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United Nations peacekeeping

Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role of the UN's Department of Peace Operations as an "instrument developed by the organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create the conditions for lasting peace".[2] It is distinguished from peacebuilding, peacemaking, and peace enforcement although the United Nations does acknowledge that all activities are "mutually reinforcing" and that overlap between them is frequent in practice.[3]

United Nations Peacekeeping
Founded1945; 78 years ago (1945)
Websitepeacekeeping.un.org
Leadership
Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping OperationsJean-Pierre Lacroix
Personnel
Active personnel81,820 total[1]
Expenditures
Budget$6.7 billion
Related articles
HistoryUnited Nations peacekeeping missions

Peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including separating former combatants, confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral assistance, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly, UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.

Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter gives the United Nations Security Council the power and responsibility to take collective action to maintain international peace and security.[4] Most of these operations are established and implemented by the United Nations itself, with troops obeying UN operational control. In these cases, peacekeepers remain members of their respective armed forces, and do not constitute an independent "UN army", as the UN does not have such a force. In cases where direct UN involvement is not considered appropriate or feasible, the Council authorizes regional organizations such as NATO,[4] the Economic Community of West African States, or coalitions of willing countries to perform peacekeeping or peace-enforcement tasks.

Jean-Pierre Lacroix is the Head of the Department of Peace Operations; he took over from the former Under-Secretary-General Hervé Ladsous on 1 April 2017. Since 1997, all directors have been French. DPKO's highest level doctrine document, entitled "United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines" was issued in 2008.[5]

Formation edit

 
Bangladesh Emergency Crash and Rescue Section of MONUSCO Force, in Bunia, Ituri.
 
Guard of Honor during UN Medal Awarding Parade at Bunia, Orientale, the Democratic Republic of the Congo by Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force.
 
A multinational UN battalion at the 2008 Bastille Day military parade

Once a peace treaty has been negotiated, the parties involved might ask the United Nations for a peacekeeping force to supervise various elements of the agreed upon plan. This is often done because a group controlled by the United Nations is less likely to favor the interests of any one party since it itself is controlled by many groups namely the 15-member Security Council and the intentionally diverse United Nations Secretariat.

If the Security Council approves the creation of a mission, then the Department of Peacekeeping Operations begins planning for the necessary elements. At this time, the senior command team is selected.[6] The department will then seek contributions from member nations. Since the UN has no standing force or supplies, it must form ad hoc coalitions for every task undertaken. Doing so results in both the possibility of failure to form a suitable force, and a general slowdown in procurement once the operation is in the field. Roméo Dallaire, force commander in Rwanda during the Rwandan genocide there, described the problems this poses by comparison to more traditional military deployments:

He told me the UN was a "pull" system, not a "push" system like I had been used to with NATO, because the UN had absolutely no pool of resources to draw on. You had to make a request for everything you needed, and then you had to wait while that request was analyzed... For instance, soldiers everywhere have to eat and drink. In a push system, food and water for the number of soldiers deployed is automatically supplied. In a pull system, you have to ask for those rations, and no common sense seems to ever apply.

— (Shake Hands With the Devil, Dallaire, pp. 99–100)

It has been shown that contributors deploy their troops with varying speed.[7] While the peacekeeping force is being assembled, a variety of diplomatic activities are being undertaken by UN staff. The exact size and strength of the force must be agreed to by the government of the nation whose territory the conflict is on. The Rules of Engagement must be developed and approved by both the parties involved and the Security Council. These give the specific mandate and scope of the mission (e.g. when may the peacekeepers, if armed, use force, and where may they go within the host nation). Often, it will be mandated that peacekeepers have host government minders with them whenever they leave their base. This complexity has caused problems in the field. When all agreements have been completed, the required personnel are assembled, and final approval has been given by the Security Council, the peacekeepers are deployed to the region in question.

Financing edit

 
Australian peacekeepers in East Timor.

The financial resources of UN Peacekeeping operations are the collective responsibility of UN Member States. Decisions about the establishment, maintenance or expansion of peacekeeping operations are taken by the Security Council. According to UN Charter every Member State is obligated legally to pay their respective share for peacekeeping. Peacekeeping expenses are divided by the General Assembly based upon a formula established by Member States which takes into account the relative economic wealth of Member States among other factors.[8] In 2017, the UN agreed to reduce the peacekeeping budget by $600 million after the US initially proposed a larger decrease of approximately $900 million.[9]

Year Funding sources by country/source Description Total
2015–2016 $8.3bn[10]
2016–2017   United States 28.57%

  China 10.29%
  Japan 9.68%
  Germany 6.39%
  France 6.31%
  United Kingdom 5.80%
  Russia 4.01%
  Italy 3.75%
  Canada 2.92%
  Spain 2.44%

Less than 0.5% of world military expenditures (estimated at $1,747 billion in 2013). The resources financed 14 of the 16 United Nations peacekeeping missions with the two remaining ones getting financed through the UN regular budget.

Many countries have also voluntarily made additional resources available to support UN Peacekeeping efforts such as by transportation, supplies, personnel and financial contributions beyond their assessed share of peacekeeping costs.[8]

$7.87bn[8]
2017–2018 While many have praised the Ivory Coast UN peacekeeping mission's stabilizing effects on the country, the mission was ended on 30 June 2017.[11] $7.3bn[9]

The General Assembly approves resource expenditures for peacekeeping operations on a yearly basis. Financing covers the period from 1 July to 30 June of the next year.

Operation-Level Budgets (US$)[12][13]
Acronym Operation 2017–2018 2018–2019
UNMISS Mission in South Sudan $1,071,000,000 $1,124,960,400
MONUSCO Stabilization Mission in the Congo $1,141,848,100 $1,114,619,500
MINUSMA Stabilization Mission in Mali $1,048,000,000 $1,074,718,900
MINUSCA Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic $882,800,000 $930,211,900
UNSOS Support Office in Somalia $582,000,000 $558,152,300
UNIFIL Interim Force in Lebanon $483,000,000 $474,406,700
UNAMID Mission in Darfur $486,000,000 $385,678,500
UNISFA Interim Security Force for Abyei $266,700,000 $263,858,100
UNMIL Mission in Liberia $110,000,000 -
MINUJUSTH Mission for Justice Support in Haiti $90,000,000 $121,455,900
UNDOF Disengagement Observer Force $57,653,700 $60,295,100
UNFICYP Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus $54,000,000 $52,938,900
MINURSO Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara $52,000,000 $52,350,800
UNMIK Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo $37,898,200 $37,192,700
Year Total $6,362,900,000 $6,250,839,700

Structure edit

A United Nations peacekeeping mission has three power centers. The first is the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, the official leader of the mission. This person is responsible for all political and diplomatic activity, overseeing relations with both the parties to the peace treaty and the UN member-states in general. They are often a senior member of the Secretariat. The second is the Force Commander, who is responsible for the military forces deployed. They are a senior officer of their nation's armed services, and are often from the nation committing the highest number of troops to the project. Finally, the Chief Administrative Officer oversees supplies and logistics, and coordinates the procurement of any supplies needed.[citation needed]

Statistics edit

 
Total size of United Nations peacekeeping forces, 1947 to 2014[14]

In 2007, a peacekeeper volunteer was required to be older than age 25 with no maximum age limit.[15] Peacekeeping forces are contributed by member states on a voluntary basis. As of 30 June 2019, there are 100,411 people serving in UN peacekeeping operations (86,145 uniformed, 12,932 civilian, and 1,334 volunteers).[16] European nations contribute nearly 6,000 people to this total. Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh are among the largest individual contributors with about 8,000 people each. African nations contributed nearly half the total, almost 44,000 people.[17] Every peacekeeping mission is authorized by the Security Council.[citation needed]

History edit

Cold War peacekeeping edit

 
Peacekeepers' Panhard armoured car in the Musée des Blindés, Saumur, France. These vehicles have served with the UN since the inception of UNFICYP.
 
A Pakistani UNOSOM armed convoy making the rounds in Mogadishu.

United Nations peacekeeping was initially developed during the Cold War as a means of resolving conflicts between states by deploying unarmed or lightly armed military personnel from a number of countries, commanded by the UN, to areas where warring parties were in need of a neutral party to observe the peace process. Peacekeepers could be activated when the major international powers (the five permanent members of the Security Council) tasked the UN with helping to end conflicts threatening regional stability and international peace and security. These included a number of so-called "proxy wars" waged by client states of the superpowers. As of December 2019, there have been 72 UN peacekeeping operations since 1948, with seventeen operations ongoing. Suggestions for new missions are made every year.

The first peacekeeping mission was initiated in 1948. This mission, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was sent to the newly created State of Israel, where a conflict between the Israelis and the Arab states concerning the creation of Israel had just reached a ceasefire. The UNTSO remains in operation to this day, although the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has certainly not abated. Almost a year later, the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) was authorized to monitor relations between the two nations, which were divided from each other after the United Kingdom's decolonization of the Indian subcontinent.

As the Korean War ended with the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953,[18] UN forces remained along the south side of demilitarized zone until 1967, when American and South Korean forces took over.[19]

Returning its attention to the conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors, the United Nations responded to Suez Crisis of 1956, a war between the alliance of the United Kingdom, France, and Israel, versus Egypt, which was supported by other Arab nations. When a ceasefire was declared in 1957, Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs[20] (and future Prime Minister) Lester Bowles Pearson suggested that the United Nations station a peacekeeping force in the Suez in order to ensure that the ceasefire was honored by both sides. Pearson had initially suggested that the force consist of mainly Canadian soldiers, but the Egyptians were suspicious of having a Commonwealth nation defend them against the United Kingdom and its allies. In the end, a wide variety of national forces were drawn upon to ensure national diversity. Pearson would win the Nobel Peace Prize for this work.[citation needed]

In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations peacekeeping forces. The press release stated that the forces "represent the manifest will of the community of nations" and have "made a decisive contribution" to the resolution of conflict around the world.

Since 1991 edit

 
Bangladesh forces under MINUSMA Mali.
 
Norwegian Peacekeeper during the Siege of Sarajevo, 1992–1993.
 
Indian Army doctors attend to a child in Congo

The end of the Cold War precipitated a dramatic shift in UN and multilateral peacekeeping. In a new spirit of cooperation, the Security Council established larger and more complex UN peacekeeping missions, often to help implement comprehensive peace agreements between belligerents in intra-State conflicts and civil wars. Furthermore, peacekeeping came to involve more and more non-military elements that ensured the proper functioning of civic functions, such as elections. The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations was created in 1992 to assist this increased demand for such missions.

By and large, the new operations were successful. In El Salvador and Mozambique, for example, peacekeeping provided ways to achieve self-sustaining peace. Some efforts failed, perhaps as the result of an overly optimistic assessment of what UN peacekeeping could accomplish. While complex missions in Cambodia and Mozambique were ongoing, the Security Council dispatched peacekeepers to conflict zones like Somalia, where neither ceasefires nor the consent of all the parties in conflict had been secured. These operations did not have the manpower, nor were they supported by the required political will, to implement their mandates. The failures—most notably the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1995 massacre in Srebrenica and Bosnia and Herzegovina—resulted in a period of retrenchment and self-examination in UN peacekeeping. As a result, the relatively small United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) transitional administration in Eastern Slavonia received a high degree of commitment and became a "proving ground for ideas, methods, and procedures".[21] It turned out to be considered the most successful UN mission, and was followed by other more ambitious transitional administrations in Kosovo (United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, or UNMIK) and East Timor (United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor, or UNTAET).

That period resulted, in part, in the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, which works to implement stable peace through some of the same civic functions that peacekeepers also work on, such as elections. The commission currently works with six countries, all in Africa.[22]

Participation edit

 
Alpine Helicopters contract Bell 212 on UN peacekeeping duty in Guatemala, 1998.
 
San Martin Camp in Cyprus. The Argentine contingent includes troops from other Latin American countries.
 
Indian Army T-72 tanks with UN markings as part of Operation CONTINUE HOPE.

The UN Charter stipulates that to assist in maintaining peace and security around the world, all member states of the UN should make available to the Security Council necessary armed forces and facilities. Since 1948, almost 130 nations have contributed military and civilian police personnel to peace operations. While detailed records of all personnel who have served in peacekeeping missions since 1948 are not available, it is estimated that as many as one million soldiers, police officers and civilians have served as UN peacekeepers during the last 56 years.

As of June 2022, 120 countries were contributing a total of 74,892 personnel in Peacekeeping Operations, with Bangladesh leading the tally (6,700), followed by India (5,832), Nepal (5,794), Rwanda (5,283) and Pakistan (4,399).[23] In addition to military and police personnel, 5,187 international civilian personnel, 2,031 UN Volunteers and 12,036 local civilian personnel worked in UN peacekeeping missions as of March 2008.[24]

 
A Polish peacekeeper in Syria

Through October 2018, 3,767 people from more than 100 countries had been killed while serving on peacekeeping missions.[25] Many of those came from India (163), Nigeria (153), Pakistan (150), Bangladesh (146), and Ghana (138).[26] Thirty percent of the fatalities during the first 55 years of UN peacekeeping occurred in the years 1993–1995.

The rate of reimbursement by the UN for troop-contributing countries per peacekeeper per month include: $1,028 for pay and allowances; $303 supplementary pay for specialists; $68 for personal clothing, gear and equipment; and $5 for personal weaponry.[27]

United States edit

In the United States, the Bill Clinton and George W. Bush administrations began with differing philosophies but came to adopt remarkably similar policies using peace operations to assist American foreign policy. Initial ideological concerns were replaced by pragmatic decisions about how to assist UN peace operations. Both administrations were reluctant to contribute large contingents of ground troops to UN-commanded operations, even as both administrations endorsed increases in the number and scale of UN missions.[28]

The Clinton administration had significant operational challenges. Instead of a liability, this was the tactical price of strategic success. American peace operations help transform its NATO alliance. The George W. Bush administration started with a negative ideological attitude toward peace operations. However European and Latin American governments emphasized peace operations as strategically positive, especially regarding the use of European forces in Afghanistan and Lebanon. However American allies sometimes needed to flout their autonomy, even to the point of sacrificing operational efficiency, much to the annoyance of Washington.[29]

Results edit

According to scholar Page Fortna, there is strong evidence that the presence of peacekeepers significantly reduces the risk of renewed warfare; more peacekeeping troops results in fewer battlefield and civilian deaths.[30] There is also evidence that the promise to deploy peacekeepers can help international organizations in bringing combatants to negotiate and increase the likelihood that they will agree to a cease-fire.[31]

However, there have been several reports during UN peacekeeping missions of human rights abuse by UN soldiers, notably in the Central African Republic in 2015. The cost of these missions is also significant, with the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) costing $1 billion per year for 12,500 UN soldiers unable to prevent the country's civil war. Often missions require approval from local governments before deploying troops which can also limit the effectiveness of UN missions.[32]

Nicholas Sambanis asserts that the presence of a UN peacekeeping mission is correlated with a positive effect on the achievement of peace, especially in the short-term. However, he notes that this effect is lessened over time. Thus, the longer that peacekeepers remain in a country, the greater the likelihood that peace will maintain. Acknowledging the success that UN peacekeeping operations have achieved in increasing political participation, Sambanis claims that a greater emphasis on economic development would further increase the efficacy of peacekeeping efforts.[33]

Another study suggests that doubling the peacekeeping operation budget, stronger peacekeeping operation mandates and a doubling of the PKO budget would reduce armed conflicts by as much as two thirds relative to a scenario without PKOs.[34] An analysis of 47 peace operations by Virginia Page Fortna of Columbia University found that the involvement of UN personnel generally resulted in enduring peace.[35] Political scientists Hanne Fjelde, Lisa Hultman and Desiree Nilsson of Uppsala University studied twenty years of data on peacekeeping missions, including in Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Central African Republic, and concluded that they were more effective at reducing civilian casualties than counterterrorism operations by nation states.[36]

A 2021 study in the American Political Science Review found that the presence of UN peacekeeping missions had a weak correlation with rule of law while conflict is ongoing, but a robust correlation during periods of peace. The study also found that "the relationship is stronger for civilian than uniformed personnel, and is strongest when UN missions engage host states in the process of reform".[37] Likewise, Georgetown University professor Lise Howard argues that UN peacekeeping operations are more effective by virtue of their lack of compelling force; rather, their use of nonviolent methods such as "verbal persuasion, financial inducements and coercion short of offensive military force, including surveillance and arrest" are likelier to pacify warring parties.[38]

A 2021 study in the American Journal of Political Science found that UN peacekeeping in South Sudan had a positive effect on the local economy.[39]

According to a 2011 study, UN peacekeeping missions were most likely to be successful if they had assistance and consent from domestic actors in the host state.[40]

Peacekeeping and cultural heritage edit

The UN Peacekeeping's commitment to protecting cultural heritage dates back to 2012, when there was extensive destruction in Mali. In this matter, the protection of a country's cultural heritage was included in the mandate of a United Nations mission (Resolution 2100) for the first time in history. In addition to many other advances, Italy signed an agreement with UNESCO in February 2016 to create the world's first emergency task force for culture, composed of civilian experts and the Italian Carabinieri. On the one hand, UN Peacekeeping trained its personnel with regard to the protection of cultural property and, on the other hand, there was intensive contact with other organizations concerned with it. The "Blue Helmet Forum 2019" was one of those events where the actors involved exchanged their previous experiences and tried to strengthen the cooperation. An outstanding mission was the deployment of the UN peace mission UNIFIL together with Blue Shield International in 2019 to protect the UNESCO World Heritage in Lebanon. It was shown that cultural property protection (performed by military and civil specialists) forms the basic basis for the future peaceful and economic development of a city, region or country in many conflict zones. The need for training and coordination of the military and civilian participants, including the increased involvement of the local population, became apparent. After the explosion in Beirut in 2020, the blue helmets were able to take extensive relief measures together with Blue Shield International and the Lebanese Army.[47]

Crimes by peacekeepers edit

Peacekeeping, human trafficking, and forced prostitution edit

Reporters witnessed a rapid increase of prostitution in Cambodia and Mozambique after UN peacekeeping forces moved in. In the 1996 UN study "The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children", the former first lady of Mozambique Graça Machel documented: "In 6 out of 12 country studies on sexual exploitation of children in situations of armed conflict prepared for the present report, the arrival of peacekeeping troops has been associated with a rapid rise in child prostitution."[48]

Gita Sahgal spoke out in 2004 about the fact that prostitution and sex abuse occurs wherever humanitarian intervention efforts are established. She observed: "The issue with the UN is that peacekeeping operations, unfortunately, seems to be doing the same thing that other militaries do. Even the guardians have to be guarded."[49]

Human rights violations in United Nations missions edit

 
Brazilian Army soldiers participating in the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti.

The following table chart illustrates confirmed accounts of crimes and human rights violations committed by United Nations soldiers, peacekeepers, and employees.[60]

A comparison of incidents involving United Nations peacekeepers, troops, and employees.
Conflict United Nations Mission Sexual abuse Murder Extortion/Theft
Second Congo War United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo 150 3 44
Somali Civil War United Nations Operation in Somalia II 5 24 5
Sierra Leone Civil War United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone 50 7 15
Eritrean-Ethiopian War United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea 70 15 0
Burundi Civil War United Nations Operation in Burundi 80 5 0
Rwanda Civil War United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda 65 15 0
Second Liberian Civil War United Nations Mission in Liberia 30 4 1
Second Sudanese Civil War United Nations Mission in Sudan 400 5 0
Côte d'Ivoire Civil War United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire 500 2 0
2004 Haitian coup d'état United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti 110 57 0
Kosovo War United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo 800 70 100
Israeli–Lebanese conflict United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon 0 6 0

Proposed reform edit

Brahimi analysis edit

In response to criticism, particularly of the cases of sexual abuse by peacekeepers, the UN has taken steps toward reforming its operations. The Brahimi Report was the first of many steps to recap former peacekeeping missions, isolate flaws, and take steps to patch these mistakes to ensure the efficiency of future peacekeeping missions. The UN has vowed to continue to put these practices into effect when performing peacekeeping operations in the future. The technocratic aspects of the reform process have been continued and revitalised by the DPKO in its "Peace Operations 2010" reform agenda. This included an increase in personnel, the harmonization of the conditions of service of field and headquarters staff, the development of guidelines and standard operating procedures, and improving the partnership arrangement between the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), African Union and European Union. 2008 capstone doctrine entitled "United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines"[5] incorporates and builds on the Brahimi analysis.

Rapid reaction force edit

One suggestion to account for delays such as the one in Rwanda is a rapid reaction force, a peacekeeping force similar to a standing army capable of quickly deploying to crises such as genocides, administered by the UN and deployed by the Security Council. The UN rapid reaction force would consist of military personnel from Security Council members or UN member states who would be stationed in their home countries, but would have the same training, equipment, and procedures, and would conduct joint exercises with other forces.[61][62]

Restructuring of the UN secretariat edit

The UN peacekeeping capacity was enhanced in 2007 by augmenting the DPKO with the new Department of Field Support (DFS). Whereas the new entity serves as a key enabler by co-ordinating the administration and logistics in UN peacekeeping operations, DPKO concentrates on policy planning and providing strategic directions.[63]

Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping edit

The Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping initiative was established in 2014 by the Information and Communications Technology Division of the former Department of Field Support (DFS) with an objective to bring greater involvement to peacekeeping through innovative approaches and technologies that have the potential to empower UN global operations.[64]

The Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping holds annual symposiums. The fifth International Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping Symposium was held in Astana, Kazakhstan from 28 to 31 May 2019. It was the first time the Central Asian country held an event on peacekeeping. Jean-Pierre Lacroix, UN Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, and Atul Khare, UN Under-Secretary-General for Field Support, participated in the symposium.[65]

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  • Blocq, Daniel. 2009. "Western Soldiers and the Protection of Local Civilians in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Is a Nationalist Orientation in the Armed Forces Hindering Our Preparedness to Fight?" Armed Forces & Society,abstract 2009-04-06 at the Wayback Machine
  • Bridges, Donna and Debbie Horsfall. 2009. "Increasing Operational Effectiveness in UN Peacekeeping: Toward a Gender-Balanced Force." Armed Forces & Society, May 2009. abstract
  • Bureš, Ronkęš (June 2006). "Regional Peacekeeping Operations: Complementing or Undermining the United Nations Security Council?". Global Change, Peace & Security (in Nepali). 66 (2): 83–99. doi:10.1080/14781150600687775. S2CID 154982851.
  • Dandeker, Christopher; Gow, James (1997). "The Future of Peace Support Operations: Strategic Peacekeeping and Success". Armed Forces & Society. 23 (3): 327–347. doi:10.1177/0095327X9702300302. S2CID 145191919.
  • Fortna, Virginia Page; Lise Morjé, Howard (2008). "Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Future". Annual Review of Political Science. 11: 283–301. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.041205.103022.
  • Fortna, Virginia Page (2004). "Does Peacekeeping Keep Peace? International Intervention and the Duration of Peace After Civil War". International Studies Quarterly. 48 (2): 269–292. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.489.1831. doi:10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00301.x.
  • Goulding, Marrack (July 1993). "The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping". International Affairs. 69 (3): 451–64. doi:10.2307/2622309. JSTOR 2622309.
  • Holt, Victoria K., and Michael G. Mackinnon. (2008) "The origins and evolution of US policy towards peace operations." International peacekeeping 15.1 (2008): 18–34; regarding the Bill Clinton and George W. Bush administrations. online 21 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  • Howard, Lise Morjé. 2008. UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars. (Cambridge University Press 2008) abstract
  • Jenne, Nicole (2022). "Who leads peace operations? A new dataset on leadership positions in UN peace operations, 1948–2019". Journal of Peace Research:
  • Powles, Anna, Negar Partow, Nelson (eds). (2015) United Nations Peacekeeping Challenge: The Importance of the Integrated Approach (Routledge, 2015)
  • Pushkina, Darya (June 2006). "A Recipe for Success? Ingredients of a Successful Peacekeeping Mission". International Peacekeeping. 13 (2): 133–149. doi:10.1080/13533310500436508. S2CID 144299591.
  • Reed, Brian; Segal, David (2000). "The Impact of Multiple Deployments on Soldiers' Peacekeeping Attitudes, Morale and Retention". Armed Forces & Society. 27: 57–78. doi:10.1177/0095327X0002700105. S2CID 143556366.
  • Sion, Liora (2006). "'Too Sweet and Innocent for War'?: Dutch Peacekeepers and the Use of Violence". Armed Forces & Society. 32 (3): 454–474. doi:10.1177/0095327X05281453. S2CID 145272144.
  • Worboys, Katherine (2007). "The Traumatic Journey from Dictatorship to Democracy: Peacekeeping Operations and Civil-Military Relations in Argentina, 1989-1999". Armed Forces & Society. 33 (2): 149–168. doi:10.1177/0095327X05283843. S2CID 144147291.

External links edit

  • United Nations Peacekeeping Forces on Nobelprize.org  

united, nations, peacekeeping, peacekeeping, united, nations, role, department, peace, operations, instrument, developed, organization, help, countries, torn, conflict, create, conditions, lasting, peace, distinguished, from, peacebuilding, peacemaking, peace,. Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role of the UN s Department of Peace Operations as an instrument developed by the organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create the conditions for lasting peace 2 It is distinguished from peacebuilding peacemaking and peace enforcement although the United Nations does acknowledge that all activities are mutually reinforcing and that overlap between them is frequent in practice 3 United Nations PeacekeepingFounded1945 78 years ago 1945 Websitepeacekeeping wbr un wbr orgLeadershipUnder Secretary General for Peacekeeping OperationsJean Pierre LacroixPersonnelActive personnel81 820 total 1 ExpendituresBudget 6 7 billionRelated articlesHistoryUnited Nations peacekeeping missionsPeacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post conflict areas and assist ex combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed Such assistance comes in many forms including separating former combatants confidence building measures power sharing arrangements electoral assistance strengthening the rule of law and economic and social development Accordingly UN peacekeepers often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets can include soldiers police officers and civilian personnel Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter gives the United Nations Security Council the power and responsibility to take collective action to maintain international peace and security 4 Most of these operations are established and implemented by the United Nations itself with troops obeying UN operational control In these cases peacekeepers remain members of their respective armed forces and do not constitute an independent UN army as the UN does not have such a force In cases where direct UN involvement is not considered appropriate or feasible the Council authorizes regional organizations such as NATO 4 the Economic Community of West African States or coalitions of willing countries to perform peacekeeping or peace enforcement tasks Jean Pierre Lacroix is the Head of the Department of Peace Operations he took over from the former Under Secretary General Herve Ladsous on 1 April 2017 Since 1997 all directors have been French DPKO s highest level doctrine document entitled United Nations Peacekeeping Operations Principles and Guidelines was issued in 2008 5 Contents 1 Formation 1 1 Financing 1 2 Structure 2 Statistics 3 History 3 1 Cold War peacekeeping 3 2 Since 1991 4 Participation 4 1 United States 5 Results 6 Peacekeeping and cultural heritage 7 Crimes by peacekeepers 7 1 Peacekeeping human trafficking and forced prostitution 7 2 Human rights violations in United Nations missions 8 Proposed reform 8 1 Brahimi analysis 8 2 Rapid reaction force 8 3 Restructuring of the UN secretariat 9 Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksFormation edit nbsp Bangladesh Emergency Crash and Rescue Section of MONUSCO Force in Bunia Ituri nbsp Guard of Honor during UN Medal Awarding Parade at Bunia Orientale the Democratic Republic of the Congo by Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force nbsp A multinational UN battalion at the 2008 Bastille Day military paradeOnce a peace treaty has been negotiated the parties involved might ask the United Nations for a peacekeeping force to supervise various elements of the agreed upon plan This is often done because a group controlled by the United Nations is less likely to favor the interests of any one party since it itself is controlled by many groups namely the 15 member Security Council and the intentionally diverse United Nations Secretariat If the Security Council approves the creation of a mission then the Department of Peacekeeping Operations begins planning for the necessary elements At this time the senior command team is selected 6 The department will then seek contributions from member nations Since the UN has no standing force or supplies it must form ad hoc coalitions for every task undertaken Doing so results in both the possibility of failure to form a suitable force and a general slowdown in procurement once the operation is in the field Romeo Dallaire force commander in Rwanda during the Rwandan genocide there described the problems this poses by comparison to more traditional military deployments He told me the UN was a pull system not a push system like I had been used to with NATO because the UN had absolutely no pool of resources to draw on You had to make a request for everything you needed and then you had to wait while that request was analyzed For instance soldiers everywhere have to eat and drink In a push system food and water for the number of soldiers deployed is automatically supplied In a pull system you have to ask for those rations and no common sense seems to ever apply Shake Hands With the Devil Dallaire pp 99 100 It has been shown that contributors deploy their troops with varying speed 7 While the peacekeeping force is being assembled a variety of diplomatic activities are being undertaken by UN staff The exact size and strength of the force must be agreed to by the government of the nation whose territory the conflict is on The Rules of Engagement must be developed and approved by both the parties involved and the Security Council These give the specific mandate and scope of the mission e g when may the peacekeepers if armed use force and where may they go within the host nation Often it will be mandated that peacekeepers have host government minders with them whenever they leave their base This complexity has caused problems in the field When all agreements have been completed the required personnel are assembled and final approval has been given by the Security Council the peacekeepers are deployed to the region in question Financing edit nbsp Australian peacekeepers in East Timor The financial resources of UN Peacekeeping operations are the collective responsibility of UN Member States Decisions about the establishment maintenance or expansion of peacekeeping operations are taken by the Security Council According to UN Charter every Member State is obligated legally to pay their respective share for peacekeeping Peacekeeping expenses are divided by the General Assembly based upon a formula established by Member States which takes into account the relative economic wealth of Member States among other factors 8 In 2017 the UN agreed to reduce the peacekeeping budget by 600 million after the US initially proposed a larger decrease of approximately 900 million 9 Year Funding sources by country source Description Total2015 2016 8 3bn 10 2016 2017 nbsp United States 28 57 nbsp China 10 29 nbsp Japan 9 68 nbsp Germany 6 39 nbsp France 6 31 nbsp United Kingdom 5 80 nbsp Russia 4 01 nbsp Italy 3 75 nbsp Canada 2 92 nbsp Spain 2 44 Less than 0 5 of world military expenditures estimated at 1 747 billion in 2013 The resources financed 14 of the 16 United Nations peacekeeping missions with the two remaining ones getting financed through the UN regular budget Many countries have also voluntarily made additional resources available to support UN Peacekeeping efforts such as by transportation supplies personnel and financial contributions beyond their assessed share of peacekeeping costs 8 7 87bn 8 2017 2018 While many have praised the Ivory Coast UN peacekeeping mission s stabilizing effects on the country the mission was ended on 30 June 2017 11 7 3bn 9 The General Assembly approves resource expenditures for peacekeeping operations on a yearly basis Financing covers the period from 1 July to 30 June of the next year Operation Level Budgets US 12 13 Acronym Operation 2017 2018 2018 2019UNMISS Mission in South Sudan 1 071 000 000 1 124 960 400MONUSCO Stabilization Mission in the Congo 1 141 848 100 1 114 619 500MINUSMA Stabilization Mission in Mali 1 048 000 000 1 074 718 900MINUSCA Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic 882 800 000 930 211 900UNSOS Support Office in Somalia 582 000 000 558 152 300UNIFIL Interim Force in Lebanon 483 000 000 474 406 700UNAMID Mission in Darfur 486 000 000 385 678 500UNISFA Interim Security Force for Abyei 266 700 000 263 858 100UNMIL Mission in Liberia 110 000 000 MINUJUSTH Mission for Justice Support in Haiti 90 000 000 121 455 900UNDOF Disengagement Observer Force 57 653 700 60 295 100UNFICYP Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus 54 000 000 52 938 900MINURSO Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara 52 000 000 52 350 800UNMIK Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo 37 898 200 37 192 700Year Total 6 362 900 000 6 250 839 700Structure edit See also United Nations Department of Peace Operations United Nations Military Observer and United Nations Police A United Nations peacekeeping mission has three power centers The first is the Special Representative of the Secretary General the official leader of the mission This person is responsible for all political and diplomatic activity overseeing relations with both the parties to the peace treaty and the UN member states in general They are often a senior member of the Secretariat The second is the Force Commander who is responsible for the military forces deployed They are a senior officer of their nation s armed services and are often from the nation committing the highest number of troops to the project Finally the Chief Administrative Officer oversees supplies and logistics and coordinates the procurement of any supplies needed citation needed Statistics edit nbsp Total size of United Nations peacekeeping forces 1947 to 2014 14 In 2007 a peacekeeper volunteer was required to be older than age 25 with no maximum age limit 15 Peacekeeping forces are contributed by member states on a voluntary basis As of 30 June 2019 update there are 100 411 people serving in UN peacekeeping operations 86 145 uniformed 12 932 civilian and 1 334 volunteers 16 European nations contribute nearly 6 000 people to this total Pakistan India and Bangladesh are among the largest individual contributors with about 8 000 people each African nations contributed nearly half the total almost 44 000 people 17 Every peacekeeping mission is authorized by the Security Council citation needed History editMain article History of United Nations peacekeeping Cold War peacekeeping edit nbsp Peacekeepers Panhard armoured car in the Musee des Blindes Saumur France These vehicles have served with the UN since the inception of UNFICYP nbsp A Pakistani UNOSOM armed convoy making the rounds in Mogadishu United Nations peacekeeping was initially developed during the Cold War as a means of resolving conflicts between states by deploying unarmed or lightly armed military personnel from a number of countries commanded by the UN to areas where warring parties were in need of a neutral party to observe the peace process Peacekeepers could be activated when the major international powers the five permanent members of the Security Council tasked the UN with helping to end conflicts threatening regional stability and international peace and security These included a number of so called proxy wars waged by client states of the superpowers As of December 2019 there have been 72 UN peacekeeping operations since 1948 with seventeen operations ongoing Suggestions for new missions are made every year The first peacekeeping mission was initiated in 1948 This mission the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization UNTSO was sent to the newly created State of Israel where a conflict between the Israelis and the Arab states concerning the creation of Israel had just reached a ceasefire The UNTSO remains in operation to this day although the Israeli Palestinian conflict has certainly not abated Almost a year later the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan UNMOGIP was authorized to monitor relations between the two nations which were divided from each other after the United Kingdom s decolonization of the Indian subcontinent As the Korean War ended with the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953 18 UN forces remained along the south side of demilitarized zone until 1967 when American and South Korean forces took over 19 Returning its attention to the conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors the United Nations responded to Suez Crisis of 1956 a war between the alliance of the United Kingdom France and Israel versus Egypt which was supported by other Arab nations When a ceasefire was declared in 1957 Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs 20 and future Prime Minister Lester Bowles Pearson suggested that the United Nations station a peacekeeping force in the Suez in order to ensure that the ceasefire was honored by both sides Pearson had initially suggested that the force consist of mainly Canadian soldiers but the Egyptians were suspicious of having a Commonwealth nation defend them against the United Kingdom and its allies In the end a wide variety of national forces were drawn upon to ensure national diversity Pearson would win the Nobel Peace Prize for this work citation needed In 1988 the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the United Nations peacekeeping forces The press release stated that the forces represent the manifest will of the community of nations and have made a decisive contribution to the resolution of conflict around the world Since 1991 edit nbsp Bangladesh forces under MINUSMA Mali nbsp Norwegian Peacekeeper during the Siege of Sarajevo 1992 1993 nbsp Indian Army patrol under UN mission in Congo Africa nbsp Indian Army doctors attend to a child in Congo The end of the Cold War precipitated a dramatic shift in UN and multilateral peacekeeping In a new spirit of cooperation the Security Council established larger and more complex UN peacekeeping missions often to help implement comprehensive peace agreements between belligerents in intra State conflicts and civil wars Furthermore peacekeeping came to involve more and more non military elements that ensured the proper functioning of civic functions such as elections The UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations was created in 1992 to assist this increased demand for such missions By and large the new operations were successful In El Salvador and Mozambique for example peacekeeping provided ways to achieve self sustaining peace Some efforts failed perhaps as the result of an overly optimistic assessment of what UN peacekeeping could accomplish While complex missions in Cambodia and Mozambique were ongoing the Security Council dispatched peacekeepers to conflict zones like Somalia where neither ceasefires nor the consent of all the parties in conflict had been secured These operations did not have the manpower nor were they supported by the required political will to implement their mandates The failures most notably the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the 1995 massacre in Srebrenica and Bosnia and Herzegovina resulted in a period of retrenchment and self examination in UN peacekeeping As a result the relatively small United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia Baranja and Western Sirmium UNTAES transitional administration in Eastern Slavonia received a high degree of commitment and became a proving ground for ideas methods and procedures 21 It turned out to be considered the most successful UN mission and was followed by other more ambitious transitional administrations in Kosovo United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo or UNMIK and East Timor United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor or UNTAET That period resulted in part in the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission which works to implement stable peace through some of the same civic functions that peacekeepers also work on such as elections The commission currently works with six countries all in Africa 22 Participation edit nbsp Alpine Helicopters contract Bell 212 on UN peacekeeping duty in Guatemala 1998 nbsp San Martin Camp in Cyprus The Argentine contingent includes troops from other Latin American countries nbsp Indian Army T 72 tanks with UN markings as part of Operation CONTINUE HOPE The UN Charter stipulates that to assist in maintaining peace and security around the world all member states of the UN should make available to the Security Council necessary armed forces and facilities Since 1948 almost 130 nations have contributed military and civilian police personnel to peace operations While detailed records of all personnel who have served in peacekeeping missions since 1948 are not available it is estimated that as many as one million soldiers police officers and civilians have served as UN peacekeepers during the last 56 years As of June 2022 120 countries were contributing a total of 74 892 personnel in Peacekeeping Operations with Bangladesh leading the tally 6 700 followed by India 5 832 Nepal 5 794 Rwanda 5 283 and Pakistan 4 399 23 In addition to military and police personnel 5 187 international civilian personnel 2 031 UN Volunteers and 12 036 local civilian personnel worked in UN peacekeeping missions as of March 2008 24 nbsp A Polish peacekeeper in SyriaThrough October 2018 3 767 people from more than 100 countries had been killed while serving on peacekeeping missions 25 Many of those came from India 163 Nigeria 153 Pakistan 150 Bangladesh 146 and Ghana 138 26 Thirty percent of the fatalities during the first 55 years of UN peacekeeping occurred in the years 1993 1995 The rate of reimbursement by the UN for troop contributing countries per peacekeeper per month include 1 028 for pay and allowances 303 supplementary pay for specialists 68 for personal clothing gear and equipment and 5 for personal weaponry 27 United States edit In the United States the Bill Clinton and George W Bush administrations began with differing philosophies but came to adopt remarkably similar policies using peace operations to assist American foreign policy Initial ideological concerns were replaced by pragmatic decisions about how to assist UN peace operations Both administrations were reluctant to contribute large contingents of ground troops to UN commanded operations even as both administrations endorsed increases in the number and scale of UN missions 28 The Clinton administration had significant operational challenges Instead of a liability this was the tactical price of strategic success American peace operations help transform its NATO alliance The George W Bush administration started with a negative ideological attitude toward peace operations However European and Latin American governments emphasized peace operations as strategically positive especially regarding the use of European forces in Afghanistan and Lebanon However American allies sometimes needed to flout their autonomy even to the point of sacrificing operational efficiency much to the annoyance of Washington 29 Results editAccording to scholar Page Fortna there is strong evidence that the presence of peacekeepers significantly reduces the risk of renewed warfare more peacekeeping troops results in fewer battlefield and civilian deaths 30 There is also evidence that the promise to deploy peacekeepers can help international organizations in bringing combatants to negotiate and increase the likelihood that they will agree to a cease fire 31 However there have been several reports during UN peacekeeping missions of human rights abuse by UN soldiers notably in the Central African Republic in 2015 The cost of these missions is also significant with the United Nations Mission in South Sudan UNMISS costing 1 billion per year for 12 500 UN soldiers unable to prevent the country s civil war Often missions require approval from local governments before deploying troops which can also limit the effectiveness of UN missions 32 Nicholas Sambanis asserts that the presence of a UN peacekeeping mission is correlated with a positive effect on the achievement of peace especially in the short term However he notes that this effect is lessened over time Thus the longer that peacekeepers remain in a country the greater the likelihood that peace will maintain Acknowledging the success that UN peacekeeping operations have achieved in increasing political participation Sambanis claims that a greater emphasis on economic development would further increase the efficacy of peacekeeping efforts 33 Another study suggests that doubling the peacekeeping operation budget stronger peacekeeping operation mandates and a doubling of the PKO budget would reduce armed conflicts by as much as two thirds relative to a scenario without PKOs 34 An analysis of 47 peace operations by Virginia Page Fortna of Columbia University found that the involvement of UN personnel generally resulted in enduring peace 35 Political scientists Hanne Fjelde Lisa Hultman and Desiree Nilsson of Uppsala University studied twenty years of data on peacekeeping missions including in Lebanon the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic and concluded that they were more effective at reducing civilian casualties than counterterrorism operations by nation states 36 A 2021 study in the American Political Science Review found that the presence of UN peacekeeping missions had a weak correlation with rule of law while conflict is ongoing but a robust correlation during periods of peace The study also found that the relationship is stronger for civilian than uniformed personnel and is strongest when UN missions engage host states in the process of reform 37 Likewise Georgetown University professor Lise Howard argues that UN peacekeeping operations are more effective by virtue of their lack of compelling force rather their use of nonviolent methods such as verbal persuasion financial inducements and coercion short of offensive military force including surveillance and arrest are likelier to pacify warring parties 38 A 2021 study in the American Journal of Political Science found that UN peacekeeping in South Sudan had a positive effect on the local economy 39 According to a 2011 study UN peacekeeping missions were most likely to be successful if they had assistance and consent from domestic actors in the host state 40 Peacekeeping and cultural heritage editThe UN Peacekeeping s commitment to protecting cultural heritage dates back to 2012 when there was extensive destruction in Mali In this matter the protection of a country s cultural heritage was included in the mandate of a United Nations mission Resolution 2100 for the first time in history In addition to many other advances Italy signed an agreement with UNESCO in February 2016 to create the world s first emergency task force for culture composed of civilian experts and the Italian Carabinieri On the one hand UN Peacekeeping trained its personnel with regard to the protection of cultural property and on the other hand there was intensive contact with other organizations concerned with it The Blue Helmet Forum 2019 was one of those events where the actors involved exchanged their previous experiences and tried to strengthen the cooperation An outstanding mission was the deployment of the UN peace mission UNIFIL together with Blue Shield International in 2019 to protect the UNESCO World Heritage in Lebanon It was shown that cultural property protection performed by military and civil specialists forms the basic basis for the future peaceful and economic development of a city region or country in many conflict zones The need for training and coordination of the military and civilian participants including the increased involvement of the local population became apparent After the explosion in Beirut in 2020 the blue helmets were able to take extensive relief measures together with Blue Shield International and the Lebanese Army 47 Crimes by peacekeepers editPeacekeeping human trafficking and forced prostitution edit Further information Peacekeeping Peacekeeping human trafficking and forced prostitution Reporters witnessed a rapid increase of prostitution in Cambodia and Mozambique after UN peacekeeping forces moved in In the 1996 UN study The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children the former first lady of Mozambique Graca Machel documented In 6 out of 12 country studies on sexual exploitation of children in situations of armed conflict prepared for the present report the arrival of peacekeeping troops has been associated with a rapid rise in child prostitution 48 Gita Sahgal spoke out in 2004 about the fact that prostitution and sex abuse occurs wherever humanitarian intervention efforts are established She observed The issue with the UN is that peacekeeping operations unfortunately seems to be doing the same thing that other militaries do Even the guardians have to be guarded 49 Human rights violations in United Nations missions edit nbsp Brazilian Army soldiers participating in the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti The following table chart illustrates confirmed accounts of crimes and human rights violations committed by United Nations soldiers peacekeepers and employees 60 A comparison of incidents involving United Nations peacekeepers troops and employees Conflict United Nations Mission Sexual abuse Murder Extortion TheftSecond Congo War United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo 150 3 44Somali Civil War United Nations Operation in Somalia II 5 24 5Sierra Leone Civil War United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone 50 7 15Eritrean Ethiopian War United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea 70 15 0Burundi Civil War United Nations Operation in Burundi 80 5 0Rwanda Civil War United Nations Observer Mission Uganda Rwanda 65 15 0Second Liberian Civil War United Nations Mission in Liberia 30 4 1Second Sudanese Civil War United Nations Mission in Sudan 400 5 0Cote d Ivoire Civil War United Nations Operation in Cote d Ivoire 500 2 02004 Haitian coup d etat United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti 110 57 0Kosovo War United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo 800 70 100Israeli Lebanese conflict United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon 0 6 0Proposed reform editBrahimi analysis edit In response to criticism particularly of the cases of sexual abuse by peacekeepers the UN has taken steps toward reforming its operations The Brahimi Report was the first of many steps to recap former peacekeeping missions isolate flaws and take steps to patch these mistakes to ensure the efficiency of future peacekeeping missions The UN has vowed to continue to put these practices into effect when performing peacekeeping operations in the future The technocratic aspects of the reform process have been continued and revitalised by the DPKO in its Peace Operations 2010 reform agenda This included an increase in personnel the harmonization of the conditions of service of field and headquarters staff the development of guidelines and standard operating procedures and improving the partnership arrangement between the Department of Peacekeeping Operations DPKO and the United Nations Development Programme UNDP African Union and European Union 2008 capstone doctrine entitled United Nations Peacekeeping Operations Principles and Guidelines 5 incorporates and builds on the Brahimi analysis Rapid reaction force edit One suggestion to account for delays such as the one in Rwanda is a rapid reaction force a peacekeeping force similar to a standing army capable of quickly deploying to crises such as genocides administered by the UN and deployed by the Security Council The UN rapid reaction force would consist of military personnel from Security Council members or UN member states who would be stationed in their home countries but would have the same training equipment and procedures and would conduct joint exercises with other forces 61 62 Restructuring of the UN secretariat edit The UN peacekeeping capacity was enhanced in 2007 by augmenting the DPKO with the new Department of Field Support DFS Whereas the new entity serves as a key enabler by co ordinating the administration and logistics in UN peacekeeping operations DPKO concentrates on policy planning and providing strategic directions 63 Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping editThe Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping initiative was established in 2014 by the Information and Communications Technology Division of the former Department of Field Support DFS with an objective to bring greater involvement to peacekeeping through innovative approaches and technologies that have the potential to empower UN global operations 64 The Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping holds annual symposiums The fifth International Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping Symposium was held in Astana Kazakhstan from 28 to 31 May 2019 It was the first time the Central Asian country held an event on peacekeeping Jean Pierre Lacroix UN Under Secretary General for Peacekeeping Operations and Atul Khare UN Under Secretary General for Field Support participated in the symposium 65 See also edit nbsp Politics portal nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to United Nations peacekeeping missions United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs International Day of United Nations Peacekeepers List of United Nations peacekeeping missions List of countries by number of UN peacekeepers Multinational Force and Observers Timeline of UN peacekeeping missions List of non UN peacekeeping missions NATO peacekeeping White Helmets Commission International security Responsibility to protect Security related billsReferences edit Contributors to UN Peacekeeping Operations by Country and Post Police UN Military Experts on Mission Staff Officers and Troops PDF United Nations 31 August 2020 archived from the original PDF on 19 September 2020 United Nations Peacekeeping United Nations Peacekeeping Retrieved 2022 07 28 Peace and Security United Nations Retrieved 2017 05 18 a b Nau Henry 2015 Perspectives on International Relations Washington DC CQ Press pp 252 ISBN 978 1 4522 4148 7 a b DPKO Capstone Doctrine PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2008 08 19 Retrieved 2011 07 16 Oksamytna Kseniya Bove Vincenzo Lundgren Magnus 2021 Leadership selection in United Nations peacekeeping International Studies Quarterly 65 16 28 doi 10 1093 isq sqaa023 Lundgren Magnus Oksamytna Kseniya Katharina Coleman 2021 Only as fast as its troop contributors Incentives capabilities and constraints in the UN s peacekeeping response Journal of Peace Research 58 4 671 686 doi 10 1177 0022343320940763 a b c Financing peacekeeping United Nations Peacekeeping www un org Retrieved 2017 05 31 a b Nichols Michelle U N states agree 7 3 bln peacekeeping budget U S share cut 7 5 pct Reuters Archived from the original on 29 June 2017 Retrieved 1 July 2017 General Assembly Authorizes 8 3 billion for 15 Peacekeeping Operations in 2015 16 as It Adopts 25 Resolutions 1 Decision in Reports of Fifth Committee Meetings Coverage and Press Releases www un org Retrieved 1 July 2017 UN ends peacekeeping mission in Ivory Coast after 13 years ABC News Retrieved 1 July 2017 Approved resources for peacekeeping operations for the period from 1 July 2017 to 30 June 2018 United Nations General Assembly United Nations 30 June 2017 Retrieved 21 July 2018 Approved resources for peacekeeping operations for the period from 1 July 2018 to 30 June 2019 United Nations General Assembly United Nations 5 July 2018 Retrieved 21 July 2018 Total size of United Nations peacekeeping forces Our World in Data Retrieved 7 March 2020 University of Minnesota Human Rights Library hrlibrary umn edu DATA United Nations Peacekeeping United Nations 30 June 2019 Retrieved 30 July 2019 United Nations troop and police contributors archive 1990 2013 Retrieved 11 October 2014 The Korean War armistice BBC News 2015 03 05 Retrieved 2017 02 09 United Nations Command gt History gt Post 1953 Evolution of UNC www unc mil Retrieved 2023 11 08 Lester B Pearson 1957 Nobel Peace Prize Recipient permanent dead link D Boothby 2004 The Political Challenges of Administering Eastern Slavonia Global Governance 10 1 37 51 doi 10 1163 19426720 01001005 JSTOR 27800508 Retrieved 17 April 2021 Beyond Peace Deals The United Nations Experiment in Peacebuilding Pulitzer Center June 22 2010 United Nations Peacekeeping Contribution PDF UN Peacekeeping Retrieved October 10 2022 Background Note United Nations Peacekeeping Operations Fatalities United Nations Peacekeeping Retrieved 2022 07 28 UN Peacekeeping Fatalities by Nationality and Mission up to 8 31 2018 Archived 27 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine United Nations Peacekeepers How are peacekeepers compensated Victoria K Holt and Michael G Mackinnon The origins and evolution of US policy towards peace operations International peacekeeping 15 1 2008 18 34 online Archived 21 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Richard Gowan The United States and Peacekeeping Policy in Europe and Latin America An Uncertain Catalyst International Peacekeeping 15 1 2008 84 101 Enough with the Pessimism about Peacekeeping Political Violence a Glance 24 September 2015 Retrieved 2015 10 22 Lundgren Magnus 2016 Which international organizations can settle civil wars Review of International Organizations DOI 10 1007 s11558 016 9253 0 4 613 641 doi 10 1007 s11558 016 9253 0 S2CID 152898046 Peacekeepers in name only The Economist Retrieved 2017 11 14 Sambanis Nicholas 2008 Short and Long Term Effects of United Nations Peace Operations The World Bank Economic Review 22 9 32 doi 10 1093 wber lhm022 hdl 10986 4470 Hegre Havard Hultman Lisa Nygard Havard Mokleiv 2018 11 28 Evaluating the Conflict Reducing Effect of UN Peacekeeping Operations The Journal of Politics 81 1 215 232 doi 10 1086 700203 ISSN 0022 3816 S2CID 13894244 Fortna Virginia Page 2008 07 21 Does Peacekeeping Work Shaping Belligerents Choices After Civil War Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 13671 4 Howard Lise Morje 2019 05 16 Power in Peacekeeping Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 108 45718 7 Blair Robert A 2021 UN Peacekeeping and the Rule of Law American Political Science Review 115 1 51 68 doi 10 1017 S0003055420000738 ISSN 0003 0554 S2CID 226196050 A U N Peacekeeping Mission Is Afghanistan s Best Hope www worldpoliticsreview com 7 May 2021 Retrieved 2021 06 23 Bove Vincenzo Salvatore Jessica Di Elia Leandro 2021 UN Peacekeeping and Households Well Being in Civil Wars American Journal of Political Science 66 2 402 417 doi 10 1111 ajps 12644 ISSN 1540 5907 Pushkina Darya Siewert Markus B Wolff Stefan 2021 Mission im possible UN military peacekeeping operations in civil wars European Journal of International Relations 28 158 186 doi 10 1177 13540661211046602 ISSN 1354 0661 Referat 3 BMLVS Abteilung Kommunikation Blue Helmet Forum an der Landesverteidigungsakademie Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations amp quot bundesheer at in German Retrieved 2022 07 28 UNESCO 2017 10 17 A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage UNESCO Retrieved 2022 07 28 Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict United Nations Peacekeeping Retrieved 2022 07 28 Austrian Armed Forces Mission in Lebanon in German 28 April 2019 UNESCO Director General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly UNESCO 13 September 2017 BEIRUT HERITAGE PROTECTION United Nations UN Audiovisual Library Retrieved 2022 07 28 41 42 43 44 45 46 The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children PDF Archived PDF from the original on 16 March 2003 Sex charges haunt UN forces Christian Science Monitor November 26 2004 Retrieved 16 February 2010 Congo s Desperate One Dollar U N Girls washingtonpost com www washingtonpost com Retrieved 2022 07 28 UN troops face child abuse claims 2006 11 30 Retrieved 2019 07 30 http www weeklystandard com Content Public Articles 000 000 005 081zxelz asp Archived 2020 12 09 at the Wayback Machine The U N Sex Scandal UN troops buy sex from teenage refugees in Congo camp Africa World The Independent Independent co uk 2009 03 12 Archived from the original on 2009 03 12 Retrieved 2022 07 28 UN Peacekeepers Criticized www globalpolicy org Retrieved 2019 07 30 Global Rules Now Apply to Peacekeepers www globalpolicy org Retrieved 2019 07 30 http law bepress com cgi viewcontent cgi article 3113 amp context expresso Victims of Peace Current Abuse Allegations against U N Peacekeepers and the Role of Law in Preventing Them in the Future No One to Turn To BBC Analysis Archived 15 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine Holt Kate 2007 01 02 UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan Daily Telegraph ISSN 0307 1235 Archived from the original on 2022 01 12 Retrieved 2019 07 30 Trafficking Women Girls Bosnia Herzegovina Forced Prostitution www hrw org Retrieved 2019 07 30 1 compiled from the corresponding Wikipedia articles When a range was given the median was used 2 http www unwire org unwire 20030411 33133 story asp Archived 2009 02 12 at the Wayback Machine United Nations Foundation 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations 2000 M Serafino Nina 1995 A U N Rapid Reaction Force A Discussion of the Issues and Considerations for U S Policymakers Congressional Research Service Library of Congress OCLC 50077294 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link https www ipinst org wp content uploads 2012 06 pdfs terrorism directory 6 DPKO pdf Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping operationalsupport un org 5th International Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping Symposium kicks off in Kazakhstan inform kz 28 May 2019 Further reading editBlocq Daniel 2009 Western Soldiers and the Protection of Local Civilians in UN Peacekeeping Operations Is a Nationalist Orientation in the Armed Forces Hindering Our Preparedness to Fight Armed Forces amp Society abstract Archived 2009 04 06 at the Wayback Machine Bridges Donna and Debbie Horsfall 2009 Increasing Operational Effectiveness in UN Peacekeeping Toward a Gender Balanced Force Armed Forces amp Society May 2009 abstract Bures Ronkes June 2006 Regional Peacekeeping Operations Complementing or Undermining the United Nations Security Council Global Change Peace amp Security in Nepali 66 2 83 99 doi 10 1080 14781150600687775 S2CID 154982851 Dandeker Christopher Gow James 1997 The Future of Peace Support Operations Strategic Peacekeeping and Success Armed Forces amp Society 23 3 327 347 doi 10 1177 0095327X9702300302 S2CID 145191919 Fortna Virginia Page Lise Morje Howard 2008 Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Future Annual Review of Political Science 11 283 301 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 9 041205 103022 Fortna Virginia Page 2004 Does Peacekeeping Keep Peace International Intervention and the Duration of Peace After Civil War International Studies Quarterly 48 2 269 292 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 489 1831 doi 10 1111 j 0020 8833 2004 00301 x Goulding Marrack July 1993 The Evolution of United Nations Peacekeeping International Affairs 69 3 451 64 doi 10 2307 2622309 JSTOR 2622309 Holt Victoria K and Michael G Mackinnon 2008 The origins and evolution of US policy towards peace operations International peacekeeping 15 1 2008 18 34 regarding the Bill Clinton and George W Bush administrations online Archived 21 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Howard Lise Morje 2008 UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars Cambridge University Press 2008 abstract Jenne Nicole 2022 Who leads peace operations A new dataset on leadership positions in UN peace operations 1948 2019 Journal of Peace Research Powles Anna Negar Partow Nelson eds 2015 United Nations Peacekeeping Challenge The Importance of the Integrated Approach Routledge 2015 Pushkina Darya June 2006 A Recipe for Success Ingredients of a Successful Peacekeeping Mission International Peacekeeping 13 2 133 149 doi 10 1080 13533310500436508 S2CID 144299591 Reed Brian Segal David 2000 The Impact of Multiple Deployments on Soldiers Peacekeeping Attitudes Morale and Retention Armed Forces amp Society 27 57 78 doi 10 1177 0095327X0002700105 S2CID 143556366 Sion Liora 2006 Too Sweet and Innocent for War Dutch Peacekeepers and the Use of Violence Armed Forces amp Society 32 3 454 474 doi 10 1177 0095327X05281453 S2CID 145272144 Worboys Katherine 2007 The Traumatic Journey from Dictatorship to Democracy Peacekeeping Operations and Civil Military Relations in Argentina 1989 1999 Armed Forces amp Society 33 2 149 168 doi 10 1177 0095327X05283843 S2CID 144147291 External links editUnited Nations Peacekeeping Forces on Nobelprize org nbsp Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title United Nations peacekeeping amp oldid 1184093165, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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