 2021 12 04 Taft Isabelle Vietnamese community reacts after South Vietnam flag flies at violent Capitol riot Archived from the original on 15 January 2021 Bronner Simon J Clark Cindy Dell 21 March 2016 Youth Cultures in America ABC CLIO 2016 p 647 ISBN 978 1440833922 Vietnamese American PewResearch Social amp Demographic Trends Retrieved 2 December 2014 Asian Americans A Mosaic of Faiths Pew Research Center 19 July 2012 Retrieved 12 September 2023 a b ASIAN AMERICANS A MOSAIC OF FAITHS 2012 retrieved 2023 10 03 Hoang Tuan 2019 Ultramontanism Nationalism and the Fall of Saigon Historicizing the Vietnamese American Catholic Experience American Catholic Studies 130 1 1 36 doi 10 1353 acs 2019 0014 a b Laderman Gary Luis D Leon 2003 Religion and American cultures ABC CLIO p 60 ISBN 978 1 57607 238 7 a b Prebish Charles S 1 December 2003 Buddhism the American Experience JBE Online Books pp 68 69 ISBN 978 0 9747055 0 7 Trieu M M 2013 Chinese Vietnamese Americans X Zhao amp E J Park Eds Asian Americans An Encyclopedia of Social Cultural Economic and Political History pp 305 310 Santa Barbara USA Greenwood Vietnamerica The War Comes Home Archived from the original on March 24 2006 Retrieved November 18 2006 Amerasian Citizenship Initiative Issue Background AmerasianUSA Archived from the original on 2012 03 27 Retrieved 2013 07 06 U S Legislation Regarding Amerasians Amerasian Foundation website retrieved January 3 2007 Amerasianfoundation org Archived from the original on March 27 2012 Retrieved July 6 2013 Lofgren Introduces Citizenship Bill for Children Born in Vietnam to American Servicemen and Vietnamese Women During the Vietnam War Whitehouse gov October 22 2003 House gov Retrieved 2013 07 06 Yoon Diana H The American Response to Amerasian Identity and Rights Berkeley McNair Research Journal Winter 1999 vol 7 pp 71 84 PDF Archived from the original PDF on December 12 2006 Retrieved May 20 2020 Vietnamese Amerasians Where Do They Belong Thanh Tran December 16 1999 Mtholyoke edu Archived from the original on July 4 2013 Retrieved 2013 07 06 4 Archived March 23 2007 at the Wayback Machine Asian Art Finest Asian Art Amerasianusa org Archived from the original on 2012 03 27 Retrieved 2013 07 06 BBC Vietnamese www bbc com Vai net về người Thai ở nước ta thegioidisan vn Chương 02 Người Thai Việt Nam thuvien20letuuyen sites google com Do Minh January 23 2017 Vietnamese Americans Who Aren t Vietnamese Vietcetera Cham Asiroh October 2 2012 Negotiating In Visibility in the Cham American Diaspora Thesis via escholarship org Further reading editChan Sucheng ed 2006 The Vietnamese American 1 5 Generation Stories of War Revolution Flight and New Beginnings 323pp Tran Tuyen Ngoc Behind the Smoke and Mirrors The Vietnamese in California 1975 1994 PhD dissertation University of California Berkeley 2007 Min Zhou and Carl L Bankston 1998 Growing Up American How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States New York Russell Sage Foundation Ho Peche Linda Vo Alex Thai Dinh Vu Tuong eds 2023 Toward a Framework for Vietnamese American Studies History Community and Memory Temple University Press External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vietnamese diaspora in the United States nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Vietnamese Americans Vietnamese American Heritage Project Vietnam Center amp Sam Johnson Vietnam Archive Texas Tech University Viet Stories Vietnamese American Oral History Project at University of California Irvine Other oral history projects about Vietnamese Americans Vietnamese in the Diaspora Digital Archive Vietnamese Heritage Museum US Vietnam Research Center at University of Oregon Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Vietnamese Americans amp oldid 1186715516, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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