Tuntian (屯田) or Tunken (屯墾) is a type of frontier "military-agricultural colonies"[1][2] over the history of China. Troops were sent to harsh landscapes at the Chinese frontier to turn uncultivated land into self-sustained, agrariansettler colonies. In other words, the soldiers doubled as farmers.
The Tuntian system or "Strategy of military farms" evolved during the famous victorious campaign of 61–60 BC by Zhao Chongguo [de] against the Qiang people, which presumed ancestors of the Tibetans.[3]
While the tuntian system was made famous by Cao Cao's administration (c. 196–220 CE), Cao Cao's writings show that the system had been instituted as early as the Western Han dynasty during the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE), where soldiers on distant expeditions were set to work converting and farming the conquered land, both to provide food for the army and to convert the conquered land into agricultural land.[4] After the death of Emperor Wu, however, the system was only used sporadically and therefore less effectively.
The final years of the Eastern Han dynasty (c. 189–220 CE) witnessed great economic disruption and widespread devastation, particularly through the Yellow Turban Rebellion of 184 CE; agricultural production in particular was severely disrupted, and population movements from war-ravaged areas led to massive flows of refugees. It was under these circumstances that Cao Cao's use of the tuntian system made its impact on the economic revival of China after the damage suffered previously.
MethodEdit
The mechanism of the 'civilian tuntian' system as implemented by Cao Cao had its basis in government organisation, encouragement and, to some extent, coercion. Peasants without land, refugees and soldiers were assigned to plots of land which they were to farm, while the implements required (such as ploughs and oxen) were provided by the government at a low price. In exchange for this, the peasant was to give over half of his harvest to the government.
The tuntian system had its origins in the military, and for much of the Han dynasty the land in question was farmed by soldiers on orders of the military authorities; in this case all of the crop harvested was to be kept by the military for supply uses, following the example set by Emperor Wu. Cao Cao's innovation was the introduction of the 'civilian tuntian' on a large scale both for common people and for soldiers during peacetime, whereby he successfully solved two great economic problems facing his administration: the large number of unemployed refugees, and the great tracts of land abandoned by big proprietors in the preceding chaos.
ImpactEdit
The tuntian system was to have far-reaching effects, both for Cao Cao himself and for the overall economy of China. Once the scheme had proven successful initially, Cao Cao wasted no time in extending the scheme to all areas under his control; as a result the positive effects of this organised farming was soon felt all over northern China, which he reunified.[citation needed]
In the short-term, meanwhile, the tuntian system was also instrumental to the success of Cao Cao's campaigns, many of which were long-range offensives across the plains of northern China; with a massive and efficient agriculture to support his army, he was able to sustain these offensives and gain victory. Overall, the tuntian system, along with the repair of irrigation works, were among the foremost contributions of Cao Cao to the economy of the Han dynasty, and contributed to the enduring strength of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period.[citation needed]
Ming dynastyEdit
The tuntian in Ming dynasty had two variants, known as Tunpu (屯堡) and Weisuo (衛所制).[5]
Tuntian was known as tuanchang (团场, literally "Regiment farms"), a military-run polity established by the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps since 1953. A large amount of other P&C Corps were established in 1968-1970 (see the Chinese Wikipedia disambiguation page for P&C Corps) and all were disbanded by 1976.[7]
The general concept of fully government-owned agricultural developments in the PRC is known as nóngkĕn. A Ministry of Nongken [zh] is part of the State Council of the People's Republic of China during the periods of 1956–1970 and 1979–1982. It controlled state-owned farms including tuanchang. Nóngkĕn in a broader sense would also include smaller-scale farms managed by government assets such as schools; these are outside of the Ministry's scope.[8]
Other countriesEdit
The term tuntian is exported to a number of countries in the East Asian cultural sphere, forming their own readings, some of which are Sino-Xenic.
TaiwanEdit
The Han-led Kingdom of Tungning practiced a variant of the Ming-era Tuntian system. The system was established by Koxinga immediately after landing in 1661 to supply his troops. Many places in southwest Taiwan retain their tuntian names.[9]
Viet NamEdit
The Sino-Vietnamese reading is đồn điền in Vietnamese. During the Nam tiến (March to the South), Khmer and Cham territory was seized and militarily colonised by the Vietnamese. The Nguyen Lords established đồn điền after 1790.[10]
The South Vietnamese and Communist Vietnamese colonisation of the Central Highlands have been compared to the historic Nam tiến of previous Vietnamese rulers. The South Vietnamese leader Diem sponsored colonisation of Northern Vietnamese Catholic refugees on Montagnard land. The now Communist Vietnamese government introduced to the Central Highlands of "New Economic Zones".[11]
The Sino-Korean reading of tuntian is dunjeon (or tunjŏn in the North Korean Romanization). Dunjeon was a core part of the Korean military supply and was notable in the following instances:
During the Imjin War, under Yi Sun-sin. He managed dunjeon both as part of his repeated demotion (due to court politics) and on his naval base of Hansando.[14]
Place namesEdit
Places with a history of tuntian cultivation may be named after the practice.
^Muscolino, Micah S. (2010). "Refugees, Land Reclamation, and Militarized Landscapes in Wartime China: Huanglongshan, Shaanxi, 1937-45". Journal of Asian Studies. 69 (2): 458, 459. doi:10.1017/S0021911810000057. ISSN 0021-9118. S2CID 162487893. To take advantage of these natural benefits, Shaanxi needed to "set aside Huanglongshan as a military-agricultural colony (tuntian) and transfer troops to cultivate it, imitating the ancient system of supporting the military through agriculture". [...] First priority in developing China's northwestern frontier was "research on military agricultural colonies (yanjiu tunken)".
^Frank, Mark (2021-04-22). . The Council on East Asian Studies at Yale University. Archived from the original on 2022-01-08. Proponents of this strategy drew inspiration from the imperial institution of tuntian (colonial fields) in formulating a modern vision of tunken, which I interpret as agrarian colonization.
^L. Dreyer, Edward (2008). "Zhao Chongguo: A Professional Soldier of China's Former Han Dynasty". The Journal of Military History. Society for Military History. 72 (3): 665–725. doi:10.1353/jmh.0.0028. ISSN 1543-7795. S2CID 159687819. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
^Elvin, Mark (1973). The Pattern of the Chinese Past. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 37. ISBN0-804-70876-2.
^Liew, Foon-Ming (1984). Tuntian farming of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).
^Liu, Ts'ui-Jung; Fan, I-Chun (2016). (PDF). International Review of Environmental History. 2. doi:10.22459/IREH.02.2016.04. ISSN 2205-3204. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-06-02.
^Choi Byung Wook (2004). Southern Vietnam Under the Reign of Minh Mạng (1820-1841): Central Policies and Local Response. SEAP Publications. pp. 34–. ISBN978-0-87727-138-3.
^Oscar Salemink (2003). The Ethnography of Vietnam's Central Highlanders: A Historical Contextualization, 1850-1990. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 151–. ISBN978-0-8248-2579-9.
^Ivings, Steven (7 May 2020). "Settling the Frontier, Defending the North: "Farmer-Soldiers" in Hokkaido's Colonial Development and National Reconciliation". The Meiji Restoration. pp. 191–211. doi:10.1017/9781108775762.010. S2CID 218799685.
^"Dunjeon and Maetanteo". ggc.ggcf.kr (in Korean).
^"Yi sun sin, The Legendary Hero : VANK". prkorea.com.
tuntian, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor, july, 2019, learn,. This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Tuntian news newspapers books scholar JSTOR July 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message Tuntian 屯田 or Tunken 屯墾 is a type of frontier military agricultural colonies 1 2 over the history of China Troops were sent to harsh landscapes at the Chinese frontier to turn uncultivated land into self sustained agrarian settler colonies In other words the soldiers doubled as farmers TuntianChinese nameChinese屯田Literal meaning garrisoning on farms TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyintuntianAlternative Chinese nameChinese屯墾Literal meaning garrisoning and reclaiming wasteland TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyintunkĕnSecond alternative Chinese nameChinese农墾Literal meaning farming and reclaiming wasteland TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinnongkĕnVietnamese nameVietnameseđồn điềnKorean nameHangul둔전TranscriptionsRevised RomanizationdunjeonMcCune ReischauertunjŏnJapanese nameHiraganaとんでんTranscriptionsRomanizationtonden Contents 1 Han dynasty 1 1 Method 1 2 Impact 2 Ming dynasty 3 Qing dynasty 4 People s Republic of China 5 Other countries 5 1 Taiwan 5 2 Viet Nam 5 3 Japan 5 4 Korea 6 Place names 7 See also 8 References 8 1 BibliographyHan dynasty EditFurther information Economy of the Han dynasty The Tuntian system or Strategy of military farms evolved during the famous victorious campaign of 61 60 BC by Zhao Chongguo de against the Qiang people which presumed ancestors of the Tibetans 3 While the tuntian system was made famous by Cao Cao s administration c 196 220 CE Cao Cao s writings show that the system had been instituted as early as the Western Han dynasty during the reign of Emperor Wu r 141 87 BCE where soldiers on distant expeditions were set to work converting and farming the conquered land both to provide food for the army and to convert the conquered land into agricultural land 4 After the death of Emperor Wu however the system was only used sporadically and therefore less effectively The final years of the Eastern Han dynasty c 189 220 CE witnessed great economic disruption and widespread devastation particularly through the Yellow Turban Rebellion of 184 CE agricultural production in particular was severely disrupted and population movements from war ravaged areas led to massive flows of refugees It was under these circumstances that Cao Cao s use of the tuntian system made its impact on the economic revival of China after the damage suffered previously Method Edit The mechanism of the civilian tuntian system as implemented by Cao Cao had its basis in government organisation encouragement and to some extent coercion Peasants without land refugees and soldiers were assigned to plots of land which they were to farm while the implements required such as ploughs and oxen were provided by the government at a low price In exchange for this the peasant was to give over half of his harvest to the government The tuntian system had its origins in the military and for much of the Han dynasty the land in question was farmed by soldiers on orders of the military authorities in this case all of the crop harvested was to be kept by the military for supply uses following the example set by Emperor Wu Cao Cao s innovation was the introduction of the civilian tuntian on a large scale both for common people and for soldiers during peacetime whereby he successfully solved two great economic problems facing his administration the large number of unemployed refugees and the great tracts of land abandoned by big proprietors in the preceding chaos Impact Edit The tuntian system was to have far reaching effects both for Cao Cao himself and for the overall economy of China Once the scheme had proven successful initially Cao Cao wasted no time in extending the scheme to all areas under his control as a result the positive effects of this organised farming was soon felt all over northern China which he reunified citation needed In the short term meanwhile the tuntian system was also instrumental to the success of Cao Cao s campaigns many of which were long range offensives across the plains of northern China with a massive and efficient agriculture to support his army he was able to sustain these offensives and gain victory Overall the tuntian system along with the repair of irrigation works were among the foremost contributions of Cao Cao to the economy of the Han dynasty and contributed to the enduring strength of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period citation needed Ming dynasty EditThe tuntian in Ming dynasty had two variants known as Tunpu 屯堡 and Weisuo 衛所制 5 Qing dynasty EditTuntian was widely practiced to fight the Dungan Revolt 1862 1877 6 People s Republic of China EditTuntian was known as tuanchang 团场 literally Regiment farms a military run polity established by the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps since 1953 A large amount of other P amp C Corps were established in 1968 1970 see the Chinese Wikipedia disambiguation page for P amp C Corps and all were disbanded by 1976 7 The general concept of fully government owned agricultural developments in the PRC is known as nongkĕn A Ministry of Nongken zh is part of the State Council of the People s Republic of China during the periods of 1956 1970 and 1979 1982 It controlled state owned farms including tuanchang Nongkĕn in a broader sense would also include smaller scale farms managed by government assets such as schools these are outside of the Ministry s scope 8 Other countries EditThe term tuntian is exported to a number of countries in the East Asian cultural sphere forming their own readings some of which are Sino Xenic Taiwan Edit The Han led Kingdom of Tungning practiced a variant of the Ming era Tuntian system The system was established by Koxinga immediately after landing in 1661 to supply his troops Many places in southwest Taiwan retain their tuntian names 9 Viet Nam Edit The Sino Vietnamese reading is đồn điền in Vietnamese During the Nam tiến March to the South Khmer and Cham territory was seized and militarily colonised by the Vietnamese The Nguyen Lords established đồn điền after 1790 10 The South Vietnamese and Communist Vietnamese colonisation of the Central Highlands have been compared to the historic Nam tiến of previous Vietnamese rulers The South Vietnamese leader Diem sponsored colonisation of Northern Vietnamese Catholic refugees on Montagnard land The now Communist Vietnamese government introduced to the Central Highlands of New Economic Zones 11 Japan Edit Tuntian is pronounced tonden as a Sino Japanese word It was most notably practiced during the Meiji Restoration in frontier Hokkaido under the name tondenhei tonden soldiers 12 Korea Edit The Sino Korean reading of tuntian is dunjeon or tunjŏn in the North Korean Romanization Dunjeon was a core part of the Korean military supply and was notable in the following instances During the Qing invasion of Joseon at Namhansanseong This system supported a population of 25 000 10 000 of which were combatants 13 During the Imjin War under Yi Sun sin He managed dunjeon both as part of his repeated demotion due to court politics and on his naval base of Hansando 14 Place names EditPlaces with a history of tuntian cultivation may be named after the practice Tonden Kita ku Sapporo ja Japan Higashi Tondendori Station ja Chuō ku Sapporo Japan Dunjeon station Yongin South Korea Tunjon station South Hamgyong Province North KoreaThe following areas contain place names derived from a systematic tuntian designation Various place names in Taiwan under Koxinga s rule commonly ending with 營 or 庄 15 Various place names in China especially Xinjiang Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang 16 See also Edit nbsp Look up 屯田 屯墾 or 农墾 in Wiktionary the free dictionary Agriculture in China Economic history of China Theme Byzantine district References Edit Muscolino Micah S 2010 Refugees Land Reclamation and Militarized Landscapes in Wartime China Huanglongshan Shaanxi 1937 45 Journal of Asian Studies 69 2 458 459 doi 10 1017 S0021911810000057 ISSN 0021 9118 S2CID 162487893 To take advantage of these natural benefits Shaanxi needed to set aside Huanglongshan as a military agricultural colony tuntian and transfer troops to cultivate it imitating the ancient system of supporting the military through agriculture First priority in developing China s northwestern frontier was research on military agricultural colonies yanjiu tunken Frank Mark 2021 04 22 Chinese Empire after Empire Agrarian Colonization on the Twentieth Century Frontier The Council on East Asian Studies at Yale University Archived from the original on 2022 01 08 Proponents of this strategy drew inspiration from the imperial institution of tuntian colonial fields in formulating a modern vision of tunken which I interpret as agrarian colonization L Dreyer Edward 2008 Zhao Chongguo A Professional Soldier of China s Former Han Dynasty The Journal of Military History Society for Military History 72 3 665 725 doi 10 1353 jmh 0 0028 ISSN 1543 7795 S2CID 159687819 Retrieved 26 January 2022 Elvin Mark 1973 The Pattern of the Chinese Past Stanford CA Stanford University Press p 37 ISBN 0 804 70876 2 Liew Foon Ming 1984 Tuntian farming of the Ming Dynasty 1368 1644 Liu Ts ui Jung Fan I Chun 2016 The Tuntian System in Xinjiang under the Qing Dynasty A Perspective from Environmental History PDF International Review of Environmental History 2 doi 10 22459 IREH 02 2016 04 ISSN 2205 3204 Archived from the original PDF on 2018 06 02 Rossabi Morris 2005 Governing China s Multiethnic Frontiers University of Washington Press pp 157 158 张晋藩 海威 初尊贤 eds 1992 中华人民共和国国史大辞典 The Grand Dictionary of the History of the PRC 哈尔滨 黑龙江人民出版社 p 595 ISBN 7 207 02281 6 明鄭屯墾地區分布圖 thcts ascc net Choi Byung Wook 2004 Southern Vietnam Under the Reign of Minh Mạng 1820 1841 Central Policies and Local Response SEAP Publications pp 34 ISBN 978 0 87727 138 3 Oscar Salemink 2003 The Ethnography of Vietnam s Central Highlanders A Historical Contextualization 1850 1990 University of Hawaii Press pp 151 ISBN 978 0 8248 2579 9 Ivings Steven 7 May 2020 Settling the Frontier Defending the North Farmer Soldiers in Hokkaido s Colonial Development and National Reconciliation The Meiji Restoration pp 191 211 doi 10 1017 9781108775762 010 S2CID 218799685 Dunjeon and Maetanteo ggc ggcf kr in Korean Yi sun sin The Legendary Hero VANK prkorea com 地名應用 menu 地名故事 gt 鄭成功與台灣地名 地名資訊服務網 gn geog ntu edu tw Ru Chen Niu 屯垦地名学 inf news Bibliography Edit This article includes a list of general references but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations April 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Chen Shou Records of the Three Kingdoms Sanguozhi Pei Songzhi Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms Sanguozhi zhu Sima Guang Zizhi Tongjian Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tuntian amp oldid 1175839499, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,
