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Tiger

January 10, 2024

"Tigress" redirects here. For other uses, see Tiger (disambiguation) and Tigress (disambiguation).

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera. It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ungulates, such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent, leaving their mother's home range to establish their own.

Tiger
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene – Present
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A Bengal tigress in Kanha Tiger Reserve, India
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[1]
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:
P. tigris
Binomial name
Panthera tigris
(Linnaeus, 1758)[2]
Subspecies
Tiger's historical range in about 1850 (pale yellow), excluding that of the Caspian tiger, and in 2006 (in green).[3]
Synonyms[4]

The tiger was first scientifically described in 1758. It once ranged widely from the Eastern Anatolia Region in the west to the Amur River basin in the east, and in the south from the foothills of the Himalayas to Bali in the Sunda Islands. Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at least 93% of their historic range and have been extirpated from Western and Central Asia, the islands of Java and Bali, and in large areas of Southeast and South Asia and China. What remains of the range where tigers still roam free is fragmented, stretching in spots from Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests on the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and a single Indonesian island, Sumatra.

The tiger is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. As of 2023, the global wild tiger population is estimated to number 5,574 individuals, with most populations living in small isolated pockets.[5] India hosts the largest tiger population. Major reasons for population decline are habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching. Tigers are also victims of human–wildlife conflict, due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density.

The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. It featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and continues to be depicted in modern films and literature, appearing on many flags, coats of arms and as mascots for sporting teams. The tiger is the national animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia and South Korea.

Etymology

The Middle English tigre and Old English tigras derive from Old French tigre, from Latin tigris. This was a borrowing of Classical Greek τίγρις 'tigris', a foreign borrowing of unknown origin meaning 'tiger' and the river Tigris.[6] The origin may have been the Persian word tigra ('pointed or sharp') and the Avestan word tigrhi ('arrow'), perhaps referring to the speed of the tiger's leap, although these words are not known to have any meanings associated with tigers.[7]

The generic name Panthera is derived from the Latin word panthera and the Ancient Greek word πάνθηρ ('panther').[8]

Taxonomy

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris.[2] In 1929, the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris.[9][10]

Subspecies

 
Phylogenetic relationship of tiger populations based on Driscoll et al. (2009).[11]

Following Linnaeus's first descriptions of the species, several tiger specimens were described and proposed as subspecies.[12] The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence characteristics that vary widely within populations. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands.[13]

This two-subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 by a comprehensive analysis of morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies using a combined approach. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations of continental Asia, and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations of the Sunda Islands. The continental nominate subspecies P. t. tigris constitutes two clades: a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations.[14]

The authors of the 2015 study noted that this two-subspecies reclassification will affect tiger conservation management.[14] It would make captive breeding programs and future re-wilding of zoo-born tigers easier, as one tiger population could then be used to bolster the population of another population. However, there is the risk that the loss of subspecies uniqueness could negatively impact protection efforts for specific populations.[15]

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the two-subspecies proposal of the comprehensive 2015 study, and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica.[16]

This two-subspecies view is still disputed by researchers, since the currently recognized nine subspecies can be distinguished genetically.[15] Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing of 32 specimens support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the living subspecies and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived about 110,000 years ago.[17]

The following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World,[12] and also reflect the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017:[16]

Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)[2]
Populations Description Image
Bengal tiger Linnaeus's scientific description of the tiger was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi.[2] Bengal tiger skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London vary from light yellow to reddish yellow with black stripes.[10]  
†Caspian tiger formerly P. t. virgata (Illiger, 1815)[18] Illiger's description was not based on a particular specimen, but he only assumed that tigers in the Caspian area differ from those elsewhere.[18] It was later described as having narrow and closely set stripes.[19] The size of its skull did not differ significantly from that of the Bengal tiger.[13] According to genetic analysis, it was closely related to the Siberian tiger.[11] It had been recorded in the wild until the early 1970s and is considered extinct since the late 20th century.[20]  
Siberian tiger formerly P. t. altaica (Temminck, 1844)[21] Temminck's description was based on an unspecified number of tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats that were traded between Korea and Japan. He assumed they originated in the Altai Mountains.[21] The Siberian tiger was later described as having pale coats with few dark brown stripes.[19]  
South China tiger formerly P. t. amoyensis (Hilzheimer, 1905)[22] Hilzheimer's description was based on five tiger skulls purchased in Hankou, southern China. These skulls differed in the size of teeth and jaw bones by a few cm from skulls of tigers from India.[22] Skins of tigers from southern China in the fur trade were said to be vivid orange in colour with rhombus-like stripes. Because of differences in the shape of skulls, it was long thought to constitute the most ancient variety.[23] It was noted to have a unique mtDNA haplotype.[16]  
Indochinese tiger formerly P. t. corbetti Mazák, 1968[24] Mazák's description was based on 25 specimens in museum collections that were smaller than tigers from India and had smaller skulls.[24]  
Malayan tiger formerly P. t. jacksoni Luo et al., 2004[25] It was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of mtDNA and micro-satellite sequences that differ from the Indochinese tiger.[25] In pelage colour or skull size, it does not differ significantly from Indochinese tigers.[26] There is no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand.[1]  
Panthera tigris sondaica (Temminck, 1844)[16]
Populations Description Image
†Javan tiger Temminck based his description on an unspecified number of tiger skins with short and smooth hair.[21] Tigers from Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian mainland.[26]  
†Bali tiger formerly P. t. balica (Schwarz, 1912)[27] Schwarz based his description on a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger from Bali. He argued that its fur colour is brighter and its skull smaller than of tigers from Java.[27][28] A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital plane, which is analogous with the shape of skulls of Javan tigers.[29]  
Sumatran tiger formerly P. t. sumatrae Pocock, 1929[30] Pocock described a dark skin of a tiger from Sumatra as the type specimen that had numerous and densely-set broad stripes. Its skull was a little larger than the skull of a Bali tiger.[30] It is the smallest of all living tigers.[23] The reasons for its small size compared to mainland tigers are unclear, but probably the result of insular dwarfism, especially competition for limited and small prey.[13] The population is thought to be of mainland Asian origin and to have been isolated about 6,000 to 12,000 years ago after a rise in sea-level created Sumatra.[26][31]  

Evolution

 
Restoration of the skull of Panthera zdanskyi, an extinct relative of the modern tiger, the fossil remains of which were found in northwestern China

The tiger's closest living relatives were previously thought to be the Panthera species lion, leopard and jaguar. Results of genetic analysis indicate that about 2.88 million years ago, the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species, and that both may be more closely related to each other than to the lion, leopard and jaguar.[32][33] The geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The tiger–snow leopard lineage dispersed in Southeast Asia during the Miocene.[34]

Panthera zdanskyi is considered to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger. It lived at the beginning of the Pleistocene about two million years ago, its fossil remains were excavated in Gansu Province, northwestern China. It was smaller and more "primitive", but functionally and ecologically similar to the modern tiger. It is disputed as to whether it had the striping pattern. Northwestern China is thought to be the origin of the tiger lineage. Tigers grew in size, possibly in response to adaptive radiations of prey species like deer and bovids, which may have occurred in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene.[35]

Panthera tigris trinilensis lived about 1.2 million years ago and is known from fossils excavated near Trinil in Java.[36] The Wanhsien, Ngandong, Trinil, and Japanese tigers became extinct in prehistoric times.[37] Tigers reached India and northern Asia in the late Pleistocene, reaching eastern Beringia, Japan, and Sakhalin. Some fossil skulls are morphologically distinct from lion skulls, which could indicate tiger presence in Alaska during the last glacial period, about 100,000 years ago.[38]

Fossil teeth and bones found in Borneo were attributed to the Bornean tiger and date to about 13,745 to 3,000 years ago. It may have accessed Borneo, when the sea level was low during a glaciation period, and may have survived until about 200 years ago.[39][40] In the Ille Cave on the island of Palawan, two articulated phalanx bones were found amidst an assemblage of other animal bones and stone tools. They were smaller than mainland tiger fossils, possibly due to insular dwarfism.[41] It has been speculated that the tiger parts were either imported from elsewhere, or that the tiger colonised Palawan from Borneo before the Holocene.[42][43] Fossil remains of tigers were also excavated in Sri Lanka, China, Japan and Sarawak dating to the Late Pliocene, Pleistocene and Early Holocene.[38][39]

Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108,000 to 72,000 years ago.[25] The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data. The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum, indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia. The Caspian tiger population was likely connected to the Bengal tiger population through corridors below elevations of 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Hindu Kush. The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods.[44]

The tiger's full genome sequence was published in 2013. It was found to have repeat compositions much as other cat genomes and "an appreciably conserved synteny".[45]

Hybrids

Further information: Felid hybrid, Panthera hybrid, Liger, and Tigon

Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species. Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation.[46] The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Ligers are typically between 3 and 3.5 m (10 and 12 ft) in length, and weigh between 350 and 450 kg (800 and 1,000 lb) or more.[47] Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent species.[48]

The less common tigon is a cross between a lioness and a male tiger.[46] Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, tigons are around the same size as their parents.[48] Some females are fertile and have occasionally given birth to litigons when mated to a male Asiatic lion.[49]

Description

 
Siberian tiger in Aalborg Zoo, Denmark
 
Bengal tiger skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology

The tiger has a muscular body with strong forelimbs, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of its body. Its pelage colouration comes in shades of orange and brown with a white underside and distinctive mostly vertical black or dark brown stripes; the patterns of which are unique in each individual.[50][23] Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation such as long grass with strong vertical patterns of light and shade.[51][52] The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species; it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids.[53] The orange colour may also aid in camouflage as the tiger's prey are dichromats, and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation.[54]

A tiger's coat pattern is still visible when it is shaved. This is not due to skin pigmentation, but to the stubble and hair follicles embedded in the skin.[55] It has a mane-like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers, especially in males. The pupils are circular with yellow irises. The small, rounded ears have a prominent white spot on the back, surrounded by black.[23] These spots are thought to play an important role in intraspecific communication.[56]

The tiger's skull is similar to a lion's skull, with the frontal region usually less depressed or flattened, and a slightly longer postorbital region. The lion skull shows broader nasal openings. Due to the variation in skull sizes of the two species, the structure of the lower jaw is a reliable indicator for their identification.[19] The tiger has fairly stout teeth; its somewhat curved canines are the longest among living felids with a crown height of up to 90 mm (3.5 in).[23]

Size

There is notable sexual dimorphism between male and female tigers, with the latter being consistently smaller. The size difference between them is proportionally greater in the large tiger subspecies, with males weighing up to 1.7 times more than females. Males also have wider forepaw pads, enabling sex to be identified from tracks.[57] It has been hypothesised that body size of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann's rule, or by distribution and size of available prey species.[23][58]

Generally, males vary in total length from 220 to 310 cm (87 to 122 in) and weigh between 90 and 300 kg (200 and 660 lb) with skull length ranging from 295 to 383 mm (11.6 to 15.1 in).[59][60][61] The largest tiger on record reportedly weighed 423 kg (933 lb).[62][63] Females vary in total length from 190 to 275 cm (75 to 108 in), weigh 65 to 167 kg (143 to 368 lb) with skull length ranging from 265 to 318 mm (10.4 to 12.5 in).[64] In either sex, the tail represents about 0.6 to 1.1 m (2 ft 0 in to 3 ft 7 in) of the total length. The Bengal and Siberian tigers are the largest, while the Sumatran tiger is smaller and less heavy, rarely exceeding 142 kg (313 lb) in weight.[23][26]

Colour variations

 
White tigers in Haifa Zoo

There are three other colour variants – white, golden and nearly stripeless snow white – that are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations, but continue in captive populations. The white tiger has white fur and sepia-brown stripes. The golden tiger has a pale golden pelage with a blond tone and reddish-brown stripes. The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish-brown ringed tail. Both snow white and golden tigers are homozygous for CORIN gene mutations.[65]

The white tiger lacks pheomelanin (which creates the orange colour), and has dark sepia-brown stripes and blue eyes. This altered pigmentation is caused by a mutant gene that is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, which is determined by a white locus. It is not an albino, as the dark pigments are scarcely affected.[66][65] The mutation changes a single amino acid in the transporter protein SLC45A2. Both parents need to have the allele for whiteness to have white cubs.[67] Between the early and mid 20th century, white tigers were recorded and shot in the Indian states of Odisha, Bihar, Assam and in the area of Rewa, Madhya Pradesh. The local maharaja started breeding tigers in the early 1950s and kept a white male tiger together with its normal-coloured daughter; they had white cubs.[68] To preserve this recessive trait, only a few white individuals were used in captive breeding, which led to a high degree of inbreeding. Inbreeding depression is the main reason for many health problems of captive white tigers, including strabismus, stillbirth, deformities and premature death.[69] Other physical defects include cleft palate and scoliosis.[70]

The Tiger Species Survival Plan has condemned the breeding of white tigers, alleging they are of mixed ancestry and of unknown lineage. The genes responsible for white colouration are represented by 0.001% of the population. The disproportionate growth in numbers of white tigers points to inbreeding among homozygous recessive individuals. This would lead to inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability.[71]

There are also records of pseudo-melanic or black tigers which have thick stripes that merge. In Simlipal National Park, 37% of the tiger population has this condition, which has been linked to isolation and inbreeding.[72]

Distribution and habitat

 
Historical distribution of the tiger[11]

The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey and Transcaucasia to the coast of the Sea of Japan, and from South Asia across Southeast Asia to the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali.[50] Since the end of the last glacial period, it was probably restricted by periods of deep snow lasting longer than six months.[73][74] Currently, it occurs in less than 6% of its historical range, as it has been extirpated from Southwest and Central Asia, large parts of Southeast and East Asia. It now mainly occurs in the Indian subcontinent, the Indochinese Peninsula, Sumatra and the Russian Far East, while its status in the Korean Peninsula is unknown.[51][1][75]

The tiger is essentially associated with forest habitats.[39][76] Tiger populations thrive where populations of wild cervids, bovids and suids are stable.[77] Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests along the Atrek, Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Hari, Chu and Ili Rivers and their tributaries. In the Caucasus, it inhabited hilly and lowland forests.[19] Historical records in Iran are known only from the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and adjacent Alborz Mountains.[78] In the Amur-Ussuri region, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, where riparian forests provide food and water, and serve as dispersal corridors for both tiger and ungulates.[74][79] On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests and the swamp forests of the Sundarbans.[80] In the Eastern Himalayas, tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan and of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi Hills.[81][82] In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests.[83] In Sumatra, tiger populations range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests.[84]

Ecology and behaviour

Social and daily activities

 
Tigers are comfortable in water and frequently bathe.
 
Tigers grooming each other
 
A tigress rubbing her head on a tree
 
A tiger scent-marking his territory

When not subject to human disturbance, the tiger is mainly diurnal.[85] It does not often climb trees but cases have been recorded.[51] It is a strong swimmer and often bathes in ponds, lakes and rivers, thus keeping cool in the heat of the day.[86] Individuals can cross rivers up to 7 km (4.3 mi) wide and can swim up to 29 km (18 mi) in a day.[87] During the 1980s, a tiger was observed frequently hunting prey through deep lake water in Ranthambhore National Park.[85]

The tiger is a long-ranging species, and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other areas.[88] Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan National Park started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months. Four females dispersed between 0 and 43.2 km (0.0 and 26.8 mi), and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi). None of them crossed open cultivated areas that were more than 10 km (6.2 mi) wide, but moved through forested habitat.[89]

Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives. They establish and maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within which they roam. Resident adults of either sex generally confine their movements to their home ranges, within which they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs. Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other's movements and activities.[90] The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual.[51][23] In India, home ranges appear to be 50 to 1,000 km2 (19 to 386 sq mi) while in Manchuria, they range from 500 to 4,000 km2 (190 to 1,540 sq mi). In Nepal, defended territories are recorded to be 19 to 151 km2 (7.3 to 58.3 sq mi) for males and 10 to 51 km2 (3.9 to 19.7 sq mi) for females.[87]

Young female tigers establish their first territories close to their mother's. The overlap between the female and her mother's territory reduces with time. Males, however, migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area. A young male acquires territory either by seeking out an area devoid of other male tigers, or by living as a transient in another male's territory until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male. Young males seeking to establish themselves thereby comprise the highest mortality rate (30–35% per year) amongst adult tigers.[91]

To identify his territory, the male marks trees by spraying urine,[92][93] anal gland secretions, marking trails with feces and marking trees or the ground with their claws. Females also use these "scrapes", urine and fecal markings. Scent markings of this type allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity, sex and reproductive status. Females in oestrus will signal their availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing their vocalisations.[51]

Although for the most part avoiding each other, tigers are not always territorial and relationships between individuals can be complex. An adult of either sex will sometimes share its kill with others, even with unrelated tigers. George Schaller observed a male share a kill with two females and four cubs. Unlike male lions, male tigers allow females and cubs to feed on the kill before the male is finished with it; all involved generally seem to behave amicably, in contrast to the competitive behaviour shown by a lion pride.[94] Stephen Mills described a social feeding event in Ranthambore National Park:

A dominant tigress they called Padmini killed a 250 kg (550 lb) male nilgai – a very large antelope. They found her at the kill just after dawn with her three 14-month-old cubs, and they watched uninterrupted for the next ten hours. During this period the family was joined by two adult females and one adult male, all offspring from Padmini's previous litters, and by two unrelated tigers, one female the other unidentified. By three o'clock there were no fewer than nine tigers round the kill.[91]

Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their territories than females are of other females. Territory disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence. Several such incidents have been observed in which the subordinate tiger yielded by rolling onto its back and showing its belly in a submissive posture.[95] Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not live in too close quarters.[91] The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus, sometimes fighting to the death.[91][95]

Captive Sumatran tiger roaring
Caged tiger growling and snarling

Facial expressions include the "defense threat", where an individual bares its teeth, flattens its ears and its pupils enlarge. Both males and females show a flehmen response, a characteristic grimace, when sniffing urine markings, but flehmen is more often associated with males detecting the markings made by tigresses in oestrus.[23]

Tigers roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km (1.9 mi) away. They may roar three or four times in a row, and other tigers may respond in kind. When tense, tigers will moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m (1,300 ft) away.[23][94] Aggressive encounters involve growling, snarling and hissing.[94] During an attack, an explosive "coughing roar" or "coughing snarl" is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth.[23][94][96] Chuffing—soft, low-frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats—is heard in more friendly situations.[97] Other vocalisations include grunts, woofs and miaows.[23]

Hunting and diet

 
An adult tiger showing incisors, canines and part of the premolars and molars
 
Dentition of tiger above, and of Asian black bear below. The large canines are used for killing and the carnassials for tearing flesh.

Tigers mostly feed on large and medium-sized mammals, particularly ungulates weighing 60–250 kg (130–550 lb). Range-wide, the most selected prey are sambar deer, Manchurian wapiti, barasingha and wild boar. Tigers are capable of taking down larger prey like adult gaur and wild water buffalo,[98] but opportunistically eat much smaller prey, such as monkeys, peafowl and other ground-based birds, hares, porcupines and fish.[51] They also prey on other predators, including dogs, leopards, bears, snakes and crocodiles.[99] Tiger attacks on adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros have also been reported.[100][101][102] More often, tigers take the more vulnerable small calves.[103] When in close proximity to humans, tigers sometimes prey on domestic livestock like cattle, horses and donkeys. Although almost exclusively carnivorous, tigers occasionally eat vegetation for dietary fibre such as fruit of the slow match tree.[99]

The tiger is thought to be mainly a nocturnal predator.[76] It generally hunts alone and overpowers its prey from any angle, using its body size and strength to knock the prey off balance. Successful hunts usually require the tiger to almost simultaneously leap onto its quarry, knock it over, and grab the throat or nape with its teeth.[87] Some tigers can reach speeds of about 49–65 km/h (30–40 mph) but only in short bursts; consequently, tigers must be close to their prey before they break cover. If the prey senses the tiger's presence before this, the tiger usually abandons the hunt rather than give chase or battle pre-alerted prey. Horizontal leaps of up to 10 m (33 ft) have been reported, although leaps of around half this distance are more typical. One in 2 to 20 hunts, including stalking near potential prey, ends in a successful kill.[87][76]

 
Two tigers working together to kill an Indian boar in Kanha Tiger Reserve
 
Bengal tiger attacking a sambar in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve

When hunting larger animals, tigers prefer to bite the throat and use their powerful forelimbs to hold onto the prey, often simultaneously wrestling it to the ground. The tiger remains latched onto the neck until its target dies of strangulation.[94] By this method, tigers killed gaurs and water buffaloes weighing over a ton.[104] Although they can kill healthy adults, tigers often select the calves or infirm of very large species.[105] Healthy adult prey of this type can be dangerous to tackle, as long, strong horns, legs and tusks are all potentially fatal to the tiger. No other extant land predator routinely takes on prey this large on its own.[19][106]

With small prey such as monkeys and hares, the tiger bites the nape, often breaking the spinal cord, piercing the windpipe, or severing the jugular vein or common carotid artery.[107] Rarely, tigers have been observed to kill prey by swiping with their paws, which are powerful enough to smash the skulls of domestic cattle,[99] and break the backs of sloth bears.[108]

After killing their prey, tigers sometimes drag it to conceal it in vegetation, grasping with their mouths at the site of the killing bite. This, too, can require great physical strength. In one case, after it had killed an adult gaur, a tiger was observed to drag the massive carcass over a distance of 12 m (39 ft). When 13 men simultaneously tried to drag the same carcass later, they were unable to move it.[87] An adult tiger can go for up to two weeks without eating, then gorge on 34 kg (75 lb) of flesh at one time. In captivity, adult tigers are fed 3 to 6 kg (6.6 to 13.2 lb) of meat a day.[87]

Enemies and competitors

 
An 1807 illustration of dholes attacking a tiger

Tigers usually prefer to eat self-killed prey, but eat carrion in times of scarcity and also steal prey from other large carnivores. Although predators typically avoid one another, if a prize is under dispute or a serious competitor is encountered, displays of aggression are common. If these fail, the conflicts may turn violent; tigers may kill or even prey on competitors such as leopards, dholes, striped hyenas, wolves, bears, pythons, and mugger crocodiles on occasion.[28][108][109][110][111] Crocodiles, bears, and large packs of dholes may win conflicts with tigers, and crocodiles and bears can even kill them.[28][19][112][113][114]

The considerably smaller leopard avoids competition from tigers by hunting at different times of the day and hunting different prey.[115] In India's Nagarhole National Park, most prey selected by leopards were from 30 to 175 kg (66 to 386 lb) against a preference for heavier prey by tigers. The average prey weight in the two respective big cats in India was 37.6 kg (83 lb) against 91.5 kg (202 lb).[116][117] With relatively abundant prey, tigers and leopards were seen to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more common to the African savanna, where the leopard lives beside the lion.[116] Golden jackals may scavenge on tiger kills.[118] Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while smaller predators like leopards and dholes are pushed closer to the fringes.[119]

Reproduction and life cycle

Main article: Life cycle of the tiger
"Tiger cub" redirects here. For other uses, see Tiger Cub.
 
Tiger family in Kanha Tiger Reserve
 
Tiger family in Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve

The tiger mates all year round, but most cubs are born between March and June, with a second peak in September. Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days, with an average of 103 to 105 days. A female is only receptive for three to six days.[120] Mating is frequent and noisy during that time.[50] The female gives birth in a sheltered location such as in tall grass, in a dense thicket, cave or rocky crevice. The father generally takes no part in rearing.[19] Litters consist of two or three cubs, rarely as many as six. Cubs weigh from 780 to 1,600 g (28 to 56 oz) each at birth, and are born with eyes closed. They open their eyes when they are six to 14 days old.[120] Their milk teeth break through at the age of about two weeks. They start to eat meat at the age of eight weeks. At around this time, females usually shift them to a new den.[50] They make short ventures with their mother, although they do not travel with her as she roams her territory until they are older. Females lactate for five to six months.[120] Around the time they are weaned, they start to accompany their mother on territorial walks and are taught how to hunt.[85]

A dominant cub emerges in most litters, usually a male. The dominant cub is more active than its siblings and takes the lead in their play, eventually leaving its mother and becoming independent earlier.[85] The cubs start hunting on their own earliest at the age of 11 months, and become independent around 18 to 20 months of age.[94] They separate from their mother at the age of two to two and a half years, but continue to grow until the age of five years.[50] Young females reach sexual maturity at three to four years, whereas males at four to five years.[19] Unrelated wandering male tigers often kill cubs to make the female receptive, since the tigress may give birth to another litter within five months if the cubs of the previous litter are lost. The mortality rate of tiger cubs is about 50% in the first two years. Few other predators attack tiger cubs due to the diligence and ferocity of the mother. Apart from humans and other tigers, common causes of cub mortality are starvation, freezing, and accidents.[106] Generation length of the tiger is about eight years.[121] The oldest recorded captive tiger lived for 26 years.[87]

Occasionally, male tigers participate in raising cubs, usually their own, but this is extremely rare and not always well understood. In May 2015, Amur tigers were photographed by camera traps in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve. The photos show a male Amur tiger pass by, followed by a female and three cubs within the span of about two minutes.[122] In Ranthambore, a male Bengal tiger raised and defended two orphaned female cubs after their mother had died of illness. The cubs remained under his care, he supplied them with food, protected them from his rival and sister, and apparently also trained them.[123]

Conservation

Main article: Tiger conservation
Further information: 21st Century Tiger
Global wild tiger population
Country Year Estimate
  India 2023 3682–3925[124][125]
  Russia 2020 480–540[126]
  Indonesia 2016 400–600[127]
  Bangladesh 2014 300–500[1]
  Nepal 2022 355[128]
  Thailand 2023 189[129]
  Bhutan 2023 131[130]
  Malaysia 2022 <150[131]
  China 2018 55[132]
  Myanmar 2018 22[133]
Total 5,764–6,467

In the 1990s, a new approach to tiger conservation was developed: Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs), which are blocks of habitat that have the potential to host tiger populations in 15 habitat types within five bioregions. Altogether 143 TCUs were identified and prioritized based on size and integrity of habitat, poaching pressure and population status. They range in size from 33 to 155,829 km2 (13 to 60,166 sq mi).[80]

In 2016, an estimate of a global wild tiger population of approximately 3,890 individuals was presented during the Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation.[134][135] The WWF subsequently declared that the world's count of wild tigers had risen for the first time in a century.[136]

Major threats to the tiger include habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts, which have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild.[1] In India, only 11% of the historical tiger habitat remains due to habitat fragmentation.[137] Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations.[138][139][140] Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2,500 mature breeding individuals, with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals.[1]

India is home to the world's largest population of wild tigers.[134] A 2014 census estimated a population of 2,226, a 30% increase since 2011.[141] On International Tiger Day 2019, the 'Tiger Estimation Report 2018' was released by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The report estimates a population of 2967 tigers in India with 25% increase since 2014. Modi said "India is one of the safest habitats for tigers as it has achieved the target of doubling the tiger population from 1411 in 2011 to 2967 in 2019".[142] As of 2022, India accounts for 75 percent of global tiger population.[143] The Tiger Census of 2023 reports tiger population in India at 3167.[144]

In 1973, India's Project Tiger, started by Indira Gandhi, established numerous tiger reserves. The project was credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from some 1,200 in 1973 to over 3,500 in the 1990s, but a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back to about 1,400 tigers because of poaching.[145][146][147] Following the report, the Indian government pledged $153 million to the initiative, set up measures to combat poaching, promised funds to relocate up to 200,000 villagers in order to reduce human-tiger interactions,[148] and set up eight new tiger reserves in India.[149] India also reintroduced tigers to the Sariska Tiger Reserve[150] and by 2009 it was claimed that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park.[151]

In the 1940s, the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals remaining in the wild in Russia. As a result, anti-poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet Union and a network of protected zones (zapovedniks) were instituted, leading to a rise in the population to several hundred. Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s, when the economy of Russia collapsed. The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory individual tigers require, up to 450 km (280 mi) needed by a single female and more for a single male.[152] Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO's in concert with international organisations, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife Conservation Society.[153] The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats. Tigers have less impact on ungulate populations than do wolves, and are effective in controlling the latter's numbers.[154] In 2005, there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia, though these exhibited little genetic diversity.[155] However, in a decade later, the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540 individuals.[156]

In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in southern China since 2001.[157][158] Having earlier rejected the Western-led environmentalist movement, China changed its stance in the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty. By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts, and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine.[159] The Tibetan people's trade in tiger skins has also been a threat to tigers. The pelts were used in clothing, tiger-skin chuba being worn as fashion. In 2006 the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the issue. Since then there has been a change of attitude, with some Tibetans publicly burning their chubas.[160]

In 1994, the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra. The Sumatran Tiger Project (STP) was initiated in June 1995 in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long-term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life-history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations.[161] By August 1999, the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province, of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers.[162] In the framework of the STP a community-based conservation program was initiated to document the tiger-human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger-human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions.[163]

The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers Forever, with field sites including the world's largest tiger reserve, the 21,756 km2 (8,400 sq mi) Hukaung Valley in Myanmar. Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, the Russian Far East covering in total about 260,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi).[164]

Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques. Tiger population have been estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks, although this method was criticized as being inaccurate.[165] More recent techniques include the use of camera traps and studies of DNA from tiger scat, while radio-collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild.[166] Tiger spray has been found to be just as good, or better, as a source of DNA than scat.[167]

Relationship with humans

Tiger hunting

Main article: Tiger hunting
 
Tiger hunting on elephant-back in India, 1808

The tiger has been one of the most sought after game animals of Asia. Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early 19th and 20th centuries, being a recognised and admired sport by the British in colonial India, the maharajas and aristocratic class of the erstwhile princely states of pre-independence India. A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill over a hundred tigers in their hunting career.[87] Over 80,000 tigers were slaughtered in just 50 years spanning from 1875 to 1925 in British-ruled India.[168] Tiger hunting was done by some hunters on foot; others sat up on machans with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait; yet others on elephant-back.[169] King George V on his visit to Colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days[170] One of these is on display at the Royal Albert Memorial Museum.[171]

Historically, tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their famous striped skins could be collected. The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s, just before international conservation efforts took effect. By 1977, a tiger skin in an English market was considered to be worth US$4,250.[87]

Body part use

 
A hunting party poses with a killed Javan tiger, 1941

Tiger parts are commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, the fossils in Palawan were found besides stone tools. This, besides the evidence for cuts on the bones, and the use of fire, suggests that early humans had accumulated the bones,[41] and the condition of the tiger subfossils, dated to approximately 12,000 to 9,000 years ago, differed from other fossils in the assemblage, dated to the Upper Paleolithic. The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering, which suggests that they had post-mortem been exposed to light and air. Tiger canines were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th centuries in Butuan, Mindanao.[42][43]

Many people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that various tiger parts have medicinal properties, including as pain killers and aphrodisiacs.[172] There is no scientific evidence to support these beliefs. The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical drugs in China is already banned, and the government has made some offences in connection with tiger poaching punishable by death.[which?] Furthermore, all trade in tiger parts is illegal under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic trade ban has been in place in China since 1993.[173]

However, the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major black market industry and governmental and conservation attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date.[87] Almost all black marketers engaged in the trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within their own country or into Taiwan, South Korea or Japan.[87] The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s.[87] Contributing to the illegal trade, there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in breeding them for profit. It is estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 captive-bred, semi-tame animals live in these farms today.[174][175][176] However, many tigers for traditional medicine black market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger's remaining range (from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra). In the Asian black market, a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around $300 U.S. dollars. In the years of 1990 through 1992, 27 million products with tiger derivatives were found.[87] In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva, Switzerland, a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China.[177]

Man-eating tigers

Main article: Tiger attack

Wild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans actively avoid interactions with them. However, tigers cause more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal.[87] Attacks are occasionally provoked, as tigers lash out after being injured while they themselves are hunted. Attacks can be provoked accidentally, as when a human surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and her young,[178] or as in a case in rural India when a postman startled a tiger, used to seeing him on foot, by riding a bicycle.[179] Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey. Such attacks are most common in areas where population growth, logging, and farming have put pressure on tiger habitats and reduced their wild prey. Most man-eating tigers are old, missing teeth, and unable to capture their preferred prey.[51] For example, the Champawat Tiger, a tigress found in Nepal and then India, had two broken canines. She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths, the most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal, by the time she was shot in 1907 by Jim Corbett.[180] According to Corbett, tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime, when people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch.[181] Early writings tend to describe man-eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics.[182]

Man-eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh, especially in Kumaon, Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal, where some healthy tigers have hunted humans. Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change, tiger attacks have increased in the Sundarbans.[183] The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from 1969 to 1971. In the 10 years prior to that period, about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans, with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s.[87] Unusually, in some years in the Sundarbans, more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa.[87] In 1972, India's production of honey and beeswax dropped by 50% when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were devoured.[87] In 1986 in the Sundarbans, since tigers almost always attack from the rear, masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head, on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey. This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily. All other means to prevent attacks, such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies, did not work as well.[184]

In captivity

 
Publicity photo of animal trainer Gunther Gebel-Williams with several of his trained tigers, c. 1969

In Ancient Roman times, tigers were kept in menageries and amphitheatres to be exhibited, trained and paraded, and were often provoked to fight gladiators and other exotic beasts.[185][186] Since the 17th century, tigers, being rare and ferocious, were sought after to keep at European castles as symbols of their owners' power. Tigers became central zoo and circus exhibits in the 18th century: a tiger could cost up to 4,000 francs in France (for comparison, a professor of the Beaux-Arts at Lyons earned only 3,000 francs a year),[187] or up to $3,500 in the United States, where a lion cost no more than $1,000.[188]

In 2007, over 4,000 captive tigers lived in China, of which 3,000 were held by about 20 larger facilities, with the rest held by some 200 smaller facilities.[189] In 2011, 468 facilities in the USA kept 2,884 tigers.[190] Nineteen US states banned private ownership of tigers, fifteen require a license, and sixteen states have no regulation.[191] Genetic ancestry of 105 captive tigers from fourteen countries and regions showed that forty-nine animals belonged distinctly to five subspecies; fifty-two animals had mixed subspecies origins.[192] Many Siberian tigers in zoos today are actually the result of crosses with Bengal tigers.[193]

Cultural depictions

Tigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for mankind since ancient times, and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs. They are also considered one of the charismatic megafauna, and are used as the face of conservation campaigns worldwide. In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet, involving more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world's favourite animal with 21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog.[194]

Mythology and legend

Further information: Tiger in Chinese culture and Tiger in Korean culture
See also: Tiger worship
 
Tiger-shaped jie (badge of authority) with gold inlays, from the tomb of Zhao Mo

In Chinese mythology and culture, the tiger is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Chinese art, the tiger is depicted as an earth symbol and equal rival of the Chinese dragon – the two representing matter and spirit respectively. The Southern Chinese martial art Hung Ga is based on the movements of the tiger and the crane. In Imperial China, a tiger was the personification of war and often represented the highest army general (or present day defense secretary),[195] while the emperor and empress were represented by a dragon and phoenix, respectively. The White Tiger (Chinese: 白虎; pinyin: Bái Hǔ) is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West (Chinese: 西方白虎), and it represents the west and the autumn season.[195]

The tiger's tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea, it being generally inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail.[196][197] In Korean mythology and culture, the tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck – the symbol of courage and absolute power. For the people who live in and around the forests of Korea, the tiger considered the symbol of the Mountain Spirit or King of mountain animals. So, Koreans also called the tigers "San Gun" (산군) means Mountain Lord.[198]

In Buddhism, the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolising anger, with the monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness.[195] The Tungusic peoples considered the Siberian tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as "Grandfather" or "Old man". The Udege and Nanai called it "Amba". The Manchu people considered the Siberian tiger as "Hu Lin", the king.[57] In Hinduism, the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin.[199] The ten-armed warrior goddess Durga rides the tigress (or lioness) Damon into battle. In southern India the god Ayyappan was associated with a tiger.[200] Dingu-Aneni is the god in North-East India is also associated with tiger.[201] The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in Asia;[202] in India they were evil sorcerers, while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat more benign.[203] In Taiwanese folk beliefs, Aunt Tiger portrays the story of a tiger, which turns into an old woman, abducts children at night and devours them to satisfy her appetite.[204] In Greco-Roman tradition, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus.[205]

Literature and media

See also: Bengal tiger § Literature
 
Blake's original printing of The Tyger, 1794

In the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the tiger is fiercer and more ruthless than the lion.[206] William Blake's poem in his Songs of Experience (1794), titled "The Tyger", portrays the tiger as a menacing and fearful animal.[207] In Rudyard Kipling's 1894 The Jungle Book, the tiger Shere Khan is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli.[207] Yann Martel's 2001 Booker Prize winning novel Life of Pi, features the title character surviving shipwreck for months on a small boat with a large Bengal tiger while avoiding being eaten. The story was adapted in Ang Lee's 2012 feature film of the same name.[208]

Friendly tiger characters include Tigger in A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh and Hobbes of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes, both represented as stuffed animals come to life.[209] Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg's breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes, known for his catchphrase "They're Gr-r-reat!".[210]

Heraldry and emblems

See also: Tigers (sports teams)

The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation. The tiger was the emblem of the Chola Dynasty and was depicted on coins, seals and banners.[211] The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger, the Pandyan emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow, indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties. Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger, bow and some indistinct marks.[212] The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence movement.[213] The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and Bangladesh.[214] The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of Malaysia.[215] The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea.[citation needed] The Tiger is featured on the logo of the Delhi Capitals IPL team.

In European heraldry, the tyger, a depiction of a tiger as imagined by European artists, is among the creatures used in charges and supporters. This creature has several notable differences from real tigers, lacking stripes and having a leonine tufted tail and a head terminating in large, pointed jaws. A more realistic tiger entered the heraldic armory through the British Empire's expansion into Asia, and is referred to as the Bengal tiger to distinguish it from its older counterpart. The Bengal tiger is not a common creature in heraldry, but is used as a supporter in the arms of Bombay and emblazoned on the shield of the University of Madras.[216]

See also

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Further reading

  • Marshall, A. (2010). . Time. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010.
  • Millward, A. (2020). "Indian tiger study earns its stripes as one of the world's largest wildlife surveys". Guinness World Records Limited.
  • Mohan, V. (2015). "India's tiger population increases by 30% in past three years; country now has 2,226 tigers". The Times of India.
  • Porter, J. H. (1894). "The Tiger". Wild beasts: a study of the characters and habits of the elephant, lion, leopard, panther, jaguar, tiger, puma, wolf, and grizzly bear. New York: C. Scribner's sons. pp. 196–256.
  • Sankhala, K. (1997). Indian Tiger. New Delhi: Roli Books Pvt Limited. ISBN 978-81-7437-088-4.
  • Schnitzler, A.; Hermann, L. (2019). "Chronological distribution of the tiger Panthera tigris and the Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica in their common range in Asia". Mammal Review. 49 (4): 340–353. doi:10.1111/mam.12166. S2CID 202040786.
  • Yonzon, P. (2010). . The Kathmandu Post. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012.

External links

  •   Media related to Panthera tigris (category) at Wikimedia Commons
  •   Data related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies
  •   Quotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote
  •   Tigers travel guide from Wikivoyage
  • "Tiger Panthera tigris". IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group.

January 10, 2024
tiger, tigress, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, tigress, disambiguation, tiger, panthera, tigris, largest, living, species, member, genus, panthera, most, recognisable, dark, vertical, stripes, orange, with, white, underside, apex, predator, prim. Tigress redirects here For other uses see Tiger disambiguation and Tigress disambiguation The tiger Panthera tigris is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside An apex predator it primarily preys on ungulates such as deer and wild boar It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent leaving their mother s home range to establish their own TigerTemporal range Early Pleistocene Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N A Bengal tigress in Kanha Tiger Reserve IndiaConservation statusEndangered IUCN 3 1 1 CITES Appendix I CITES 1 Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder CarnivoraSuborder FeliformiaFamily FelidaeSubfamily PantherinaeGenus PantheraSpecies P tigrisBinomial namePanthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 2 SubspeciesP t tigris P t sondaica P t acutidens P t soloensis P t trinilensisTiger s historical range in about 1850 pale yellow excluding that of the Caspian tiger and in 2006 in green 3 Synonyms 4 Felis tigris Linnaeus 1758Tigris striatus Severtzov 1858Tigris regalis Gray 1867The tiger was first scientifically described in 1758 It once ranged widely from the Eastern Anatolia Region in the west to the Amur River basin in the east and in the south from the foothills of the Himalayas to Bali in the Sunda Islands Since the early 20th century tiger populations have lost at least 93 of their historic range and have been extirpated from Western and Central Asia the islands of Java and Bali and in large areas of Southeast and South Asia and China What remains of the range where tigers still roam free is fragmented stretching in spots from Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests on the Indian subcontinent Indochina and a single Indonesian island Sumatra The tiger is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List As of 2023 the global wild tiger population is estimated to number 5 574 individuals with most populations living in small isolated pockets 5 India hosts the largest tiger population Major reasons for population decline are habitat destruction habitat fragmentation and poaching Tigers are also victims of human wildlife conflict due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world s charismatic megafauna It featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and continues to be depicted in modern films and literature appearing on many flags coats of arms and as mascots for sporting teams The tiger is the national animal of India Bangladesh Malaysia and South Korea Contents 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy 2 1 Subspecies 2 2 Evolution 2 3 Hybrids 3 Description 3 1 Size 3 2 Colour variations 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Ecology and behaviour 5 1 Social and daily activities 5 2 Hunting and diet 5 3 Enemies and competitors 5 4 Reproduction and life cycle 6 Conservation 7 Relationship with humans 7 1 Tiger hunting 7 2 Body part use 7 3 Man eating tigers 7 4 In captivity 8 Cultural depictions 8 1 Mythology and legend 8 2 Literature and media 8 3 Heraldry and emblems 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksEtymologyThe Middle English tigre and Old English tigras derive from Old French tigre from Latin tigris This was a borrowing of Classical Greek tigris tigris a foreign borrowing of unknown origin meaning tiger and the river Tigris 6 The origin may have been the Persian word tigra pointed or sharp and the Avestan word tigrhi arrow perhaps referring to the speed of the tiger s leap although these words are not known to have any meanings associated with tigers 7 The generic name Panthera is derived from the Latin word panthera and the Ancient Greek word pan8hr panther 8 TaxonomyIn 1758 Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris 2 In 1929 the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris 9 10 Subspecies nbsp Phylogenetic relationship of tiger populations based on Driscoll et al 2009 11 Following Linnaeus s first descriptions of the species several tiger specimens were described and proposed as subspecies 12 The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999 Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on basis of fur length and colouration striping patterns and body size hence characteristics that vary widely within populations Morphologically tigers from different regions vary little and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene Therefore it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid namely P t tigris in mainland Asia and P t sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands 13 This two subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 by a comprehensive analysis of morphological ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies using a combined approach The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies namely P t tigris comprising the Bengal Malayan Indochinese South Chinese Siberian and Caspian tiger populations of continental Asia and P t sondaica comprising the Javan Bali and Sumatran tiger populations of the Sunda Islands The continental nominate subspecies P t tigris constitutes two clades a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations and a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations 14 The authors of the 2015 study noted that this two subspecies reclassification will affect tiger conservation management 14 It would make captive breeding programs and future re wilding of zoo born tigers easier as one tiger population could then be used to bolster the population of another population However there is the risk that the loss of subspecies uniqueness could negatively impact protection efforts for specific populations 15 In 2017 the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the two subspecies proposal of the comprehensive 2015 study and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P t tigris and those in the Sunda Islands as P t sondaica 16 This two subspecies view is still disputed by researchers since the currently recognized nine subspecies can be distinguished genetically 15 Results of a 2018 whole genome sequencing of 32 specimens support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the living subspecies and indicate that the most recent common ancestor lived about 110 000 years ago 17 The following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World 12 and also reflect the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017 16 Panthera tigris tigris Linnaeus 1758 2 Populations Description ImageBengal tiger Linnaeus s scientific description of the tiger was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi 2 Bengal tiger skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum London vary from light yellow to reddish yellow with black stripes 10 nbsp Caspian tiger formerly P t virgata Illiger 1815 18 Illiger s description was not based on a particular specimen but he only assumed that tigers in the Caspian area differ from those elsewhere 18 It was later described as having narrow and closely set stripes 19 The size of its skull did not differ significantly from that of the Bengal tiger 13 According to genetic analysis it was closely related to the Siberian tiger 11 It had been recorded in the wild until the early 1970s and is considered extinct since the late 20th century 20 nbsp Siberian tiger formerly P t altaica Temminck 1844 21 Temminck s description was based on an unspecified number of tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats that were traded between Korea and Japan He assumed they originated in the Altai Mountains 21 The Siberian tiger was later described as having pale coats with few dark brown stripes 19 nbsp South China tiger formerly P t amoyensis Hilzheimer 1905 22 Hilzheimer s description was based on five tiger skulls purchased in Hankou southern China These skulls differed in the size of teeth and jaw bones by a few cm from skulls of tigers from India 22 Skins of tigers from southern China in the fur trade were said to be vivid orange in colour with rhombus like stripes Because of differences in the shape of skulls it was long thought to constitute the most ancient variety 23 It was noted to have a unique mtDNA haplotype 16 nbsp Indochinese tiger formerly P t corbetti Mazak 1968 24 Mazak s description was based on 25 specimens in museum collections that were smaller than tigers from India and had smaller skulls 24 nbsp Malayan tiger formerly P t jacksoni Luo et al 2004 25 It was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of mtDNA and micro satellite sequences that differ from the Indochinese tiger 25 In pelage colour or skull size it does not differ significantly from Indochinese tigers 26 There is no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand 1 nbsp Panthera tigris sondaica Temminck 1844 16 Populations Description Image Javan tiger Temminck based his description on an unspecified number of tiger skins with short and smooth hair 21 Tigers from Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian mainland 26 nbsp Bali tiger formerly P t balica Schwarz 1912 27 Schwarz based his description on a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger from Bali He argued that its fur colour is brighter and its skull smaller than of tigers from Java 27 28 A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital plane which is analogous with the shape of skulls of Javan tigers 29 nbsp Sumatran tiger formerly P t sumatrae Pocock 1929 30 Pocock described a dark skin of a tiger from Sumatra as the type specimen that had numerous and densely set broad stripes Its skull was a little larger than the skull of a Bali tiger 30 It is the smallest of all living tigers 23 The reasons for its small size compared to mainland tigers are unclear but probably the result of insular dwarfism especially competition for limited and small prey 13 The population is thought to be of mainland Asian origin and to have been isolated about 6 000 to 12 000 years ago after a rise in sea level created Sumatra 26 31 nbsp Evolution nbsp Restoration of the skull of Panthera zdanskyi an extinct relative of the modern tiger the fossil remains of which were found in northwestern ChinaThe tiger s closest living relatives were previously thought to be the Panthera species lion leopard and jaguar Results of genetic analysis indicate that about 2 88 million years ago the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species and that both may be more closely related to each other than to the lion leopard and jaguar 32 33 The geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia The tiger snow leopard lineage dispersed in Southeast Asia during the Miocene 34 Panthera zdanskyi is considered to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger It lived at the beginning of the Pleistocene about two million years ago its fossil remains were excavated in Gansu Province northwestern China It was smaller and more primitive but functionally and ecologically similar to the modern tiger It is disputed as to whether it had the striping pattern Northwestern China is thought to be the origin of the tiger lineage Tigers grew in size possibly in response to adaptive radiations of prey species like deer and bovids which may have occurred in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene 35 Panthera tigris trinilensis lived about 1 2 million years ago and is known from fossils excavated near Trinil in Java 36 The Wanhsien Ngandong Trinil and Japanese tigers became extinct in prehistoric times 37 Tigers reached India and northern Asia in the late Pleistocene reaching eastern Beringia Japan and Sakhalin Some fossil skulls are morphologically distinct from lion skulls which could indicate tiger presence in Alaska during the last glacial period about 100 000 years ago 38 Fossil teeth and bones found in Borneo were attributed to the Bornean tiger and date to about 13 745 to 3 000 years ago It may have accessed Borneo when the sea level was low during a glaciation period and may have survived until about 200 years ago 39 40 In the Ille Cave on the island of Palawan two articulated phalanx bones were found amidst an assemblage of other animal bones and stone tools They were smaller than mainland tiger fossils possibly due to insular dwarfism 41 It has been speculated that the tiger parts were either imported from elsewhere or that the tiger colonised Palawan from Borneo before the Holocene 42 43 Fossil remains of tigers were also excavated in Sri Lanka China Japan and Sarawak dating to the Late Pliocene Pleistocene and Early Holocene 38 39 Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108 000 to 72 000 years ago 25 The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia The Caspian tiger population was likely connected to the Bengal tiger population through corridors below elevations of 4 000 m 13 000 ft in the Hindu Kush The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods 44 The tiger s full genome sequence was published in 2013 It was found to have repeat compositions much as other cat genomes and an appreciably conserved synteny 45 Hybrids Further information Felid hybrid Panthera hybrid Liger and Tigon Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation 46 The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress Ligers are typically between 3 and 3 5 m 10 and 12 ft in length and weigh between 350 and 450 kg 800 and 1 000 lb or more 47 Because the lion sire passes on a growth promoting gene but the corresponding growth inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent ligers grow far larger than either parent species 48 The less common tigon is a cross between a lioness and a male tiger 46 Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene tigons are around the same size as their parents 48 Some females are fertile and have occasionally given birth to litigons when mated to a male Asiatic lion 49 Description nbsp Siberian tiger in Aalborg Zoo Denmark nbsp Bengal tiger skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology The tiger has a muscular body with strong forelimbs a large head and a tail that is about half the length of its body Its pelage colouration comes in shades of orange and brown with a white underside and distinctive mostly vertical black or dark brown stripes the patterns of which are unique in each individual 50 23 Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation such as long grass with strong vertical patterns of light and shade 51 52 The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids 53 The orange colour may also aid in camouflage as the tiger s prey are dichromats and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation 54 A tiger s coat pattern is still visible when it is shaved This is not due to skin pigmentation but to the stubble and hair follicles embedded in the skin 55 It has a mane like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers especially in males The pupils are circular with yellow irises The small rounded ears have a prominent white spot on the back surrounded by black 23 These spots are thought to play an important role in intraspecific communication 56 The tiger s skull is similar to a lion s skull with the frontal region usually less depressed or flattened and a slightly longer postorbital region The lion skull shows broader nasal openings Due to the variation in skull sizes of the two species the structure of the lower jaw is a reliable indicator for their identification 19 The tiger has fairly stout teeth its somewhat curved canines are the longest among living felids with a crown height of up to 90 mm 3 5 in 23 Size There is notable sexual dimorphism between male and female tigers with the latter being consistently smaller The size difference between them is proportionally greater in the large tiger subspecies with males weighing up to 1 7 times more than females Males also have wider forepaw pads enabling sex to be identified from tracks 57 It has been hypothesised that body size of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann s rule or by distribution and size of available prey species 23 58 Generally males vary in total length from 220 to 310 cm 87 to 122 in and weigh between 90 and 300 kg 200 and 660 lb with skull length ranging from 295 to 383 mm 11 6 to 15 1 in 59 60 61 The largest tiger on record reportedly weighed 423 kg 933 lb 62 63 Females vary in total length from 190 to 275 cm 75 to 108 in weigh 65 to 167 kg 143 to 368 lb with skull length ranging from 265 to 318 mm 10 4 to 12 5 in 64 In either sex the tail represents about 0 6 to 1 1 m 2 ft 0 in to 3 ft 7 in of the total length The Bengal and Siberian tigers are the largest while the Sumatran tiger is smaller and less heavy rarely exceeding 142 kg 313 lb in weight 23 26 Colour variations nbsp White tigers in Haifa ZooThere are three other colour variants white golden and nearly stripeless snow white that are now virtually non existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations but continue in captive populations The white tiger has white fur and sepia brown stripes The golden tiger has a pale golden pelage with a blond tone and reddish brown stripes The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish brown ringed tail Both snow white and golden tigers are homozygous for CORIN gene mutations 65 The white tiger lacks pheomelanin which creates the orange colour and has dark sepia brown stripes and blue eyes This altered pigmentation is caused by a mutant gene that is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait which is determined by a white locus It is not an albino as the dark pigments are scarcely affected 66 65 The mutation changes a single amino acid in the transporter protein SLC45A2 Both parents need to have the allele for whiteness to have white cubs 67 Between the early and mid 20th century white tigers were recorded and shot in the Indian states of Odisha Bihar Assam and in the area of Rewa Madhya Pradesh The local maharaja started breeding tigers in the early 1950s and kept a white male tiger together with its normal coloured daughter they had white cubs 68 To preserve this recessive trait only a few white individuals were used in captive breeding which led to a high degree of inbreeding Inbreeding depression is the main reason for many health problems of captive white tigers including strabismus stillbirth deformities and premature death 69 Other physical defects include cleft palate and scoliosis 70 The Tiger Species Survival Plan has condemned the breeding of white tigers alleging they are of mixed ancestry and of unknown lineage The genes responsible for white colouration are represented by 0 001 of the population The disproportionate growth in numbers of white tigers points to inbreeding among homozygous recessive individuals This would lead to inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability 71 There are also records of pseudo melanic or black tigers which have thick stripes that merge In Simlipal National Park 37 of the tiger population has this condition which has been linked to isolation and inbreeding 72 Distribution and habitat nbsp Historical distribution of the tiger 11 The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey and Transcaucasia to the coast of the Sea of Japan and from South Asia across Southeast Asia to the Indonesian islands of Sumatra Java and Bali 50 Since the end of the last glacial period it was probably restricted by periods of deep snow lasting longer than six months 73 74 Currently it occurs in less than 6 of its historical range as it has been extirpated from Southwest and Central Asia large parts of Southeast and East Asia It now mainly occurs in the Indian subcontinent the Indochinese Peninsula Sumatra and the Russian Far East while its status in the Korean Peninsula is unknown 51 1 75 The tiger is essentially associated with forest habitats 39 76 Tiger populations thrive where populations of wild cervids bovids and suids are stable 77 Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests along the Atrek Amu Darya Syr Darya Hari Chu and Ili Rivers and their tributaries In the Caucasus it inhabited hilly and lowland forests 19 Historical records in Iran are known only from the southern coast of the Caspian Sea and adjacent Alborz Mountains 78 In the Amur Ussuri region it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests where riparian forests provide food and water and serve as dispersal corridors for both tiger and ungulates 74 79 On the Indian subcontinent it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests moist evergreen forests tropical dry forests and the swamp forests of the Sundarbans 80 In the Eastern Himalayas tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4 200 m 13 800 ft in Bhutan and of 3 630 m 11 910 ft in the Mishmi Hills 81 82 In Thailand it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests 83 In Sumatra tiger populations range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests 84 Ecology and behaviourSocial and daily activities nbsp Tigers are comfortable in water and frequently bathe nbsp Tigers grooming each other nbsp A tigress rubbing her head on a tree nbsp A tiger scent marking his territory When not subject to human disturbance the tiger is mainly diurnal 85 It does not often climb trees but cases have been recorded 51 It is a strong swimmer and often bathes in ponds lakes and rivers thus keeping cool in the heat of the day 86 Individuals can cross rivers up to 7 km 4 3 mi wide and can swim up to 29 km 18 mi in a day 87 During the 1980s a tiger was observed frequently hunting prey through deep lake water in Ranthambhore National Park 85 The tiger is a long ranging species and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km 400 mi to reach tiger populations in other areas 88 Radio collared tigers in Chitwan National Park started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months Four females dispersed between 0 and 43 2 km 0 0 and 26 8 mi and 10 males between 9 5 and 65 7 km 5 9 and 40 8 mi None of them crossed open cultivated areas that were more than 10 km 6 2 mi wide but moved through forested habitat 89 Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives They establish and maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within which they roam Resident adults of either sex generally confine their movements to their home ranges within which they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other s movements and activities 90 The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance geographic area and sex of the individual 51 23 In India home ranges appear to be 50 to 1 000 km2 19 to 386 sq mi while in Manchuria they range from 500 to 4 000 km2 190 to 1 540 sq mi In Nepal defended territories are recorded to be 19 to 151 km2 7 3 to 58 3 sq mi for males and 10 to 51 km2 3 9 to 19 7 sq mi for females 87 Young female tigers establish their first territories close to their mother s The overlap between the female and her mother s territory reduces with time Males however migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area A young male acquires territory either by seeking out an area devoid of other male tigers or by living as a transient in another male s territory until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male Young males seeking to establish themselves thereby comprise the highest mortality rate 30 35 per year amongst adult tigers 91 To identify his territory the male marks trees by spraying urine 92 93 anal gland secretions marking trails with feces and marking trees or the ground with their claws Females also use these scrapes urine and fecal markings Scent markings of this type allow an individual to pick up information on another s identity sex and reproductive status Females in oestrus will signal their availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing their vocalisations 51 Although for the most part avoiding each other tigers are not always territorial and relationships between individuals can be complex An adult of either sex will sometimes share its kill with others even with unrelated tigers George Schaller observed a male share a kill with two females and four cubs Unlike male lions male tigers allow females and cubs to feed on the kill before the male is finished with it all involved generally seem to behave amicably in contrast to the competitive behaviour shown by a lion pride 94 Stephen Mills described a social feeding event in Ranthambore National Park A dominant tigress they called Padmini killed a 250 kg 550 lb male nilgai a very large antelope They found her at the kill just after dawn with her three 14 month old cubs and they watched uninterrupted for the next ten hours During this period the family was joined by two adult females and one adult male all offspring from Padmini s previous litters and by two unrelated tigers one female the other unidentified By three o clock there were no fewer than nine tigers round the kill 91 Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their territories than females are of other females Territory disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence Several such incidents have been observed in which the subordinate tiger yielded by rolling onto its back and showing its belly in a submissive posture 95 Once dominance has been established a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range as long as they do not live in too close quarters 91 The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus sometimes fighting to the death 91 95 source source source source source source source Captive Sumatran tiger roaring source source source Caged tiger growling and snarling Facial expressions include the defense threat where an individual bares its teeth flattens its ears and its pupils enlarge Both males and females show a flehmen response a characteristic grimace when sniffing urine markings but flehmen is more often associated with males detecting the markings made by tigresses in oestrus 23 Tigers roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km 1 9 mi away They may roar three or four times in a row and other tigers may respond in kind When tense tigers will moan a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed Moaning can be heard 400 m 1 300 ft away 23 94 Aggressive encounters involve growling snarling and hissing 94 During an attack an explosive coughing roar or coughing snarl is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth 23 94 96 Chuffing soft low frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats is heard in more friendly situations 97 Other vocalisations include grunts woofs and miaows 23 Hunting and diet nbsp An adult tiger showing incisors canines and part of the premolars and molars nbsp Dentition of tiger above and of Asian black bear below The large canines are used for killing and the carnassials for tearing flesh Tigers mostly feed on large and medium sized mammals particularly ungulates weighing 60 250 kg 130 550 lb Range wide the most selected prey are sambar deer Manchurian wapiti barasingha and wild boar Tigers are capable of taking down larger prey like adult gaur and wild water buffalo 98 but opportunistically eat much smaller prey such as monkeys peafowl and other ground based birds hares porcupines and fish 51 They also prey on other predators including dogs leopards bears snakes and crocodiles 99 Tiger attacks on adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros have also been reported 100 101 102 More often tigers take the more vulnerable small calves 103 When in close proximity to humans tigers sometimes prey on domestic livestock like cattle horses and donkeys Although almost exclusively carnivorous tigers occasionally eat vegetation for dietary fibre such as fruit of the slow match tree 99 The tiger is thought to be mainly a nocturnal predator 76 It generally hunts alone and overpowers its prey from any angle using its body size and strength to knock the prey off balance Successful hunts usually require the tiger to almost simultaneously leap onto its quarry knock it over and grab the throat or nape with its teeth 87 Some tigers can reach speeds of about 49 65 km h 30 40 mph but only in short bursts consequently tigers must be close to their prey before they break cover If the prey senses the tiger s presence before this the tiger usually abandons the hunt rather than give chase or battle pre alerted prey Horizontal leaps of up to 10 m 33 ft have been reported although leaps of around half this distance are more typical One in 2 to 20 hunts including stalking near potential prey ends in a successful kill 87 76 nbsp Two tigers working together to kill an Indian boar in Kanha Tiger Reserve nbsp Bengal tiger attacking a sambar in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve When hunting larger animals tigers prefer to bite the throat and use their powerful forelimbs to hold onto the prey often simultaneously wrestling it to the ground The tiger remains latched onto the neck until its target dies of strangulation 94 By this method tigers killed gaurs and water buffaloes weighing over a ton 104 Although they can kill healthy adults tigers often select the calves or infirm of very large species 105 Healthy adult prey of this type can be dangerous to tackle as long strong horns legs and tusks are all potentially fatal to the tiger No other extant land predator routinely takes on prey this large on its own 19 106 With small prey such as monkeys and hares the tiger bites the nape often breaking the spinal cord piercing the windpipe or severing the jugular vein or common carotid artery 107 Rarely tigers have been observed to kill prey by swiping with their paws which are powerful enough to smash the skulls of domestic cattle 99 and break the backs of sloth bears 108 After killing their prey tigers sometimes drag it to conceal it in vegetation grasping with their mouths at the site of the killing bite This too can require great physical strength In one case after it had killed an adult gaur a tiger was observed to drag the massive carcass over a distance of 12 m 39 ft When 13 men simultaneously tried to drag the same carcass later they were unable to move it 87 An adult tiger can go for up to two weeks without eating then gorge on 34 kg 75 lb of flesh at one time In captivity adult tigers are fed 3 to 6 kg 6 6 to 13 2 lb of meat a day 87 Enemies and competitors nbsp An 1807 illustration of dholes attacking a tigerTigers usually prefer to eat self killed prey but eat carrion in times of scarcity and also steal prey from other large carnivores Although predators typically avoid one another if a prize is under dispute or a serious competitor is encountered displays of aggression are common If these fail the conflicts may turn violent tigers may kill or even prey on competitors such as leopards dholes striped hyenas wolves bears pythons and mugger crocodiles on occasion 28 108 109 110 111 Crocodiles bears and large packs of dholes may win conflicts with tigers and crocodiles and bears can even kill them 28 19 112 113 114 The considerably smaller leopard avoids competition from tigers by hunting at different times of the day and hunting different prey 115 In India s Nagarhole National Park most prey selected by leopards were from 30 to 175 kg 66 to 386 lb against a preference for heavier prey by tigers The average prey weight in the two respective big cats in India was 37 6 kg 83 lb against 91 5 kg 202 lb 116 117 With relatively abundant prey tigers and leopards were seen to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies dominance hierarchies that may be more common to the African savanna where the leopard lives beside the lion 116 Golden jackals may scavenge on tiger kills 118 Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while smaller predators like leopards and dholes are pushed closer to the fringes 119 Reproduction and life cycle Main article Life cycle of the tiger Tiger cub redirects here For other uses see Tiger Cub nbsp Tiger family in Kanha Tiger Reserve nbsp Tiger family in Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve The tiger mates all year round but most cubs are born between March and June with a second peak in September Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days with an average of 103 to 105 days A female is only receptive for three to six days 120 Mating is frequent and noisy during that time 50 The female gives birth in a sheltered location such as in tall grass in a dense thicket cave or rocky crevice The father generally takes no part in rearing 19 Litters consist of two or three cubs rarely as many as six Cubs weigh from 780 to 1 600 g 28 to 56 oz each at birth and are born with eyes closed They open their eyes when they are six to 14 days old 120 Their milk teeth break through at the age of about two weeks They start to eat meat at the age of eight weeks At around this time females usually shift them to a new den 50 They make short ventures with their mother although they do not travel with her as she roams her territory until they are older Females lactate for five to six months 120 Around the time they are weaned they start to accompany their mother on territorial walks and are taught how to hunt 85 A dominant cub emerges in most litters usually a male The dominant cub is more active than its siblings and takes the lead in their play eventually leaving its mother and becoming independent earlier 85 The cubs start hunting on their own earliest at the age of 11 months and become independent around 18 to 20 months of age 94 They separate from their mother at the age of two to two and a half years but continue to grow until the age of five years 50 Young females reach sexual maturity at three to four years whereas males at four to five years 19 Unrelated wandering male tigers often kill cubs to make the female receptive since the tigress may give birth to another litter within five months if the cubs of the previous litter are lost The mortality rate of tiger cubs is about 50 in the first two years Few other predators attack tiger cubs due to the diligence and ferocity of the mother Apart from humans and other tigers common causes of cub mortality are starvation freezing and accidents 106 Generation length of the tiger is about eight years 121 The oldest recorded captive tiger lived for 26 years 87 Occasionally male tigers participate in raising cubs usually their own but this is extremely rare and not always well understood In May 2015 Amur tigers were photographed by camera traps in the Sikhote Alin Nature Reserve The photos show a male Amur tiger pass by followed by a female and three cubs within the span of about two minutes 122 In Ranthambore a male Bengal tiger raised and defended two orphaned female cubs after their mother had died of illness The cubs remained under his care he supplied them with food protected them from his rival and sister and apparently also trained them 123 ConservationMain article Tiger conservation Further information 21st Century Tiger Global wild tiger population Country Year Estimate nbsp India 2023 3682 3925 124 125 nbsp Russia 2020 480 540 126 nbsp Indonesia 2016 400 600 127 nbsp Bangladesh 2014 300 500 1 nbsp Nepal 2022 355 128 nbsp Thailand 2023 189 129 nbsp Bhutan 2023 131 130 nbsp Malaysia 2022 lt 150 131 nbsp China 2018 55 132 nbsp Myanmar 2018 22 133 Total 5 764 6 467In the 1990s a new approach to tiger conservation was developed Tiger Conservation Units TCUs which are blocks of habitat that have the potential to host tiger populations in 15 habitat types within five bioregions Altogether 143 TCUs were identified and prioritized based on size and integrity of habitat poaching pressure and population status They range in size from 33 to 155 829 km2 13 to 60 166 sq mi 80 In 2016 an estimate of a global wild tiger population of approximately 3 890 individuals was presented during the Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation 134 135 The WWF subsequently declared that the world s count of wild tigers had risen for the first time in a century 136 Major threats to the tiger include habitat destruction habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts which have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild 1 In India only 11 of the historical tiger habitat remains due to habitat fragmentation 137 Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations 138 139 140 Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2 500 mature breeding individuals with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals 1 India is home to the world s largest population of wild tigers 134 A 2014 census estimated a population of 2 226 a 30 increase since 2011 141 On International Tiger Day 2019 the Tiger Estimation Report 2018 was released by Prime Minister Narendra Modi The report estimates a population of 2967 tigers in India with 25 increase since 2014 Modi said India is one of the safest habitats for tigers as it has achieved the target of doubling the tiger population from 1411 in 2011 to 2967 in 2019 142 As of 2022 India accounts for 75 percent of global tiger population 143 The Tiger Census of 2023 reports tiger population in India at 3167 144 In 1973 India s Project Tiger started by Indira Gandhi established numerous tiger reserves The project was credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from some 1 200 in 1973 to over 3 500 in the 1990s but a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back to about 1 400 tigers because of poaching 145 146 147 Following the report the Indian government pledged 153 million to the initiative set up measures to combat poaching promised funds to relocate up to 200 000 villagers in order to reduce human tiger interactions 148 and set up eight new tiger reserves in India 149 India also reintroduced tigers to the Sariska Tiger Reserve 150 and by 2009 it was claimed that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park 151 In the 1940s the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals remaining in the wild in Russia As a result anti poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet Union and a network of protected zones zapovedniks were instituted leading to a rise in the population to several hundred Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s when the economy of Russia collapsed The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory individual tigers require up to 450 km 280 mi needed by a single female and more for a single male 152 Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO s in concert with international organisations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife Conservation Society 153 The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats Tigers have less impact on ungulate populations than do wolves and are effective in controlling the latter s numbers 154 In 2005 there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia though these exhibited little genetic diversity 155 However in a decade later the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540 individuals 156 In China tigers became the target of large scale anti pest campaigns in the early 1950s where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas who hunted tigers and prey species Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977 the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in southern China since 2001 157 158 Having earlier rejected the Western led environmentalist movement China changed its stance in the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine 159 The Tibetan people s trade in tiger skins has also been a threat to tigers The pelts were used in clothing tiger skin chuba being worn as fashion In 2006 the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the issue Since then there has been a change of attitude with some Tibetans publicly burning their chubas 160 In 1994 the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra The Sumatran Tiger Project STP was initiated in June 1995 in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations 161 By August 1999 the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers 162 In the framework of the STP a community based conservation program was initiated to document the tiger human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions 163 The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers Forever with field sites including the world s largest tiger reserve the 21 756 km2 8 400 sq mi Hukaung Valley in Myanmar Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India Thailand Laos Cambodia the Russian Far East covering in total about 260 000 km2 100 000 sq mi 164 Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques Tiger population have been estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks although this method was criticized as being inaccurate 165 More recent techniques include the use of camera traps and studies of DNA from tiger scat while radio collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild 166 Tiger spray has been found to be just as good or better as a source of DNA than scat 167 Relationship with humansTiger hunting Main article Tiger hunting nbsp Tiger hunting on elephant back in India 1808The tiger has been one of the most sought after game animals of Asia Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early 19th and 20th centuries being a recognised and admired sport by the British in colonial India the maharajas and aristocratic class of the erstwhile princely states of pre independence India A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill over a hundred tigers in their hunting career 87 Over 80 000 tigers were slaughtered in just 50 years spanning from 1875 to 1925 in British ruled India 168 Tiger hunting was done by some hunters on foot others sat up on machans with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait yet others on elephant back 169 King George V on his visit to Colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days 170 One of these is on display at the Royal Albert Memorial Museum 171 Historically tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their famous striped skins could be collected The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s just before international conservation efforts took effect By 1977 a tiger skin in an English market was considered to be worth US 4 250 87 Body part use nbsp A hunting party poses with a killed Javan tiger 1941Tiger parts are commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia In the Philippines the fossils in Palawan were found besides stone tools This besides the evidence for cuts on the bones and the use of fire suggests that early humans had accumulated the bones 41 and the condition of the tiger subfossils dated to approximately 12 000 to 9 000 years ago differed from other fossils in the assemblage dated to the Upper Paleolithic The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering which suggests that they had post mortem been exposed to light and air Tiger canines were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th centuries in Butuan Mindanao 42 43 Many people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that various tiger parts have medicinal properties including as pain killers and aphrodisiacs 172 There is no scientific evidence to support these beliefs The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical drugs in China is already banned and the government has made some offences in connection with tiger poaching punishable by death which Furthermore all trade in tiger parts is illegal under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic trade ban has been in place in China since 1993 173 However the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major black market industry and governmental and conservation attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date 87 Almost all black marketers engaged in the trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within their own country or into Taiwan South Korea or Japan 87 The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s 87 Contributing to the illegal trade there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in breeding them for profit It is estimated that between 5 000 and 10 000 captive bred semi tame animals live in these farms today 174 175 176 However many tigers for traditional medicine black market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger s remaining range from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra In the Asian black market a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around 300 U S dollars In the years of 1990 through 1992 27 million products with tiger derivatives were found 87 In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva Switzerland a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China 177 Man eating tigers Main article Tiger attack Wild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans actively avoid interactions with them However tigers cause more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal 87 Attacks are occasionally provoked as tigers lash out after being injured while they themselves are hunted Attacks can be provoked accidentally as when a human surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and her young 178 or as in a case in rural India when a postman startled a tiger used to seeing him on foot by riding a bicycle 179 Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey Such attacks are most common in areas where population growth logging and farming have put pressure on tiger habitats and reduced their wild prey Most man eating tigers are old missing teeth and unable to capture their preferred prey 51 For example the Champawat Tiger a tigress found in Nepal and then India had two broken canines She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths the most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal by the time she was shot in 1907 by Jim Corbett 180 According to Corbett tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime when people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch 181 Early writings tend to describe man eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics 182 Man eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh especially in Kumaon Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal where some healthy tigers have hunted humans Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change tiger attacks have increased in the Sundarbans 183 The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from 1969 to 1971 In the 10 years prior to that period about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s 87 Unusually in some years in the Sundarbans more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa 87 In 1972 India s production of honey and beeswax dropped by 50 when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were devoured 87 In 1986 in the Sundarbans since tigers almost always attack from the rear masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily All other means to prevent attacks such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies did not work as well 184 In captivity nbsp Publicity photo of animal trainer Gunther Gebel Williams with several of his trained tigers c 1969In Ancient Roman times tigers were kept in menageries and amphitheatres to be exhibited trained and paraded and were often provoked to fight gladiators and other exotic beasts 185 186 Since the 17th century tigers being rare and ferocious were sought after to keep at European castles as symbols of their owners power Tigers became central zoo and circus exhibits in the 18th century a tiger could cost up to 4 000 francs in France for comparison a professor of the Beaux Arts at Lyons earned only 3 000 francs a year 187 or up to 3 500 in the United States where a lion cost no more than 1 000 188 In 2007 over 4 000 captive tigers lived in China of which 3 000 were held by about 20 larger facilities with the rest held by some 200 smaller facilities 189 In 2011 468 facilities in the USA kept 2 884 tigers 190 Nineteen US states banned private ownership of tigers fifteen require a license and sixteen states have no regulation 191 Genetic ancestry of 105 captive tigers from fourteen countries and regions showed that forty nine animals belonged distinctly to five subspecies fifty two animals had mixed subspecies origins 192 Many Siberian tigers in zoos today are actually the result of crosses with Bengal tigers 193 Cultural depictionsTigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for mankind since ancient times and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs They are also considered one of the charismatic megafauna and are used as the face of conservation campaigns worldwide In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet involving more than 50 000 viewers from 73 countries the tiger was voted the world s favourite animal with 21 of the vote narrowly beating the dog 194 Mythology and legend Further information Tiger in Chinese culture and Tiger in Korean culture See also Tiger worship nbsp Tiger shaped jie badge of authority with gold inlays from the tomb of Zhao MoIn Chinese mythology and culture the tiger is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac In Chinese art the tiger is depicted as an earth symbol and equal rival of the Chinese dragon the two representing matter and spirit respectively The Southern Chinese martial art Hung Ga is based on the movements of the tiger and the crane In Imperial China a tiger was the personification of war and often represented the highest army general or present day defense secretary 195 while the emperor and empress were represented by a dragon and phoenix respectively The White Tiger Chinese 白虎 pinyin Bai Hǔ is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West Chinese 西方白虎 and it represents the west and the autumn season 195 The tiger s tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea it being generally inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail 196 197 In Korean mythology and culture the tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck the symbol of courage and absolute power For the people who live in and around the forests of Korea the tiger considered the symbol of the Mountain Spirit or King of mountain animals So Koreans also called the tigers San Gun 산군 means Mountain Lord 198 In Buddhism the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures symbolising anger with the monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness 195 The Tungusic peoples considered the Siberian tiger a near deity and often referred to it as Grandfather or Old man The Udege and Nanai called it Amba The Manchu people considered the Siberian tiger as Hu Lin the king 57 In Hinduism the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin 199 The ten armed warrior goddess Durga rides the tigress or lioness Damon into battle In southern India the god Ayyappan was associated with a tiger 200 Dingu Aneni is the god in North East India is also associated with tiger 201 The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in Asia 202 in India they were evil sorcerers while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat more benign 203 In Taiwanese folk beliefs Aunt Tiger portrays the story of a tiger which turns into an old woman abducts children at night and devours them to satisfy her appetite 204 In Greco Roman tradition the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus 205 Literature and media See also Bengal tiger Literature nbsp Blake s original printing of The Tyger 1794In the Hindu epic Mahabharata the tiger is fiercer and more ruthless than the lion 206 William Blake s poem in his Songs of Experience 1794 titled The Tyger portrays the tiger as a menacing and fearful animal 207 In Rudyard Kipling s 1894 The Jungle Book the tiger Shere Khan is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli 207 Yann Martel s 2001 Booker Prize winning novel Life of Pi features the title character surviving shipwreck for months on a small boat with a large Bengal tiger while avoiding being eaten The story was adapted in Ang Lee s 2012 feature film of the same name 208 Friendly tiger characters include Tigger in A A Milne s Winnie the Pooh and Hobbes of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes both represented as stuffed animals come to life 209 Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg s breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes known for his catchphrase They re Gr r reat 210 Heraldry and emblems See also Tigers sports teams The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation The tiger was the emblem of the Chola Dynasty and was depicted on coins seals and banners 211 The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger the Pandyan emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger bow and some indistinct marks 212 The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence movement 213 The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and Bangladesh 214 The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of Malaysia 215 The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea citation needed The Tiger is featured on the logo of the Delhi Capitals IPL team In European heraldry the tyger a depiction of a tiger as imagined by European artists is among the creatures used in charges and supporters This creature has several notable differences from real tigers lacking stripes and having a leonine tufted tail and a head terminating in large pointed jaws A more realistic tiger entered the heraldic armory through the British Empire s expansion into Asia and is referred to as the Bengal tiger to distinguish it from its older counterpart The Bengal tiger is not a common creature in heraldry but is used as a supporter in the arms of Bombay and emblazoned on the shield of the University of Madras 216 nbsp A Young Tiger Playing with Its Mother nbsp The Tiger Hunt nbsp Tiger in the Snow nbsp Tiger in a Tropical Storm nbsp Tiger with a Tortoise nbsp Relief in Kuching Sarawak MalaysiaSee alsoSiegfried amp Roy two famous tamers of tigers List of largest cats Tiger King a 2020 crime documentary series on the exotic pet tradeReferences a b c d e f g Goodrich J Wibisono H Miquelle D Lynam A J Sanderson E Chapman S Gray T N E Chanchani P amp Harihar A 2022 Panthera tigris IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022 e T15955A214862019 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2022 1 RLTS T15955A214862019 en Retrieved 31 August 2022 a b c d Linnaeus C 1758 Felis tigris Caroli Linnaei Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis in Latin Vol Tomus I decima reformata ed Holmiae Laurentius Salvius p 41 Dinerstein E Loucks C Wikramanayake E Ginsberg J Sanderson E Seidensticker J Forrest J Bryja G Heydlauff A 2007 The Fate of Wild Tigers BioScience 57 6 508 514 doi 10 1641 B570608 S2CID 85748043 Ellerman J R Morrison Scott T C S 1951 Panthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946 London British Museum p 318 Brigida Danielle 11 September 2023 New Tiger Population Estimate World Wildlife Fund Retrieved 23 September 2023 Liddell H G amp Scott R 1940 tigris A Greek English Lexicon revised and augmented Oxford Clarendon Press Harper D 2001 2011 Tiger Online Etymology Dictionary Etymonline com Retrieved 6 April 2014 Harper D 2001 2011 Panther Online Etymology Dictionary Douglas Harper Retrieved 24 October 2011 Pocock R I 1929 Tigers Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 33 3 505 541 a b Pocock R I 1939 Panthera tigris The Fauna of British India Including Ceylon and Burma Mammalia Volume 1 London T Taylor and Francis Ltd pp 197 210 a b c Driscoll C A Yamaguchi N Bar Gal G K Roca A L Luo S MacDonald D W amp O Brien S J 2009 Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger PLOS ONE 4 1 e4125 Bibcode 2009PLoSO 4 4125D doi 10 1371 journal pone 0004125 PMC 2624500 PMID 19142238 a b Wozencraft W C 2005 Species Panthera tigris In Wilson D E Reeder D M eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press p 546 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 a b c Kitchener A 1999 Tiger distribution phenotypic variation and conservation issues In Seidensticker J Christie S Jackson P eds Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human Dominated Landscapes Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 19 39 ISBN 978 0521648356 a b Wilting A Courtiol A Christiansen P Niedballa J Scharf A K Orlando L Balkenhol N Hofer H Kramer Schadt S Fickel J amp Kitchener A C 2015 Planning tiger recovery Understanding intraspecific variation for effective conservation Science Advances 11 5 e1400175 Bibcode 2015SciA 1E0175W doi 10 1126 sciadv 1400175 PMC 4640610 PMID 26601191 a b Kupferschmidt K 2015 Controversial study claims there are only two types of tiger Science doi 10 1126 science aac6905 Retrieved 27 June 2015 a b c d Kitchener A C Breitenmoser Wursten C Eizirik E Gentry A Werdelin L Wilting A Yamaguchi N Abramov A V Christiansen P Driscoll C Duckworth J W Johnson W Luo S J Meijaard E O Donoghue P Sanderson J Seymour K Bruford M Groves C Hoffmann M Nowell K Timmons Z amp Tobe S 2017 A revised taxonomy of the Felidae The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group PDF Cat News Special Issue 11 66 68 Liu Y C Sun X Driscoll C Miquelle D G Xu X Martelli P Uphyrkina O Smith J L D O Brien S J amp Luo S J 2018 Genome wide evolutionary analysis of natural history and adaptation in the world s tigers Current Biology 28 23 3840 3849 doi 10 1016 j cub 2018 09 019 PMID 30482605 a b Illiger C 1815 Uberblick der Saugethiere nach ihrer Verteilung uber die Welttheile Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1804 1811 39 159 Archived from the original on 8 June 2019 Retrieved 7 May 2020 a b c d e f g h Heptner V G amp Sludskij A A 1992 1972 Tiger Mlekopitajuscie Sovetskogo Soiuza Moskva Vyssaia Skola Mammals of the Soviet Union Volume II Part 2 Carnivora Hyaenas and Cats Washington DC Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation pp 95 202 Jackson P amp Nowell K 2011 Panthera tigris ssp virgata IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2011 e T41505A10480967 a b c Temminck C J 1844 Apercu general et specifique sur les Mammiferes qui habitent le Japon et les Iles qui en dependent In Siebold P F v Temminck C J Schlegel H eds Fauna Japonica sive Descriptio animalium quae in itinere per Japoniam jussu et auspiciis superiorum qui summum in India Batava imperium tenent suscepto annis 1825 1830 collegit notis observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit Ph Fr de Siebold Leiden Lugduni Batavorum a b Hilzheimer M 1905 Uber einige Tigerschadel aus der Strassburger zoologischen Sammlung Zoologischer Anzeiger 28 594 599 a b c d e f g h i j k l Mazak V 1981 Panthera tigris Mammalian Species 152 1 8 doi 10 2307 3504004 JSTOR 3504004 a b Mazak V 1968 Nouvelle sous espece de tigre provenant de l Asie du sud est Mammalia 32 1 104 112 doi 10 1515 mamm 1968 32 1 104 S2CID 84054536 a b c Luo S J Kim J H Johnson W E van der Walt J Martenson J Yuhki N Miquelle D G Uphyrkina O Goodrich J M Quigley H B Tilson R Brady G Martelli P Subramaniam V McDougal C Hean S Huang S Q Pan W Karanth U K Sunquist M Smith J L D amp O Brien S J 2004 Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers Panthera tigris PLOS Biology 2 12 e442 doi 10 1371 journal pbio 0020442 PMC 534810 PMID 15583716 a b c d Mazak J H amp Groves C P 2006 A taxonomic revision of the tigers Panthera tigris PDF Mammalian Biology 71 5 268 287 doi 10 1016 j mambio 2006 02 007 Archived from the original PDF on 6 September 2007 a b Schwarz E 1912 Notes on Malay tigers with description of a new form from Bali Annals and Magazine of Natural History Series 8 Volume 10 57 324 326 doi 10 1080 00222931208693243 a b c Mazak V 2004 Der Tiger in German Westarp Wissenschaften Hohenwarsleben ISBN 978 3 89432 759 0 Mazak V Groves C P Van Bree P 1978 Skin and Skull of the Bali Tiger and a list of preserved specimens of Panthera tigris balica Schwarz 1912 Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 43 2 108 113 a b Pocock R I 1929 Tigers Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 33 505 541 Cracraft J Feinstein J Vaughn J amp Helm Bychowski K 1998 Sorting out tigers Panthera tigris mitochondrial sequences nuclear inserts systematics and conservation genetics PDF Animal Conservation 1 2 139 150 doi 10 1111 j 1469 1795 1998 tb00021 x S2CID 34186394 Johnson W E Eizirik E Pecon Slattery J Murphy W J Antunes A Teeling E O Brien S J 2006 The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae A genetic assessment Science 311 5757 73 77 Bibcode 2006Sci 311 73J doi 10 1126 science 1122277 PMID 16400146 S2CID 41672825 Davis B W Li G Murphy W J 2010 Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats Panthera Carnivora Felidae Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56 1 64 76 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2010 01 036 PMID 20138224 Tseng Z J Wang X Slater G J Takeuchi G T Li Q Liu J Xie G 2014 Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 281 1774 20132686 doi 10 1098 rspb 2013 2686 PMC 3843846 PMID 24225466 Mazak J H Christiansen P Kitchener A C 2011 Oldest Known Pantherine Skull and Evolution of the Tiger PLOS ONE 6 10 e25483 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 625483M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0025483 PMC 3189913 PMID 22016768 Hemmer H 1971 Fossil mammals of Java II Zur Fossilgeschichte des Tigers Panthera tigris L in Java Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen B 74 1 35 52 Hasegawa Y Tomida Y Kohno N Ono K Nokariya H Uyeno T 1988 Quaternary vertebrates from Shiriya area Shimokita Pininsula northeastern Japan Memoirs of the National Science Museum 21 17 36 a b Turner A Anton M 1997 The Big Cats and Their Fossil Relatives An Illustrated Guide to Their Evolution and Natural History Columbia University Press ISBN 978 0 231 10228 5 a b c Kitchener A amp Yamaguchi N 2010 What is a Tiger Biogeography Morphology and Taxonomy In Tilson R amp Nyhus P J eds Tigers of the World The Science Politics and Conservation ofPanthera tigris Second ed London Burlington Academic Press pp 53 84 ISBN 978 0 08 094751 8 Piper P J amp Rabett R J 2007 Confirmation of the presence of the tiger Panthera tigris L in Late Pleistocene and Holocene Borneo Malayan Nature Journal 59 3 259 267 a b Piper P J Ochoa J Lewis H Paz V Ronquillo W P 2008 The first evidence for the past presence of the tiger Panthera tigris L on the island of Palawan Philippines extinction in an island population Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 264 1 2 123 127 Bibcode 2008PPP 264 123P doi 10 1016 j palaeo 2008 04 003 a b Van der Geer A Lyras G De Vos J Dermitzakis M 2011 15 The Philippines 26 Carnivores Evolution of Island Mammals Adaptation and Extinction of Placental Mammals on Islands John Wiley amp Sons pp 220 347 ISBN 9781444391282 a b Ochoa J Piper P J 2017 Tiger In Monks G ed Climate Change and Human Responses A Zooarchaeological Perspective Springer pp 79 80 ISBN 978 9 4024 1106 5 Cooper D M Dugmore A J Gittings B M Scharf A K Wilting A Kitchener A C 2016 Predicted Pleistocene Holocene rangeshifts of the tiger Panthera tigris Diversity and Distributions 22 11 1 13 doi 10 1111 ddi 12484 Cho Y S Hu L Hou H Lee H Xu J Kwon S Oh S Kim H M Jho S Kim S Shin Y A Kim B C Kim H Kim C U Luo S J Johnson W E Koepfli K P Schmidt Kuntzel A Turner J A Marker L Harper C Miller S M Jacobs W Bertola L D Kim T H Lee S Zhou Q Jung H J Xu X amp Gadhvi P 2013 The tiger genome and comparative analysis with lion and snow leopard genomes Nature Communications 4 2433 Bibcode 2013NatCo 4 2433C doi 10 1038 ncomms3433 hdl 2263 32583 PMC 3778509 PMID 24045858 a b Actman Jani 24 February 2017 Cat Experts Ligers and Other Designer Hybrids Pointless and Unethical National Geographic com Archived from the original on 27 February 2017 Retrieved 27 August 2018 Markel S Leon D 2003 Sequence Analysis in a Nutshell a guide to common tools and databases PDF Sebastopol California O Reily ISBN 978 0 596 00494 1 Archived from the original PDF on 27 August 2018 Retrieved 26 August 2018 a b Genomic Imprinting Genetic Science Learning Center Utah org Retrieved 26 August 2018 Singh A 1985 Okapis and litigons in London and Calcutta New Scientist 1453 7 a b c d e Guggisberg C A W 1975 Tiger Panthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 Wild Cats of the World New York Taplinger Pub Co pp 180 215 ISBN 978 0 7950 0128 4 a b c d e f g Miquelle D 2001 Tiger In MacDonald D ed The Encyclopedia of Mammals Second ed Oxford University Press pp 18 21 ISBN 978 0 7607 1969 5 Godfrey D Lythgoe J N Rumball D A 1987 Zebra stripes and tiger stripes the spatial frequency distribution of the pattern compared to that of the background is significant in display and crypsis Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 32 4 427 433 doi 10 1111 j 1095 8312 1987 tb00442 x Allen W L Cuthill I C Scott Samuel N E Baddeley R 2010 Why the leopard got its spots relating pattern development to ecology in felids Proceedings of the Royal Society B 278 1710 1373 1380 doi 10 1098 rspb 2010 1734 PMC 3061134 PMID 20961899 Fennell J G Talas L Baddeley R J Cuthill I C amp Scott Samuel N E 2019 Optimizing colour for camouflage and visibility using deep learning the effects of the environment and the observer s visual system Journal of the Royal Society Interface 16 154 20190183 doi 10 1098 rsif 2019 0183 PMC 6544896 PMID 31138092 Langley L 2017 Do Zebras Have Stripes on Their Skin National Geographic Archived from the original on 5 March 2017 Leyhausen P 1979 Cat behavior the predatory and social behavior of domestic and wild cats Berlin Garland Publishing Incorporated p 281 ISBN 9780824070175 a b Matthiessen P Hornocker M 2008 Tigers in the Snow reprint ed Paw Prints ISBN 9781435296152 McNab B K 1971 On the ecological significance of Bergmann s rule Ecology 52 5 845 854 doi 10 2307 1936032 JSTOR 1936032 Karanth K U 2006 A View from the Machan How Science Can Save the Fragile Predator Delhi Orient Blackswan p 42 ISBN 978 81 7824 137 1 Turner C G Ovodov N D Pavlova O V 2013 Animal Teeth and Human Tools A Taphonomic Odyssey in Ice Age Siberia Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 378 ISBN 978 1 107 03029 9 Balakrishnan M 2016 Wildlife Ecology and Conservation 21st Century Biology and Agriculture Jodhpur Delhi Scientific Publishers p 139 ISBN 978 93 87307 70 4 Matthews P 1993 The Guinness book of records 1994 Reading Guinness Publishing p 28 ISBN 978 0 85112 512 1 Carwardine M 2008 Animal Records New York Sterling Publishing Company Inc p 41 ISBN 978 1 4027 5623 8 Nowell K Jackson P 1996 Wild Cats Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan PDF Gland Switzerland IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group p 56 ISBN 2 8317 0045 0 a b Xu X Dong G X Schmidt Kuntzel A Zhang X L Zhuang Y Fang R Sun X Hu X S Zhang T Y Yang H D Zhang D L Marker L Jiang Z F Li R Luo S J 2017 The genetics of tiger pelage color variations PDF Cell Research 27 7 954 957 doi 10 1038 cr 2017 32 PMC 5518981 PMID 28281538 Robinson R 1969 The white tigers of Rewa and gene homology in the Felidae Genetica 40 1 198 200 doi 10 1007 BF01787350 PMID 5806538 S2CID 40514283 Xu X Dong G X Hu X S Miao L Zhang X L Zhang D L Yang H D Zhang T Y Zou Z T Zhang T T Zhuang Y Bhak J Cho Y S Dai W T Jiang T J Xie C Li R Luo S J 2013 The Genetic Basis of White Tigers Current Biology 23 11 1031 5 doi 10 1016 j cub 2013 04 054 PMID 23707431 Gee E P 1959 Albinism and Partial Albinism in Tigers The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 56 581 587 Guillery R W Kaas J H 1973 Genetic abnormality of the visual pathways in a white tiger Science 180 4092 1287 1289 Bibcode 1973Sci 180 1287G doi 10 1126 science 180 4092 1287 PMID 4707916 S2CID 28568341 Begany L Criscuolo C L 2009 Accumulation of Deleterious Mutations Due to Inbreeding in Tiger Population PDF Archived from the original PDF on 10 May 2015 Xavier N 2010 A new conservation policy needed for reintroduction of Bengal tiger white Current Science 99 7 894 895 Archived from the original on 30 March 2014 Sagar V Kaelin C B Natesh M Reddy P A Mohapatra R K Chhattani H Thatte P Vaidyanathan S Biswas S Bhatt S amp Paul S 2021 High frequency of an otherwise rare phenotype in a small and isolated tiger population PNAS 118 39 e2025273118 Bibcode 2021PNAS 11825273S doi 10 1073 pnas 2025273118 PMC 8488692 PMID 34518374 Seidensticker J 1986 Large Carnivores and the Consequences of Habitat Insularization ecology and conservation of Tigers in Indonesia and Bangladesh PDF In Miller S D Everett D D eds Cats of the world biology conservation and management Washington DC National Wildlife Federation pp 1 41 a b Miquelle D G Smirnov E N Merrill T W Myslenkov A E Quigley H Hornocker M G Schleyer B 1999 Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey In Seidensticker J Christie S Jackson P eds Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human dominated Landscapes London Cambridge University Press pp 71 99 ISBN 978 0521648356 Sanderson E Forrest J Loucks C Ginsberg J Dinerstein E Seidensticker J Leimgruber P Songer M Heydlauff A O Brien T Bryja G Klenzendorf S Wikramanayake E 2006 Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers 2005 2015 The Technical Assessment PDF New York Washington DC WCS WWF Smithsonian and NFWF STF Archived from the original PDF on 18 January 2012 Retrieved 7 August 2019 a b c Sunquist M 2010 What is a Tiger Ecology and Behaviour In R Tilson P J Nyhus eds Tigers of the World The Science Politics and Conservation ofPanthera tigris Second ed London Burlington Academic Press p 19 34 ISBN 978 0 08 094751 8 Karanth K U Sunquist M E Chinnappa K M 1999 Long term monitoring of tigers lessons from Nagarahole In Seidensticker J Christie S Jackson P eds Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human dominated Landscapes London Cambridge University Press pp 114 122 ISBN 978 0521648356 Faizolahi K 2016 Tiger in Iran historical distribution extinction causes and feasibility of reintroduction Cat News Special Issue 10 5 13 Kerley L L Goodrich J M Miquelle D G Smirnov E N Quigley H G Hornocker M G 2003 Reproductive parameters of wild female Amur Siberian tigers Panthera tigris altaica Journal of Mammalogy 84 1 288 298 doi 10 1644 1545 1542 2003 084 lt 0288 RPOWFA gt 2 0 CO 2 JSTOR 1383657 a b Wikramanayake E D Dinerstein E Robinson J G Karanth K U Rabinowitz A Olson D Mathew T Hedao P Connor M Hemley G Bolze D 1999 Where can tigers live in the future A framework for identifying high priority areas for the conservation of tigers in the wild In Seidensticker J Christie S Jackson P eds Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human Dominated Landscape London Cambridge University Press pp 254 272 ISBN 978 0521648356 Jigme K amp Tharchen L 2012 Camera trap records of tigers at high altitudes in Bhutan Cat News 56 14 15 Adhikarimayum A S amp Gopi G V 2018 First photographic record of tiger presence at higher elevations of the Mishmi Hills in the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot Arunachal Pradesh India Journal of Threatened Taxa 10 13 12833 12836 doi 10 11609 jott 4381 10 13 12833 12836 Simcharoen S Pattanavibool A Karanth K U Nichols J D amp Kumar N S 2007 How many tigers Panthera tigris are there in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary Thailand An estimate using photographic capture 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of Central India PLOS ONE 8 11 e77980 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 877980J doi 10 1371 journal pone 0077980 PMC 3819329 PMID 24223132 Smith J L D 1993 The role of dispersal in structuring the Chitwan tiger population Behaviour 124 3 165 195 doi 10 1163 156853993X00560 McDougal Charles 1977 The Face of the Tiger London Rivington Books and Andre Deutsch pp 63 76 ISBN 9780233969466 a b c d Mills S 2004 Tiger London BBC Books p 89 ISBN 978 1 55297 949 5 Burger B V Viviers M Z Bekker J P I Roux M Fish N Fourie W B Weibchen G 2008 Chemical Characterization of Territorial Marking Fluid of Male Bengal Tiger Panthera tigris Journal of Chemical Ecology 34 5 659 671 doi 10 1007 s10886 008 9462 y hdl 10019 1 11220 PMID 18437496 S2CID 5558760 Smith J L David McDougal C Miquelle D 1989 Scent marking in free ranging tigers Panthera tigris Animal Behaviour 37 1 10 doi 10 1016 0003 3472 89 90001 8 S2CID 53149100 a b c d e f Schaller G 1967 The Deer and the Tiger A Study of Wildlife in India Chicago Chicago Press a b Thapar V 1989 Tiger Portrait of a Predator New York Smithmark ISBN 978 0 8160 1238 1 Sunquist M E amp Sunquist F 2002 Tiger Panthera tigris Wild Cats of the World Chicago University of Chicago Press p 356 ISBN 978 0 226 77999 7 Peters G Tonkin Leyhausen B A 1999 Evolution of Acoustic Communication Signals of Mammals Friendly Close Range Vocalizations in Felidae Carnivora Journal of Mammalian Evolution 6 2 129 159 doi 10 1023 A 1020620121416 S2CID 25252052 Hayward M W Jedrzejewski W Jedrzejewska B 2012 Prey preferences of the tiger Panthera tigris Journal of Zoology 286 3 221 231 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 2011 00871 x a b c Perry R 1965 The World of the Tiger p 260 Trouble for rhino from poacher and Bengal tiger The Telegraph 2008 Archived from the original on 27 September 2014 Retrieved 3 June 2014 Tiger kills elephant at Eravikulam park The New Indian Express 2009 Tiger kills adult rhino in Dudhwa Tiger Reserve The Hindu 2013 Karanth K U amp Nichols J D 1998 Estimation of tiger densities in India using photographic captures and recaptures PDF Ecology 79 8 2852 2862 doi 10 1890 0012 9658 1998 079 2852 EOTDII 2 0 CO 2 JSTOR 176521 Sankhala p 17 Hunter L 2011 Carnivores of the World Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 15228 8 a b Sunquist M Sunquist F 2002 Tiger Panthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 Wild Cats of the World Chicago University of Chicago Press pp 343 372 ISBN 978 0 22 677999 7 Sankhala p 23 a b Mills S 2004 Tiger Richmond Hill Ontario Firefly Books p 168 ISBN 978 1 55297 949 5 Sunquist F amp Sunquist M 2002 Tiger Moon University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 77997 3 Mills Gus Hofer Heribert 1998 Hyaenas status survey and conservation action plan IUCN SSC Hyena Specialist Group ISBN 2 8317 0442 1 Miquelle D G Stephens P A Smirnov E N Goodrich J M Zaumyslova O Yu amp Myslenkov A I 2005 Tigers and Wolves in the Russian Far East Competitive Exclusion Functional Redundancy and Conservation Implications In Large Carnivores and the Conservation of Biodiversity Ray J C Berger J Redford K H amp Steneck R eds New York Island Press pp 179 207 ISBN 1 55963 080 9 Goldsmith O 2010 A History of the Earth And Animated Nature Volume 2 Nabu Press p 297 ISBN 978 1 145 11108 0 Mills S 2004 Tiger Richmond Hill Firefly Books p 168 ISBN 978 1 55297 949 5 Pandit P K 2012 Sundarban Tiger a new prey species of estuarine crocodile at Sundarban Tiger Reserve India PDF Tigerpaper XXXIX 1 1 5 Sympatric Tiger and Leopard How two big cats coexist in the same area Archived from the original on 13 February 2008 Ecology info a b Karanth K U amp Sunquist M E 2000 Behavioural correlates of predation by tiger Panthera tigris leopard Panthera pardus and dhole Cuon alpinus in Nagarahole India Journal of Zoology 250 2 255 265 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 2000 tb01076 x Karanth K U amp Sunquist M E 1995 Prey Selection by Tiger Leopard and Dhole in Tropical Forests Journal of Animal Ecology 64 4 439 450 doi 10 2307 5647 JSTOR 5647 Sillero Zubiri C Hoffmann M and Macdonald D W eds 2004 Canids Foxes Wolves Jackals and Dogs Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan IUCN SSC Canid Specialist Group Gland Switzerland and Cambridge UK ISBN 2 8317 0786 2 Thinley P Rajaratnam R Lassoie J P Morreale S J Curtis P D Vernes K Leki Leki Phuntsho S Dorji T amp Dorji P 2018 The ecological benefit of tigers Panthera tigris to farmers in reducing crop and livestock losses in the eastern Himalayas Implications for conservation of large apex predators Biological Conservation 219 119 125 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2018 08 007 a b c Sankhala K S 1967 Breeding behaviour of the tiger Panthera tigris in Rajasthan International Zoo Yearbook 7 1 133 147 doi 10 1111 j 1748 1090 1967 tb00354 x Pacifici M Santini L Di Marco M Baisero D Francucci L Grottolo Marasini G Visconti P amp Rondinini C 2013 Generation length for mammals Nature Conservation 5 87 94 Wildlife Conservation Society 2015 Tiger dad Rare family portrait of Amur tigers the first ever to include an adult male ScienceDaily T 25 Dollar The Famous Tiger of Ranthambore Ranthambore National Park India s tiger population rises Madhya Pradesh has most big cats The Hindu 29 July 2023 ISSN 0971 751X Retrieved 7 August 2023 India s tiger population reaches 3925 31 July 2023 Russia announces tiger census results Sumatran Tiger DNPWC amp DFSC 2022 Status of Tigers and Prey in Nepal 2022 PDF Report Kathmandu Nepal Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation amp Department of Forests and Soil Conservation Ministry of Forests and Environment Thailand s Wild Tigers Have Doubled Since 2014 Bhutan s roaring success in tiger conservation steals the spotlight numbers register a huge jump South Asia News www wionews com Retrieved 7 August 2023 Status Of Malayan Tigers Qi J Gu J Ning Y Miquelle D G Holyoak M Wen D Liang X Liu S Roberts N Yang E Lang J Wang F Li C Liang Z Liu P Ren Y Zhou S Zhang M Ma J Chang J amp Jiang G 2021 Integrated assessments call for establishing a sustainable meta population 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ISBN 978 0 08 094751 8 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link van Uhm D P 2016 The Illegal Wildlife Trade Inside the World of Poachers Smugglers and Traders Studies of Organized Crime New York Springer Traditional Chinese Medicine World Wildlife Foundation Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 Retrieved 3 March 2012 Jacobs A 2010 Tiger Farms in China Feed Thirst for Parts The New York Times Burke Jason 20 January 2015 India s tiger population increases by almost a third The Guardian Retrieved 3 May 2015 International Tiger Day 2019 PM Modi Releases Report India counts 2967 Tigers Jagran Josh 2019 Archived from the original on 29 July 2019 India almost doubled its tiger population says Minister on International Tiger Day News on AIR 29 July 2022 Retrieved 3 August 2022 Tiger census India now has 3 167 tigers numbers show BBC News 10 April 2023 Retrieved 21 April 2023 Front Page Over half of tigers lost in 5 years census The Hindu 13 February 2008 Archived from the original on 20 February 2008 Retrieved 10 June 2010 Foster P 2007 Why the tiger s future is far from bright The Telegraph Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 Retrieved 19 September 2018 Tiger Reserves ENVIS Centre on Wildlife amp Protected Areas Retrieved 19 September 2018 Page J 2008 Tigers flown by helicopter to Sariska reserve to lift numbers in western India The Times London Retrieved 25 May 2010 India reports sharp decline in wild tigers National Geographic 2008 Archived from the original on 19 February 2008 Retrieved 10 June 2010 It s the tale of a tiger two tigresses in wilds of Sariska EconomicTimes 2009 Retrieved 10 June 2010 Tigers galore in Ranthambhore National Park The Hindu 2009 Archived from the original on 11 March 2009 Retrieved 10 June 2010 Goodrich J M Miquelle D G Smirnov E M Kerley L L Quigley H B Hornocker M G 2010 Spatial structure of Amur Siberian tigers Panthera tigris altaica on Sikhote Alin 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and Entanglements of Sovereignty The Tiger Campaign Across the Himalayas Political Geography 31 7 408 418 doi 10 1016 j polgeo 2012 06 003 Animal Skin Clothes Burned in Tibet After Dalai Lamas Call The Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama 17 February 2006 Archived from the original on 30 October 2010 Retrieved 4 December 2010 Franklin N Bastoni Sriyanto Siswomartono D Manansang J and R Tilson 1999 Last of the Indonesian tigers a cause for optimism pp 130 147 in Seidensticker J Christie S and Jackson P eds Riding the tiger tiger conservation in human dominated landscapes Cambridge University Press Cambridge ISBN 0 521 64835 1 Tilson R 1999 Sumatran Tiger Project Report No 17 amp 18 July December 1999 Grant number 1998 0093 059 Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Steering Committee Jakarta Nyhus P Sumianto and R Tilson 1999 The tiger human dimension in southeast Sumatra pp 144 145 in Seidensticker J Christie S and Jackson P eds Riding the tiger tiger conservation in human dominated landscapes Cambridge University Press Cambridge ISBN 0 521 64835 1 Rabinowitz A 2009 Stop the bleeding implementing a strategic Tiger Conservation Protocol PDF Cat News 51 30 31 ISSN 1027 2992 Archived from the original PDF on 9 November 2012 Karanth K U Nichols J D Seidensticker J Dinerstein E Smith J L D McDougal C Johnsingh A J T Chundawat R S 2003 Science deficiency in conservation practice the monitoring of tiger populations in India PDF Animal Conservation 6 2 141 146 doi 10 1017 S1367943003003184 S2CID 55280343 Gopalaswamy A M Royle J A Delampady M Nichols J D Karanth K U Macdonald D W 2012 Density estimation in tiger populations combining information for strong inference Ecology 93 7 1741 1751 doi 10 1890 11 2110 1 JSTOR 23225238 PMID 22919919 Caragiulo A Pickles R S A Smith J A Smith O Goodrich J Amato G 2015 Tiger Panthera tigris scent DNA a valuable conservation tool for individual identification and population monitoring Conservation Genetics Resources 7 3 681 683 doi 10 1007 s12686 015 0476 9 Mahesh Rangarajan 2005 India s Wildlife History An Introduction New Delhi Permanent Black p 32 ISBN 8178241404 Retrieved 3 August 2022 Kothari A S Chhapgar B S Chhapgar B F eds 2005 The Manpoora Tiger about a Tiger Hunt in Rajpootanah The Treasures of Indian Wildlife Mumbai Bombay Natural History Society pp 22 27 ISBN 0195677285 Lodh S 2020 Portrayal of Hunting in Environmental History of India Altralang Journal 2 02 199 doi 10 52919 altralang v2i02 84 S2CID 238134573 Mitra R 2018 Shooting Tigers in Early 20th Century India Retrieved 1 August 2022 Harding Andrew 23 September 2006 Beijing s penis emporium BBC News Retrieved 7 March 2009 Nowell K 2007 Asian big cat conservation and trade control in selected range States evaluating implementation and effectiveness of CITES Recommendations PDF TRAFFIC International Retrieved 3 April 2014 Chinese tiger farms must be investigated WWF 24 April 2007 Archived from the original on 5 July 2007 Retrieved 7 March 2009 WWF Breeding tigers for trade soundly rejected at CITES Panda org 13 June 2007 Archived from the original on 17 March 2008 Retrieved 7 March 2009 Jackson Patrick 29 January 2010 Tigers and other farmyard animals BBC News Retrieved 29 January 2010 Conservationists shocked by Chinese admission of tiger skin selling Shanghai Sun Archived from the original on 14 July 2014 Retrieved 12 July 2014 Singh Kesri 1959 The tiger of Rajasthan Hale Byrne Peter 2002 Shikari Sahib Pilgrims Publishing pp 291 292 ISBN 978 81 7769 183 2 Wood G 1983 The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats Guinness Superlatives ISBN 978 0 85112 235 9 Corbett J 1944 Man Eaters of Kumaon Bombay Oxford University Press The Man Eater of Segur from Nine Man Eaters and One Rogue Kenneth Anderson Allen amp Unwin 1954 Climate change linked to Indian tiger attacks Environmental News Network 20 October 2008 Retrieved 27 October 2008 Montgomery Sy 2009 Spell of the Tiger The Man Eaters of Sundarbans Chelsea Green Publishing pp 37 38 ISBN 978 0 395 64169 9 Auguet Roland 1994 Cruelty and civilization the Roman games Psychology Press pp 83 85 ISBN 978 0 415 10453 1 Baker William 1988 Sports in the Western World University of Illinois Press p 33 ISBN 978 0 252 06042 7 Baratay Eric 2004 Zoo A History of Zoological Gardens in the West Reaktion Books p 19 ISBN 978 1 86189 208 9 Ruppel Louis ed 17 March 1951 Unknown Collier s Vol 127 no 11 Crowell Collier Publishing Company p 61 Nowell K amp Ling X 2007 Taming the tiger trade China s markets for wild and captive tiger products since the 1993 domestic trade ban PDF Hong Kong TRAFFIC East Asia Archived from the original PDF on 17 January 2012 Wildlife Watch Group 2011 Less than 3 000 Pet Tigers in America Wildlife Times 5 37 12 13 Summary of State Laws Relating to Private Possession of Exotic Animals Born Free USA Retrieved 12 December 2010 Luo S Johnson W E Martenson J Antunes A Martelli P Uphyrkina O Traylor Holzer K Smith J L D O Brien S J 2008 Subspecies Genetic Assignments of Worldwide Captive Tigers Increase Conservation Value of Captive Populations Current Biology 18 8 592 596 doi 10 1016 j cub 2008 03 053 PMID 18424146 S2CID 16594083 Sanderson J Moulton M 1998 Wildlife Issues in a Changing World 2 ed CRC Press p 133 ISBN 978 1 4398 3262 2 Endangered tiger earns its stripes as the world s most popular beast The Independent 6 December 2004 Archived from the original on 20 January 2008 Retrieved 7 March 2009 a b c Cooper J C 1992 Symbolic and Mythological Animals London Aquarian Press pp 161 162 ISBN 978 1 85538 118 6 Tiger s Tail Cultural China Archived from the original on 29 March 2014 Retrieved 29 March 2014 Chan eung Par 1999 A Tiger by the tail and other Stories from the heart of Korea Libraries Unlimited Standard Korean Language Dictionary Sivkishen 2014 Kingdom of Shiva New Delhi Diamond Pocket Books Pvt Ltd p 301 Balambal V 1997 19 Religion Identity Human Values Indian Context Bioethics in India Proceedings of the International Bioethics Workshop in Madras Biomanagement of Biogeoresources 16 19 January 1997 Eubios Ethics Institute Retrieved 8 October 2007 Nanditha K 2010 Sacred Animals Of India Penguin Books India ISBN 978 8184751826 Retrieved 5 August 2022 Summers M 1933 The Werewolf in Lore and Legend 2012 ed Mineola Dover Publications p 21 ISBN 978 0 517 18093 8 Newman P 2012 Tracking the Weretiger Supernatural Man Eaters of India China and Southeast Asia McFarland pp 96 102 ISBN 978 0 7864 7218 5 Hulick J 2009 Review of Auntie Tiger Bulletin of the Center for Children s Books 62 6 267 doi 10 1353 bcc 0 0662 S2CID 144937417 Dunbabin K M D 1999 Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 32 44 ISBN 978 0 521 00230 1 Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa SECTION LXVIII The Mahabharata Translated by Ganguli K M Retrieved 15 June 2016 via Internet Sacred Text Archive a b Green S 2006 Tiger Reaktion Books pp 72 73 125 27 ISBN 978 1861892768 Castelli Jean Christopher 2012 The Making of Life of Pi A Film a Journey Harper Collins ISBN 978 0062114136 Kuznets L R 1994 When Toys Come Alive Narratives of Animation Metamorphosis and Development Yale University Press p 54 ISBN 978 0300056457 Gifford C 2005 Advertising amp Marketing Developing the Marketplace Heinemann Raintree Library pp 34 35 ISBN 978 1403476517 Hermann Kulke K Kesavapany Vijay Sakhuja 2009 Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia Institute of Southeast Asian Studies p 84 Singh U 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Pearson Education India Daya Somasundaram 11 February 2014 Scarred Communities Psychosocial Impact of Man made and Natural Disasters on Sri Lankan Society SAGE Publications India p 73 National Animal Government of India Official website Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 DiPiazza F 2006 Malaysia in Pictures Twenty First Century Books p 14 ISBN 978 0 8225 2674 2 Fox Davies Arthur 1909 A Complete Guide to Heraldry London T C and E C Jack pp 191 192 Further readingMarshall A 2010 Tale of the Cat Time Archived from the original on 26 February 2010 Millward A 2020 Indian tiger study earns its stripes as one of the world s largest wildlife surveys Guinness World Records Limited Mohan V 2015 India s tiger population increases by 30 in past three years country now has 2 226 tigers The Times of India Porter J H 1894 The Tiger Wild beasts a study of the characters and habits of the elephant lion leopard panther jaguar tiger puma wolf and grizzly bear New York C Scribner s sons pp 196 256 Sankhala K 1997 Indian Tiger New Delhi Roli Books Pvt Limited ISBN 978 81 7437 088 4 Schnitzler A Hermann L 2019 Chronological distribution of the tiger Panthera tigris and the Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica in their common range in Asia Mammal Review 49 4 340 353 doi 10 1111 mam 12166 S2CID 202040786 Yonzon P 2010 Is this the last chance to save the tiger The Kathmandu Post Archived from the original on 9 November 2012 External links nbsp Media related to Panthera tigris category at Wikimedia Commons nbsp Data related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies nbsp Quotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote nbsp Tigers travel guide from Wikivoyage Tiger Panthera tigris IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group Portals nbsp Cats nbsp Mammals nbsp Animals nbsp Biology nbsp Asia Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tiger amp oldid 1193264728, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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