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Saṃsāra

Saṃsāra (Devanagari: संसार) is a Pali/Sanskrit word that means "world".[1][2] It is also the concept of rebirth and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence", a fundamental belief of most Indian religions.[3][4][5] Popularly, it is the cycle of death and rebirth.[2][3][6] Saṃsāra is sometimes referred to with terms or phrases such as transmigration/reincarnation, karmic cycle, or Punarjanman, and "cycle of aimless drifting, wandering or mundane existence".[2][3][7]

Bhavachakra describing the cycle of saṃsāra: illustrated in the wheel are six realms of existence in which a sentient being can reincarnate, according to the rebirth doctrine of Buddhism. Yama, the god of death, is at the top of the outer rim. The outer rim shows the Twelve Nidānas doctrine.

The concept of saṃsāra has roots in the post-Vedic literature; the theory is not discussed in the Vedas themselves.[8][9] It appears in developed form, but without mechanistic details, in the early Upanishads.[3][10][11] The full exposition of the saṃsāra doctrine is found in Śramaṇic movements such as early Buddhism and Jainism, as well as various schools of Hindu philosophy after about the mid-1st millennium BCE.[3][11][12] The saṃsāra doctrine is tied to the karma theory of Hinduism, and the liberation from saṃsāra has been at the core of the spiritual quest of Indian traditions, as well as their internal disagreements.[3][13][14] The liberation from saṃsāra is called Moksha, Nirvāṇa, Mukti, or Kaivalya.[3][7][15][16]

Etymology and terminology

Saṃsāra (Devanagari: संसार) means "wandering",[2][17] as well as "world" wherein the term connotes "cyclic change".[1] saṃsāra, a fundamental concept in all Indian religions, is linked to the karma theory and refers to the belief that all living beings cyclically go through births and rebirths. The term is related to phrases such as "the cycle of successive existence", "transmigration", "karmic cycle", "the wheel of life", and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence".[2][6][18] Many scholarly texts spell saṃsāra as samsara.[6][19]

According to Monier-Williams, saṃsāra is rooted in the term Saṃsṛ (संसृ), which means "to go round, revolve, pass through a succession of states, to go towards or obtain, moving in a circuit".[20] A conceptual form from this root appears in ancient texts as saṃsaraṇa, which means "going around through a succession of states, birth, rebirth of living beings and the world", without obstruction.[20] The term shortens to saṃsāra, referring to the same concept, as a "passage through successive states of mundane existence", a transmigration, metempsychosis, a circuit of living where one repeats previous states, from one body to another, a worldly life of constant change, that is rebirth, growth, decay and redeath.[7][20][21] The concept is then contrasted with the concept of moksha, also known as mukti, nirvāṇa, nibbāna or kaivalya, which refers to liberation from this cycle of aimless wandering.[7][20]

The concept of saṃsāra developed in the post-Vedic times, and is traceable in the Samhita layers such as in sections 1.164, 4.55, 6.70 and 10.14 of the Rigveda.[10][22][23] While the idea is mentioned in the Samhita layers of the Vedas, there is lack of clear exposition there, and the idea fully develops in the early Upanishads.[24][25] Damien Keown states that the notion of "cyclic birth and death" appears around 800 BC.[26] The word saṃsāra appears, along with Moksha, in several Principal Upanishads such as in verse 1.3.7 of the Katha Upanishad,[27] verse 6.16 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad,[28] verses 1.4 and 6.34 of the Maitri Upanishad.[29][30]

The word saṃsāra is related to Saṃsṛti, the latter referring to the "course of mundane existence, transmigration, flow, circuit or stream".[20]

Definition and rationale

The word literally means "wandering through, flowing on", states Stephen J. Laumakis, in the sense of "aimless and directionless wandering".[31] The concept of saṃsāra is closely associated with the belief that the person continues to be born and reborn in various realms and forms.[32]

The earliest layers of Vedic text incorporate the concept of life, followed by an afterlife in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues (merit) or vices (demerit).[33] However, the ancient Vedic Rishis challenged this idea of afterlife as simplistic, because people do not live an equally moral or immoral life. Between generally virtuous lives, some are more virtuous; while evil too has degrees, and the texts assert that it would be unfair for god Yama to judge and reward people with varying degrees of virtue or vices, in an "either or,” and disproportionate manner.[34][35][36] They introduced the idea of an afterlife in heaven or hell in proportion to one's merit, and when this runs out, one returns and is reborn.[34][12][37] This idea appears in ancient and medieval texts, as the cycle of life, death, rebirth and redeath, such as section 6:31 of the Mahabharata and section 6.10 of Devi Bhagavata Purana.[34][18][22]

History

The historical origins of a concept of a cycle of repeated reincarnation or Punarjanman are obscure but the idea appears in texts of both India and ancient Greece during the first millennium BC.[38][39]

The idea of saṃsāra is hinted in the late Vedic texts such as the Rigveda, but the theory is absent.[10][40] According to Sayers, the earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha (offering food to the ancestors). The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation, they show little concern with ancestor rites, and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals, although the idea is not fully developed yet.[24] It is in the early Upanishads where these ideas are more fully developed, but there too the discussion does not provide specific mechanistic details.[24] The detailed doctrines flower with unique characteristics, starting around the mid 1st millennium BC, in diverse traditions such as in Buddhism, Jainism and various schools of Hindu philosophy.[11]

[41][42][43] The evidence for who influenced whom in the ancient times, is slim and speculative, and the odds are the historic development of the Saṃsāra theories likely happened in parallel with mutual influences.[44]

Punarmrityu: redeath

While saṃsāra is usually described as rebirth and reincarnation (Punarjanman) of living beings (Jiva), the chronological development of the idea over its history began with the questions on what is the true nature of human existence and whether people die only once. This led first to the concepts of Punarmṛtyu ("redeath") and Punaravṛtti ("return").[21][45][46] These early theories asserted that the nature of human existence involves two realities, one unchanging absolute Atman (Self) which is somehow connected to the ultimate unchanging immortal reality and bliss called Brahman,[47][48] and that the rest is the always-changing subject (body) in a phenomenal world (Maya).[49][50][51] Redeath, in the Vedic theosophical speculations, reflected the end of "blissful years spent in svarga or heaven", and it was followed by rebirth back in the phenomenal world.[52] Saṃsāra developed into a foundational theory of the nature of existence, shared by all Indian religions.[53]

Rebirth as a human being, states John Bowker, was then presented as a "rare opportunity to break the sequence of rebirth, thus attaining Moksha, release".[48] Each Indian spiritual tradition developed its own assumptions and paths (marga or yoga) for this spiritual release,[48] with some developing the ideas of Jivanmukti (liberation and freedom in this life),[54][55][56] while others content with Videhamukti (liberation and freedom in after-life).[57][58]

The First Truth

The first truth, suffering (Pali: dukkha; Sanskrit: duhkha),
is characteristic of existence in the realm of rebirth,
called samsara (literally “wandering”).

Four Noble Truths, Donald Lopez[59][60]

The Sramanas traditions (Buddhism and Jainism) added novel ideas, starting about the 6th century BC.[61] They emphasized human suffering in the larger context, placing rebirth, redeath and truth of pain at the center and the start of religious life.[62] Saṃsāra was viewed by the Sramanas as a beginningless cyclical process with each birth and death as punctuations in that process,[62] and spiritual liberation as freedom from rebirth and redeath.[63] The saṃsāric rebirth and redeath ideas are discussed in these religions with various terms, such as Āgatigati in many early Pali Suttas of Buddhism.[64]

Evolution of ideas

Across different religions, different soteriology were emphasized as the saṃsāra theories evolved in respective Indian traditions.[14] For example, in their saṃsāra theories, states Obeyesekere, the Hindu traditions accepted Ātman or Self exists and asserted it to be the unchanging essence of each living being, while Buddhist traditions denied such a soul exists and developed the concept of Anattā.[53][14][65] Salvation (moksha, mukti) in the Hindu traditions was described using the concepts of Ātman (self) and Brahman (universal reality),[66] while in Buddhism it (nirvāṇa, nibbāna) was described through the concept of Anattā (no self) and Śūnyatā (emptiness).[67][68][69]

The Ajivika tradition combined saṃsāra with the premise that there is no free will, while the Jainism tradition accepted the concept of soul (calling it "jiva") with free will, but emphasized asceticism and cessation of action as a means of liberation from saṃsāra it calls bondage.[70][71] The various sub-traditions of Hinduism, and of Buddhism, accepted free will, avoided asceticism, accepted renunciation and monastic life, and developed their own ideas on liberation through realization of the true nature of existence.[72]

In Hinduism

 
 
Liberation/release from saṃsāra, called moksha, is considered the ultimate spiritual goal in Hinduism, but its traditions disagree on how to reach this state of eternal bliss.
Left: Loving devotion (Bhakti) is recommended in dualistic (Dvaita) Hindu traditions.
Right: Meditation (Dhyāna) is recommended in nondualistic (Advaita) Hindu traditions.

In Hinduism, saṃsāra is a journey of the Ātman.[73] The body dies, assert the Hindu traditions, but not the Ātman, which it assumes to be the eternal reality, indestructible, and bliss.[73] Everything and all existence is connected, cyclical, and composed of two things: the Self, or Ātman, and the body, or matter.[19] This eternal Self called Ātman never reincarnates, it does not change and cannot change in the Hindu belief.[19] In contrast, the body and personality, can change, constantly changes, is born and dies.[19] Current karma impacts the future circumstances in this life, as well as the future forms and realms of lives.[74][75] Good intent and actions lead to good future, bad intent and actions lead to bad future, in the Hindu view of life.[76] The journey of samsara allows the atman the opportunity to perform positive or negative karmas throughout each birth and make spiritual efforts to attain moksha.[77]

A virtuous life, actions consistent with dharma, are believed by Hindus to contribute to a better future, whether in this life or future lives.[78] The aim of spiritual pursuits, whether it be through the path of bhakti (devotion), karma (work), jñāna (knowledge), or raja (meditation) is self-liberation (moksha) from saṃsāra.[78][79]

The Upanishads, part of the scriptures of the Hindu traditions, primarily focus on self-liberation from saṃsāra.[80][81][82] The Bhagavad Gita discusses various paths to liberation.[73] The Upanishads, states Harold Coward, offer a "very optimistic view regarding the perfectibility of human nature", and the goal of human effort in these texts is a continuous journey to self-perfection and self-knowledge so as to end saṃsāra.[83] The aim of spiritual quest in the Upanishadic traditions is to find the true self within and to know one's Self, a state that it believes leads to blissful state of freedom, moksha.[84]

Differences within the Hindu traditions

All Hindu traditions and Darśanas share the concept of saṃsāra, but they differ in details and what they describe the state of liberation from saṃsāra to be.[85] The saṃsāra is viewed as the cycle of rebirth in a temporal world of always changing reality or Maya (appearance, illusive), Brahman is defined as that which never changes or Sat (eternal truth, reality), and moksha as the realization of Brahman and freedom from saṃsāra.[66][86][87]

The dualistic devotional traditions such as Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a theistic premise, assert the individual human Self and Brahman (Vishnu, Krishna) are two different realities, loving devotion to Vishnu is the means to release from saṃsāra, it is the grace of Vishnu which leads to moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable only in after-life (videhamukti).[88] The nondualistic traditions such as Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a monistic premise, asserting that the individual Atman and Brahman are identical, and only ignorance, impulsiveness and inertia leads to suffering through saṃsāra. In reality they are no dualities, meditation and self-knowledge is the path to liberation, the realization that one's Ātman is identical to Brahman is moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable in this life (jivanmukti).[69][89]

In Jainism

 
Symbolic depiction of saṃsāra at Shri Mahaveerji temple of Jainism.

In Jainism, the saṃsāra and karma doctrine are central to its theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their pioneering ideas on karma and saṃsāra from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition.[90][91] Saṃsāra in Jainism represents the worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence.[92][91][93]

The conceptual framework of the saṃsāra doctrine differs between the Jainism traditions and other Indian religions. For instance, in Jaina traditions, soul (jiva) is accepted as a truth, as is assumed in the Hindu traditions, but not assumed in the Buddhist traditions. However, saṃsāra or the cycle of rebirths, has a definite beginning and end in Jainism.[94]

Souls begin their journey in a primordial state, and exist in a state of consciousness continuum that is constantly evolving through saṃsāra.[95] Some evolve to a higher state, while some regress, a movement that is driven by karma.[96] Further, Jaina traditions believe that there exist Ābhāvya (incapable), or a class of souls that can never attain moksha (liberation).[94][97] The Ābhāvya state of soul is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.[98] Jainism considers souls as pluralistic each in a karma-saṃsāra cycle, and does not subscribe to Advaita style nondualism of Hinduism, or Advaya style nondualism of Buddhism.[97]

The Jaina theosophy, like ancient Ajivika, but unlike Hindu and Buddhist theosophies, asserts that each soul passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations, as they circle through saṃsāra.[99][100] As the soul cycles, states Padmanabh Jaini, Jainism traditions believe that it goes through five types of bodies: earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives.[101] With all human and non-human activities, such as rainfall, agriculture, eating and even breathing, minuscule living beings are taking birth or dying, their souls are believed to be constantly changing bodies. Perturbing, harming or killing any life form, including any human being, is considered a sin in Jainism, with negative karmic effects.[102][93]

A liberated soul in Jainism is one who has gone beyond saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, remains there eternally, and is known as a Siddha.[103] A male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through asceticism. Women must gain karmic merit, to be reborn as man, and only then can they achieve spiritual liberation in Jainism, particularly in the Digambara sect of Jainism;[104][105] however, this view has been historically debated within Jainism and different Jaina sects have expressed different views, particularly the Shvetambara sect that believes that women too can achieve liberation from saṃsāra.[105][106]

In contrast to Buddhist texts which do not expressly or unambiguously condemn injuring or killing plants and minor life forms, Jaina texts do. Jainism considers it a bad karma to injure plants and minor life forms with negative impact on a soul's saṃsāra.[107] However, some texts in Buddhism and Hinduism do caution a person from injuring all life forms, including plants and seeds.[107][108][109]

In Buddhism

 
Traditional Tibetan thangka showing the bhavacakra and six realms of saṃsāra in Buddhist cosmology.[110]

Saṃsāra in Buddhism, states Jeff Wilson, is the "suffering-laden cycle of life, death, and rebirth, without beginning or end".[111] Also referred to as the wheel of existence (Bhavacakra), it is often mentioned in Buddhist texts with the term punarbhava (rebirth, re-becoming); the liberation from this cycle of existence, Nirvāṇa, is the foundation and the most important purpose of Buddhism.[111][112][113]

Saṃsāra is considered permanent in Buddhism, just like other Indian religions. Karma drives this permanent saṃsāra in Buddhist thought, states Paul Williams, and "short of attaining enlightenment, in each rebirth one is born and dies, to be reborn elsewhere in accordance with the completely impersonal causal nature of one's own karma; This endless cycle of birth, rebirth, and redeath is saṃsāra".[114] The Four Noble Truths, accepted by all Buddhist traditions, are aimed at ending this saṃsāra-related re-becoming (rebirth) and associated cycles of suffering.[115][116][117]

Like Jainism, Buddhism developed its own saṃsāra theory, that evolved over time the mechanistic details on how the wheel of mundane existence works over the endless cycles of rebirth and redeath.[118][119] In early Buddhist traditions, saṃsāra cosmology consisted of five realms through which wheel of existence recycled.[111] This included hells (niraya), hungry ghosts (pretas), animals (tiryak), humans (manushya), and gods (devas, heavenly).[111][118][120] In latter traditions, this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth, adding demi-gods (asuras),which were included in gods realm in earlier traditions.[111][121] The "hungry ghost, heavenly, hellish realms" respectively formulate the ritual, literary and moral spheres of many contemporary Buddhist traditions.[111][118]

The saṃsāra concept, in Buddhism, envisions that these six realms are interconnected, and everyone cycles life after life, and death is just a state for an afterlife, through these realms, because of a combination of ignorance, desires and purposeful karma, or ethical and unethical actions.[111][118] Nirvāṇa is typically described as the freedom from rebirth and the only alternative to suffering of saṃsāra, in Buddhism.[122][123] However, the Buddhist texts developed a more comprehensive theory of rebirth, states Steven Collins, from fears of redeath, called amata (death-free), a state which is considered synonymous with Nirvāṇa.[122][124]

In Sikhism

Sikhism incorporates the concepts of saṃsāra (sometimes spelled as Saṅsāra in Sikh texts), karma and cyclical nature of time and existence.[125][126] Founded in the 15th century, its founder Guru Nanak incorporated the cyclical concept of ancient Indian religions and the cyclical concept of time, state Cole and Sambhi.[126][127] However, states Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair, there are important differences between the Saṅsāra concept in Sikhism from the saṃsāra concept in many traditions within Hinduism.[125] The difference is that Sikhism firmly believes in the grace of God as the means to salvation, and its precepts encourage the bhakti of One Lord for mukti (salvation).[125][128]

Sikhism, like the three ancient Indian traditions, believes that body is perishable, there is a cycle of rebirth, and that there is suffering with each cycle of rebirth.[125][129] These features of Sikhism, along with its belief in Saṅsāra and the grace of God, is similar to some bhakti-oriented sub-traditions within Hinduism such as those found in Vaishnavism.[130][131] Sikhism does not believe that ascetic life, as recommended in Jainism, is the path to liberation. Rather, it cherishes social engagement and householder's life combined with devotion to the One God as Guru, to be the path of liberation from saṅsāra.[132]

See also

References

Citations

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General and cited sources

  • John Geeverghese Arapura (1986). Hermeneutical Essays on Vedāntic Topics. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0183-7.
  • Buitenen, J. A. B. Van (1957). "Dharma and Moksa". Philosophy East and West. 7 (1/2): 33–40. doi:10.2307/1396832. JSTOR 1396832.
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  • Robert Buswell Jr.; Donald Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
  • Harold Coward (2008). The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought: The Central Story. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7336-8.
  • Harold Coward (2012). Religious Understandings of a Good Death in Hospice Palliative Care. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-4275-4.
  • Dalal, Roshen (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
  • Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5.
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  • Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002). Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6.
  • Jessica Frazier; Gavin Flood (2011). The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0.
  • Gethin, Rupert (1998). Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192892232.
  • Jaini, Padmanabh (1980). Doniger, Wendy (ed.). Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
  • Jaini, Padmanabh S., ed. (2000). Collected Papers On Jaina Studies (First ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1691-6.
  • Mark Juergensmeyer; Wade Clark Roof (2011). Encyclopedia of Global Religion. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-6656-5.
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  • Obeyesekere, Gananath (1980). Wendy Doniger (ed.). Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0.
  • Obeyesekere, Gananath (2005). Wendy Doniger (ed.). Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-8120826090.
  • Sethia, Tara (2004), Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-2036-4
  • Williams, Paul (2002). Buddhist Thought. Routledge. ISBN 0-415207010.
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External links

  • Reincarnation: A Simple Explanation
  • The Wheel of Life, C. George Boeree, Shippensburg University
  • The difference between Samsara and Nirvana, Minnesota State University, Mankato
  • Saṃsāra and Rebirth, Buddhism, Oxford Bibliographies

saṃsāra, sansara, redirects, here, genus, moth, sansara, moth, other, uses, samsara, disambiguation, devanagari, pali, sanskrit, word, that, means, world, also, concept, rebirth, cyclicality, life, matter, existence, fundamental, belief, most, indian, religion. Sansara redirects here For the genus of moth see Sansara moth For other uses see Samsara disambiguation Saṃsara Devanagari स स र is a Pali Sanskrit word that means world 1 2 It is also the concept of rebirth and cyclicality of all life matter existence a fundamental belief of most Indian religions 3 4 5 Popularly it is the cycle of death and rebirth 2 3 6 Saṃsara is sometimes referred to with terms or phrases such as transmigration reincarnation karmic cycle or Punarjanman and cycle of aimless drifting wandering or mundane existence 2 3 7 Bhavachakra describing the cycle of saṃsara illustrated in the wheel are six realms of existence in which a sentient being can reincarnate according to the rebirth doctrine of Buddhism Yama the god of death is at the top of the outer rim The outer rim shows the Twelve Nidanas doctrine The concept of saṃsara has roots in the post Vedic literature the theory is not discussed in the Vedas themselves 8 9 It appears in developed form but without mechanistic details in the early Upanishads 3 10 11 The full exposition of the saṃsara doctrine is found in Sramaṇic movements such as early Buddhism and Jainism as well as various schools of Hindu philosophy after about the mid 1st millennium BCE 3 11 12 The saṃsara doctrine is tied to the karma theory of Hinduism and the liberation from saṃsara has been at the core of the spiritual quest of Indian traditions as well as their internal disagreements 3 13 14 The liberation from saṃsara is called Moksha Nirvaṇa Mukti or Kaivalya 3 7 15 16 Contents 1 Etymology and terminology 2 Definition and rationale 3 History 3 1 Punarmrityu redeath 3 2 Evolution of ideas 4 In Hinduism 4 1 Differences within the Hindu traditions 5 In Jainism 6 In Buddhism 7 In Sikhism 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 General and cited sources 10 External linksEtymology and terminology EditSaṃsara Devanagari स स र means wandering 2 17 as well as world wherein the term connotes cyclic change 1 saṃsara a fundamental concept in all Indian religions is linked to the karma theory and refers to the belief that all living beings cyclically go through births and rebirths The term is related to phrases such as the cycle of successive existence transmigration karmic cycle the wheel of life and cyclicality of all life matter existence 2 6 18 Many scholarly texts spell saṃsara as samsara 6 19 According to Monier Williams saṃsara is rooted in the term Saṃsṛ स स which means to go round revolve pass through a succession of states to go towards or obtain moving in a circuit 20 A conceptual form from this root appears in ancient texts as saṃsaraṇa which means going around through a succession of states birth rebirth of living beings and the world without obstruction 20 The term shortens to saṃsara referring to the same concept as a passage through successive states of mundane existence a transmigration metempsychosis a circuit of living where one repeats previous states from one body to another a worldly life of constant change that is rebirth growth decay and redeath 7 20 21 The concept is then contrasted with the concept of moksha also known as mukti nirvaṇa nibbana or kaivalya which refers to liberation from this cycle of aimless wandering 7 20 The concept of saṃsara developed in the post Vedic times and is traceable in the Samhita layers such as in sections 1 164 4 55 6 70 and 10 14 of the Rigveda 10 22 23 While the idea is mentioned in the Samhita layers of the Vedas there is lack of clear exposition there and the idea fully develops in the early Upanishads 24 25 Damien Keown states that the notion of cyclic birth and death appears around 800 BC 26 The word saṃsara appears along with Moksha in several Principal Upanishads such as in verse 1 3 7 of the Katha Upanishad 27 verse 6 16 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad 28 verses 1 4 and 6 34 of the Maitri Upanishad 29 30 The word saṃsara is related to Saṃsṛti the latter referring to the course of mundane existence transmigration flow circuit or stream 20 Definition and rationale EditThe word literally means wandering through flowing on states Stephen J Laumakis in the sense of aimless and directionless wandering 31 The concept of saṃsara is closely associated with the belief that the person continues to be born and reborn in various realms and forms 32 The earliest layers of Vedic text incorporate the concept of life followed by an afterlife in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues merit or vices demerit 33 However the ancient Vedic Rishis challenged this idea of afterlife as simplistic because people do not live an equally moral or immoral life Between generally virtuous lives some are more virtuous while evil too has degrees and the texts assert that it would be unfair for god Yama to judge and reward people with varying degrees of virtue or vices in an either or and disproportionate manner 34 35 36 They introduced the idea of an afterlife in heaven or hell in proportion to one s merit and when this runs out one returns and is reborn 34 12 37 This idea appears in ancient and medieval texts as the cycle of life death rebirth and redeath such as section 6 31 of the Mahabharata and section 6 10 of Devi Bhagavata Purana 34 18 22 History EditThe historical origins of a concept of a cycle of repeated reincarnation or Punarjanman are obscure but the idea appears in texts of both India and ancient Greece during the first millennium BC 38 39 The idea of saṃsara is hinted in the late Vedic texts such as the Rigveda but the theory is absent 10 40 According to Sayers the earliest layers of the Vedic literature show ancestor worship and rites such as sraddha offering food to the ancestors The later Vedic texts such as the Aranyakas and the Upanisads show a different soteriology based on reincarnation they show little concern with ancestor rites and they begin to philosophically interpret the earlier rituals although the idea is not fully developed yet 24 It is in the early Upanishads where these ideas are more fully developed but there too the discussion does not provide specific mechanistic details 24 The detailed doctrines flower with unique characteristics starting around the mid 1st millennium BC in diverse traditions such as in Buddhism Jainism and various schools of Hindu philosophy 11 41 42 43 The evidence for who influenced whom in the ancient times is slim and speculative and the odds are the historic development of the Saṃsara theories likely happened in parallel with mutual influences 44 Punarmrityu redeath Edit While saṃsara is usually described as rebirth and reincarnation Punarjanman of living beings Jiva the chronological development of the idea over its history began with the questions on what is the true nature of human existence and whether people die only once This led first to the concepts of Punarmṛtyu redeath and Punaravṛtti return 21 45 46 These early theories asserted that the nature of human existence involves two realities one unchanging absolute Atman Self which is somehow connected to the ultimate unchanging immortal reality and bliss called Brahman 47 48 and that the rest is the always changing subject body in a phenomenal world Maya 49 50 51 Redeath in the Vedic theosophical speculations reflected the end of blissful years spent in svarga or heaven and it was followed by rebirth back in the phenomenal world 52 Saṃsara developed into a foundational theory of the nature of existence shared by all Indian religions 53 Rebirth as a human being states John Bowker was then presented as a rare opportunity to break the sequence of rebirth thus attaining Moksha release 48 Each Indian spiritual tradition developed its own assumptions and paths marga or yoga for this spiritual release 48 with some developing the ideas of Jivanmukti liberation and freedom in this life 54 55 56 while others content with Videhamukti liberation and freedom in after life 57 58 The First Truth The first truth suffering Pali dukkha Sanskrit duhkha is characteristic of existence in the realm of rebirth called samsara literally wandering Four Noble Truths Donald Lopez 59 60 The Sramanas traditions Buddhism and Jainism added novel ideas starting about the 6th century BC 61 They emphasized human suffering in the larger context placing rebirth redeath and truth of pain at the center and the start of religious life 62 Saṃsara was viewed by the Sramanas as a beginningless cyclical process with each birth and death as punctuations in that process 62 and spiritual liberation as freedom from rebirth and redeath 63 The saṃsaric rebirth and redeath ideas are discussed in these religions with various terms such as Agatigati in many early Pali Suttas of Buddhism 64 Evolution of ideas Edit Across different religions different soteriology were emphasized as the saṃsara theories evolved in respective Indian traditions 14 For example in their saṃsara theories states Obeyesekere the Hindu traditions accepted Atman or Self exists and asserted it to be the unchanging essence of each living being while Buddhist traditions denied such a soul exists and developed the concept of Anatta 53 14 65 Salvation moksha mukti in the Hindu traditions was described using the concepts of Atman self and Brahman universal reality 66 while in Buddhism it nirvaṇa nibbana was described through the concept of Anatta no self and Sunyata emptiness 67 68 69 The Ajivika tradition combined saṃsara with the premise that there is no free will while the Jainism tradition accepted the concept of soul calling it jiva with free will but emphasized asceticism and cessation of action as a means of liberation from saṃsara it calls bondage 70 71 The various sub traditions of Hinduism and of Buddhism accepted free will avoided asceticism accepted renunciation and monastic life and developed their own ideas on liberation through realization of the true nature of existence 72 In Hinduism Edit Liberation release from saṃsara called moksha is considered the ultimate spiritual goal in Hinduism but its traditions disagree on how to reach this state of eternal bliss Left Loving devotion Bhakti is recommended in dualistic Dvaita Hindu traditions Right Meditation Dhyana is recommended in nondualistic Advaita Hindu traditions In Hinduism saṃsara is a journey of the Atman 73 The body dies assert the Hindu traditions but not the Atman which it assumes to be the eternal reality indestructible and bliss 73 Everything and all existence is connected cyclical and composed of two things the Self or Atman and the body or matter 19 This eternal Self called Atman never reincarnates it does not change and cannot change in the Hindu belief 19 In contrast the body and personality can change constantly changes is born and dies 19 Current karma impacts the future circumstances in this life as well as the future forms and realms of lives 74 75 Good intent and actions lead to good future bad intent and actions lead to bad future in the Hindu view of life 76 The journey of samsara allows the atman the opportunity to perform positive or negative karmas throughout each birth and make spiritual efforts to attain moksha 77 A virtuous life actions consistent with dharma are believed by Hindus to contribute to a better future whether in this life or future lives 78 The aim of spiritual pursuits whether it be through the path of bhakti devotion karma work jnana knowledge or raja meditation is self liberation moksha from saṃsara 78 79 The Upanishads part of the scriptures of the Hindu traditions primarily focus on self liberation from saṃsara 80 81 82 The Bhagavad Gita discusses various paths to liberation 73 The Upanishads states Harold Coward offer a very optimistic view regarding the perfectibility of human nature and the goal of human effort in these texts is a continuous journey to self perfection and self knowledge so as to end saṃsara 83 The aim of spiritual quest in the Upanishadic traditions is to find the true self within and to know one s Self a state that it believes leads to blissful state of freedom moksha 84 Differences within the Hindu traditions Edit All Hindu traditions and Darsanas share the concept of saṃsara but they differ in details and what they describe the state of liberation from saṃsara to be 85 The saṃsara is viewed as the cycle of rebirth in a temporal world of always changing reality or Maya appearance illusive Brahman is defined as that which never changes or Sat eternal truth reality and moksha as the realization of Brahman and freedom from saṃsara 66 86 87 The dualistic devotional traditions such as Madhvacharya s Dvaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a theistic premise assert the individual human Self and Brahman Vishnu Krishna are two different realities loving devotion to Vishnu is the means to release from saṃsara it is the grace of Vishnu which leads to moksha and spiritual liberation is achievable only in after life videhamukti 88 The nondualistic traditions such as Adi Shankara s Advaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a monistic premise asserting that the individual Atman and Brahman are identical and only ignorance impulsiveness and inertia leads to suffering through saṃsara In reality they are no dualities meditation and self knowledge is the path to liberation the realization that one s Atman is identical to Brahman is moksha and spiritual liberation is achievable in this life jivanmukti 69 89 In Jainism EditMain articles Saṃsara Jainism and Karma in Jainism Symbolic depiction of saṃsara at Shri Mahaveerji temple of Jainism In Jainism the saṃsara and karma doctrine are central to its theological foundations as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism and their pioneering ideas on karma and saṃsara from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition 90 91 Saṃsara in Jainism represents the worldly life characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence 92 91 93 The conceptual framework of the saṃsara doctrine differs between the Jainism traditions and other Indian religions For instance in Jaina traditions soul jiva is accepted as a truth as is assumed in the Hindu traditions but not assumed in the Buddhist traditions However saṃsara or the cycle of rebirths has a definite beginning and end in Jainism 94 Souls begin their journey in a primordial state and exist in a state of consciousness continuum that is constantly evolving through saṃsara 95 Some evolve to a higher state while some regress a movement that is driven by karma 96 Further Jaina traditions believe that there exist Abhavya incapable or a class of souls that can never attain moksha liberation 94 97 The Abhavya state of soul is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act 98 Jainism considers souls as pluralistic each in a karma saṃsara cycle and does not subscribe to Advaita style nondualism of Hinduism or Advaya style nondualism of Buddhism 97 The Jaina theosophy like ancient Ajivika but unlike Hindu and Buddhist theosophies asserts that each soul passes through 8 400 000 birth situations as they circle through saṃsara 99 100 As the soul cycles states Padmanabh Jaini Jainism traditions believe that it goes through five types of bodies earth bodies water bodies fire bodies air bodies and vegetable lives 101 With all human and non human activities such as rainfall agriculture eating and even breathing minuscule living beings are taking birth or dying their souls are believed to be constantly changing bodies Perturbing harming or killing any life form including any human being is considered a sin in Jainism with negative karmic effects 102 93 A liberated soul in Jainism is one who has gone beyond saṃsara is at the apex is omniscient remains there eternally and is known as a Siddha 103 A male human being is considered closest to the apex with the potential to achieve liberation particularly through asceticism Women must gain karmic merit to be reborn as man and only then can they achieve spiritual liberation in Jainism particularly in the Digambara sect of Jainism 104 105 however this view has been historically debated within Jainism and different Jaina sects have expressed different views particularly the Shvetambara sect that believes that women too can achieve liberation from saṃsara 105 106 In contrast to Buddhist texts which do not expressly or unambiguously condemn injuring or killing plants and minor life forms Jaina texts do Jainism considers it a bad karma to injure plants and minor life forms with negative impact on a soul s saṃsara 107 However some texts in Buddhism and Hinduism do caution a person from injuring all life forms including plants and seeds 107 108 109 In Buddhism Edit Traditional Tibetan thangka showing the bhavacakra and six realms of saṃsara in Buddhist cosmology 110 Main articles Saṃsara Buddhism Bhavacakra and Six realms Saṃsara in Buddhism states Jeff Wilson is the suffering laden cycle of life death and rebirth without beginning or end 111 Also referred to as the wheel of existence Bhavacakra it is often mentioned in Buddhist texts with the term punarbhava rebirth re becoming the liberation from this cycle of existence Nirvaṇa is the foundation and the most important purpose of Buddhism 111 112 113 Saṃsara is considered permanent in Buddhism just like other Indian religions Karma drives this permanent saṃsara in Buddhist thought states Paul Williams and short of attaining enlightenment in each rebirth one is born and dies to be reborn elsewhere in accordance with the completely impersonal causal nature of one s own karma This endless cycle of birth rebirth and redeath is saṃsara 114 The Four Noble Truths accepted by all Buddhist traditions are aimed at ending this saṃsara related re becoming rebirth and associated cycles of suffering 115 116 117 Like Jainism Buddhism developed its own saṃsara theory that evolved over time the mechanistic details on how the wheel of mundane existence works over the endless cycles of rebirth and redeath 118 119 In early Buddhist traditions saṃsara cosmology consisted of five realms through which wheel of existence recycled 111 This included hells niraya hungry ghosts pretas animals tiryak humans manushya and gods devas heavenly 111 118 120 In latter traditions this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth adding demi gods asuras which were included in gods realm in earlier traditions 111 121 The hungry ghost heavenly hellish realms respectively formulate the ritual literary and moral spheres of many contemporary Buddhist traditions 111 118 The saṃsara concept in Buddhism envisions that these six realms are interconnected and everyone cycles life after life and death is just a state for an afterlife through these realms because of a combination of ignorance desires and purposeful karma or ethical and unethical actions 111 118 Nirvaṇa is typically described as the freedom from rebirth and the only alternative to suffering of saṃsara in Buddhism 122 123 However the Buddhist texts developed a more comprehensive theory of rebirth states Steven Collins from fears of redeath called amata death free a state which is considered synonymous with Nirvaṇa 122 124 In Sikhism EditSikhism incorporates the concepts of saṃsara sometimes spelled as Saṅsara in Sikh texts karma and cyclical nature of time and existence 125 126 Founded in the 15th century its founder Guru Nanak incorporated the cyclical concept of ancient Indian religions and the cyclical concept of time state Cole and Sambhi 126 127 However states Arvind Pal Singh Mandair there are important differences between the Saṅsara concept in Sikhism from the saṃsara concept in many traditions within Hinduism 125 The difference is that Sikhism firmly believes in the grace of God as the means to salvation and its precepts encourage the bhakti of One Lord for mukti salvation 125 128 Sikhism like the three ancient Indian traditions believes that body is perishable there is a cycle of rebirth and that there is suffering with each cycle of rebirth 125 129 These features of Sikhism along with its belief in Saṅsara and the grace of God is similar to some bhakti oriented sub traditions within Hinduism such as those found in Vaishnavism 130 131 Sikhism does not believe that ascetic life as recommended in Jainism is the path to liberation Rather it cherishes social engagement and householder s life combined with devotion to the One God as Guru to be the path of liberation from saṅsara 132 See also EditRebirth Buddhism ResurrectionReferences EditCitations Edit a b Klaus Klostermaier 2010 p 604 a b c d e Mark Juergensmeyer amp Wade Clark Roof 2011 pp 271 72 a b c d e f g Bodewitz Henk 2019 Chapter 1 The Hindu Doctrine of Transmigration Its Origin and Background In Heilijgers Dory H Houben Jan E M van Kooij Karel eds Vedic Cosmology and Ethics Selected Studies Gonda Indological Studies Vol 19 Leiden and Boston Brill Publishers pp 3 19 doi 10 1163 9789004400139 002 ISBN 978 90 04 40013 9 ISSN 1382 3442 Yadav Garima 2018 Abortion Hinduism Hinduism and Tribal Religions Encyclopedia of Indian Religions Springer Netherlands pp 1 3 doi 10 1007 978 94 024 1036 5 484 1 ISBN 978 9402410365 Flood Gavin D 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press a b c Rita M Gross 1993 Buddhism After Patriarchy A Feminist History Analysis and Reconstruction of Buddhism State University of New York Press pp 148 ISBN 978 1 4384 0513 1 a b c d Shirley Firth 1997 Dying Death and Bereavement in a British Hindu Community Peeters Publishers pp 106 29 43 ISBN 978 90 6831 976 7 A M Boyer Etude sur l origine de la doctrine du samsara Journal Asiatique 1901 Volume 9 Issue 18 S 451 53 459 68 Yuvraj Krishan Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1997 ISBN 978 81 208 1233 8 a b c A M Boyer 1901 Etude sur l origine de la doctrine du samsara Journal Asiatique Volume 9 Issue 18 pp 451 53 459 68 a b c Stephen J Laumakis 2008 pp 90 99 a b Yuvraj Krishan 1997 The Doctrine of Karma Its Origin and Development in Brahmaṇical Buddhist and Jaina Traditions Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan pp 17 27 ISBN 978 81 208 1233 8 Obeyesekere 2005 pp 1 2 108 126 28 a b c Mark Juergensmeyer amp Wade Clark Roof 2011 pp 272 73 Michael Myers 2013 p 36 Harold Coward 2008 p 103 Lochtefeld 2002 p 589 a b Yuvraj Krishan 1988 Is Karma Evolutionary Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research Volume 6 pp 24 26 a b c d Jeaneane D Fowler 1997 p 10 a b c d e Monier Monier Williams 1923 A Sanskrit English Dictionary Oxford University Press pp 1040 41 a b Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press pp 268 69 ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 a b Louis de La Vallee Poussin 1917 The way to Nirvana six lectures on ancient Buddhism as a discipline of salvation Cambridge University Press pp 24 29 Yuvraj Krishan 1997 The Doctrine of Karma Its Origin and Development in Brahmaṇical Buddhist and Jaina Traditions Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan pp 11 15 ISBN 978 81 208 1233 8 a b c Stephen J Laumakis 2008 p 90 Dalal 2010 pp 344 356 57 Damien Keown 2004 p 248 Katha Upanishad प रथम ध य य त त यवल ल Archived 8 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Wikisource Shvetashvatara Upanishad षष ठ अध य य Archived 26 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine Wikisource Maitri Upanishad Archived 21 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine Wikisource Quote ३ च त तम व ह स स रम तत प रयत न न श धय त GA Jacob 1963 A concordance to the Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita Motilal Banarsidass pp 947 48 Stephen J Laumakis 2008 p 97 Goa David J Coward Harold G 21 August 2014 Hinduism The Canadian Encyclopedia Archived from the original on 27 February 2014 Retrieved 31 July 2015 James Hastings John Alexander Selbie Louis Herbert Gray 1922 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics T amp T Clark pp 616 18 ISBN 9780567065124 a b c Jessica Frazier amp Gavin Flood 2011 pp 84 86 Kusum P Merh 1996 Yama the Glorious Lord of the Other World Penguin pp 213 15 ISBN 978 81 246 0066 5 Anita Raina Thapan 2006 The Penguin Swami Chinmyananda Reader Penguin Books pp 84 90 ISBN 978 0 14 400062 3 Patrul Rinpoche Dalai Lama 1998 The Words of My Perfect Teacher A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism Rowman Altamira pp 95 96 ISBN 978 0 7619 9027 7 Norman C McClelland 2010 Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma McFarland pp 102 03 ISBN 978 0 7864 5675 8 Clifton D Bryant Dennis L Peck 2009 Encyclopedia of Death and the Human Experience SAGE Publications pp 841 46 ISBN 978 1 4522 6616 9 Vallee Pussin 1917 The way to Nirvana six lectures on ancient Buddhism as a discipline of salvation Cambridge University Press pp 24 25 Gavin D Flood 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521438780 p 86 Quote The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahmanical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions Yet on the other hand although there is no clear doctrine of transmigration in the vedic hymns there is the idea of redeath that a person having died in this world might die yet again in the next Padmanabh S Jaini 2001 Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 1776 1 p 51 Quote Yajnavalkya s reluctance to discuss the doctrine of karma in public can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was like that of the transmigration of Atman of non brahmanical origin In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures it is highly probable that it was derived from them Govind Chandra Pande 1994 Life and Thought of Sankaracarya Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 81 208 1104 6 p 135 Quote They Sramanas could have been connected with the Harappan Civilization which is itself enigmatic It seems that some Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with this kind sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideas of Karma Samsara and Moksa into the traditional Vedic thought Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press pp xvii xviii ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 Quote There was such constant interaction between Vedism and Buddhism in the early period that it is fruitless to attempt to sort out the earlier source of many doctrines they lived in one another s pockets like Picasso and Braque who were in later years unable to say which of them had painted certain paintings from their earlier shared period Buitenen 1957 pp 34 35 Mircea Eliade 1987 pp 56 57 Jessica Frazier amp Gavin Flood 2011 p 18 a b c John Bowker 2014 pp 84 85 Jessica Frazier amp Gavin Flood 2011 pp 18 19 24 25 Harold Coward 2012 pp 29 31 John Geeverghese Arapura 1986 pp 85 88 Robert S Ellwood Gregory D Alles 2007 The Encyclopedia of World Religions Infobase Publishing pp 406 07 ISBN 978 1 4381 1038 7 a b Obeyesekere 1980 pp 139 40 Klaus Klostermaier Mokṣa and Critical Theory Philosophy East and West Vol 35 No 1 Jan 1985 pp 61 71 Norman E Thomas April 1988 Liberation for Life A Hindu Liberation Philosophy Missiology Volume 16 Number 2 pp 149 60 Gerhard Oberhammer 1994 La Delivrance des cette vie Jivanmukti College de France Publications de l Institut de Civilisation Indienne Serie in 8 Fasc 61 Edition Diffusion de Boccard Paris ISBN 978 2868030610 pp 1 9 M von Bruck 1986 Imitation or Identification Indian Theological Studies Vol 23 Issue 2 pp 95 105 Paul Deussen The philosophy of the Upanishads p 356 at Google Books pp 356 57 Four Noble Truths Buddhist philosophy Archived 22 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Donald Lopez Encyclopaedia Britannica Robert E Buswell Jr Donald S Lopez Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press pp 304 05 ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 Michael Myers 2013 p 79 a b Michael Myers 2013 pp 79 80 Paul Williams Anthony Tribe 2000 Buddhist Thought A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition Routledge pp 18 19 chapter 1 ISBN 0 415207002 Thomas William Rhys Davids William Stede 1921 Pali English Dictionary Motilal Banarsidass pp 94 95 Entry for Agati ISBN 978 81 208 1144 7 a Anatta Archived 10 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013 Quote Anatta in Buddhism the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent underlying soul The concept of anatta or anatman is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman the self b Steven Collins 1994 Religion and Practical Reason Editors Frank Reynolds David Tracy State Univ of New York Press ISBN 978 0791422175 p 64 Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not self Pali anatta Sanskrit anatman the opposed doctrine of atman is central to Brahmanical thought Put very briefly this is the Buddhist doctrine that human beings have no soul no self no unchanging essence c Edward Roer Translator Shankara s Introduction p 2 at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad pp 2 4 d Katie Javanaud 2013 Is The Buddhist No Self Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana Archived 6 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Philosophy Now e David Loy 1982 Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same International Philosophical Quarterly Volume 23 Issue 1 pp 65 74 f KN Jayatilleke 2010 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge ISBN 978 8120806191 pp 246 49 from note 385 onwards a b Moksha Archived 25 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine Georgetown University Stephen J Laumakis 2008 pp 68 70 125 28 149 53 168 76 Masao Abe Steven Heine 1995 Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue University of Hawaii Press pp 7 8 73 78 ISBN 978 0 8248 1752 7 a b Loy David 1982 Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same International Philosophical Quarterly 22 1 65 74 doi 10 5840 ipq19822217 Padmanabh S Jaini George L Jart III 1980 Wendy Doniger ed Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press pp 131 33 228 29 ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 Christopher Partridge 2013 Introduction to World Religions Fortress Press pp 245 46 ISBN 978 0 8006 9970 3 George L Jart III 1980 Wendy Doniger ed Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press pp 131 33 ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 a b c Mark Juergensmeyer amp Wade Clark Roof 2011 p 272 Mukul Goel 2008 Devotional Hinduism Creating Impressions for God iUniverse p 6 ISBN 978 0 595 50524 1 Christopher Chapple 1986 Karma and creativity State University of New York Press ISBN 0 88706 251 2 pp 60 64 Jeaneane D Fowler 1997 p 11 Mishra R C 2013 Moksha and the Hindu World View SAGE Publications pp 22 24 a b Flood Gavin 24 August 2009 Hindu concepts BBC Online BBC Archived from the original on 11 April 2014 Retrieved 31 July 2015 George D Chryssides Benjamin E Zeller 2014 The Bloomsbury Companion to New Religious Movements Bloomsbury Academic p 333 ISBN 978 1 4411 9829 7 Jeaneane D Fowler 1997 pp 111 12 Yong Choon Kim David H Freeman 1981 Oriental Thought An Introduction to the Philosophical and Religious Thought of Asia Rowman amp Littlefield pp 15 17 ISBN 978 0 8226 0365 8 Jack Sikora 2002 Religions of India A User Friendly and Brief Introduction to Hinduism Buddhism Sikhism and the Jains iUniverse pp 17 19 ISBN 978 1 4697 1731 9 Harold Coward 2008 p 129 Harold Coward 2008 pp 129 130 55 Jeaneane D Fowler 1997 pp 10 12 132 37 H Chaudhuri 1954 The Concept of Brahman in Hindu Philosophy Philosophy East and West 4 1 pp 47 66 M Hiriyanna 1995 The Essentials of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass pp 24 25 160 66 ISBN 978 81 208 1330 4 Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 pp 340 47 373 75 Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 pp 238 40 243 45 249 50 261 63 279 84 Jaini 1980 pp 217 36 a b Paul Dundas 2003 The Jains Routledge pp 14 16 102 05 ISBN 978 0415266055 Jaini 1980 pp 226 28 a b Tara Sethia 2004 Ahimsa Anekanta and Jainism Motilal Banarsidass pp 30 31 ISBN 978 81 208 2036 4 a b Jaini 1980 p 226 Jaini 1980 p 227 Jaini 1980 pp 227 28 a b Paul Dundas 2003 The Jains Routledge pp 104 05 ISBN 978 0415266055 Jaini 1980 p 225 Jaini 1980 p 228 Padmanabh S Jaini 2000 Collected Papers on Jaina Studies Motilal Banarsidass pp 130 31 ISBN 978 81 208 1691 6 Jaini 1980 pp 223 24 Jaini 1980 pp 224 25 Jaini 1980 pp 222 23 Jeffery D Long 2013 Jainism An Introduction I B Tauris pp 36 37 ISBN 978 0 85773 656 7 a b Graham Harvey 2016 Religions in Focus New Approaches to Tradition and Contemporary Practices Routledge pp 182 83 ISBN 978 1 134 93690 8 Paul Dundas 2003 The Jains Routledge pp 55 59 ISBN 978 0415266055 a b Lambert Schmithausen 1991 Buddhism and Nature Studia Philologica Buddhica The International Institute for Buddhist Studies Tokyo Japan pp 6 7 Rod Preece 1999 Animals and Nature Cultural Myths Cultural Realities ISBN 978 0 7748 0725 8 University of British Columbia Press pp 212 17 Christopher Chapple 1990 Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition in Perspectives on Nonviolence Springer ISBN 978 1 4612 4458 5 pp 168 77 L Alsdorf 1962 Beitrage zur Geschichte von Vegetarismus und Rinderverehrung in Indien Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur F Steiner Wiesbaden pp 592 93 Patrul Rinpoche Dalai Lama 1998 The Words of My Perfect Teacher A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism Rowman Altamira pp 61 99 ISBN 978 0 7619 9027 7 a b c d e f g Jeff Wilson 2010 Saṃsara and Rebirth in Buddhism Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 obo 9780195393521 0141 ISBN 978 0195393521 Edward Conze 2013 Buddhist Thought in India Three Phases of Buddhist Philosophy Routledge p 71 ISBN 978 1 134 54231 4 Quote Nirvana is the raison d etre of Buddhism and its ultimate justification Gethin 1998 p 119 Williams 2002 pp 74 75 Paul Williams Anthony Tribe amp Alexander Wynne 2012 pp 30 42 Robert Buswell Jr amp Donald Lopez Jr 2013 pp 304 05 Peter Harvey 2015 Steven M Emmanuel ed A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy John Wiley amp Sons pp 26 44 ISBN 978 1 119 14466 3 Quote the first features described as painful dukkha in the above DCPS Dhamma cakka pavatana Sutta in Vinaya Pitaka quote are basic biological aspects of being alive each of which can be traumatic The dukkha of these is compounded by the rebirth perspective of Buddhism for this involves repeated re birth re aging re sickness and re death a b c d Kevin Trainor 2004 Buddhism The Illustrated Guide Oxford University Press pp 62 63 ISBN 978 0 19 517398 7 Quote Buddhist doctrine holds that until they realize nirvana beings are bound to undergo rebirth and redeath due to their having acted out of ignorance and desire thereby producing the seeds of karma Dalai Lama 1992 pp xi xii 5 16 Robert DeCaroli 2004 Haunting the Buddha Indian Popular Religions and the Formation of Buddhism Oxford University Press pp 94 103 ISBN 978 0 19 803765 1 Akira Sadakata 1997 Buddhist Cosmology Philosophy and Origins Kōsei Publishing 佼成出版社 Tokyo pp 68 70 ISBN 978 4 333 01682 2 a b Steven Collins 2010 Nirvana Concept Imagery Narrative Cambridge University Press p 38 ISBN 978 0 521 88198 2 Carl B Becker 1993 Breaking the Circle Death and the Afterlife in Buddhism Southern Illinois University Press pp viii 57 59 ISBN 978 0 8093 1932 9 Frank J Hoffman 2002 Rationality and Mind in Early Buddhism Motilal Banarsidass pp 103 06 ISBN 978 81 208 1927 6 a b c d Arvind Pal Singh Mandair 2013 Sikhism A Guide for the Perplexed Bloomsbury Academic pp 145 46 181 220 ISBN 978 1 4411 5366 1 a b W O Cole Piara Singh Sambhi 2016 Sikhism and Christianity A Comparative Study Springer pp 13 14 ISBN 978 1 349 23049 5 Arvind Pal Singh Mandair 2013 Sikhism A Guide for the Perplexed Bloomsbury Academic p 176 ISBN 978 1 4411 5366 1 H S Singha 2000 The Encyclopedia of Sikhism Hemkunt Press pp 68 80 ISBN 978 81 7010 301 1 Pashaura Singh Louis E Fenech 2014 The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies Oxford University Press pp 231 607 ISBN 978 0 19 100411 7 James Thrower 1999 Religion The Classical Theories Georgetown University Press p 40 ISBN 978 0 87840 751 4 J S Grewal 2006 Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India Oxford University Press pp 394 95 ISBN 978 0 19 567703 4 Pashaura Singh Louis E Fenech 2014 The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies Oxford University Press pp 230 31 ISBN 978 0 19 100411 7 General and cited sources Edit John Geeverghese Arapura 1986 Hermeneutical Essays on Vedantic Topics Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0183 7 Buitenen J A B Van 1957 Dharma and Moksa Philosophy East and West 7 1 2 33 40 doi 10 2307 1396832 JSTOR 1396832 John Bowker 2014 God A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 870895 7 Robert Buswell Jr Donald Lopez Jr 2013 The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 4805 8 Harold Coward 2008 The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought The Central Story State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7336 8 Harold Coward 2012 Religious Understandings of a Good Death in Hospice Palliative Care State University of New York Press ISBN 978 1 4384 4275 4 Dalal Roshen 2010 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 341421 6 Dundas Paul 2002 1992 The Jains Second ed London and New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 26605 5 Mircea Eliade 1987 The encyclopedia of religion Macmillan ISBN 978 0 02 909480 8 Jeaneane D Fowler 1997 Hinduism Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1 898723 60 8 Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press ISBN 978 1 898723 93 6 Jessica Frazier Gavin Flood 2011 The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies Bloomsbury Academic ISBN 978 0 8264 9966 0 Gethin Rupert 1998 Foundations of Buddhism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0192892232 Jaini Padmanabh 1980 Doniger Wendy ed Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 Jaini Padmanabh S ed 2000 Collected Papers On Jaina Studies First ed Delhi Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1691 6 Mark Juergensmeyer Wade Clark Roof 2011 Encyclopedia of Global Religion SAGE Publications ISBN 978 1 4522 6656 5 Damien Keown 2004 A Dictionary of Buddhism Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 157917 2 Klaus Klostermaier 2010 A Survey of Hinduism Third Edition State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 8011 3 Dalai Lama 1992 The Meaning of Life translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins Wisdom ISBN 978 1459614505 Stephen J Laumakis 2008 An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 139 46966 1 Lochtefeld James 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 2 N Z Rosen Publishing ISBN 978 0 8239 2287 1 Michael Myers 2013 Brahman A Comparative Theology Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 83565 0 Obeyesekere Gananath 1980 Wendy Doniger ed Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 03923 0 Obeyesekere Gananath 2005 Wendy Doniger ed Karma and Rebirth A Cross Cultural Study Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120826090 Sethia Tara 2004 Ahiṃsa Anekanta and Jainism Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 2036 4 Williams Paul 2002 Buddhist Thought Routledge ISBN 0 415207010 Paul Williams Anthony Tribe Alexander Wynne 2012 Buddhist Thought Routledge ISBN 978 1 136 52088 4 External links EditReincarnation A Simple Explanation The Wheel of Life C George Boeree Shippensburg University The difference between Samsara and Nirvana Minnesota State University Mankato Saṃsara and Rebirth Buddhism Oxford Bibliographies Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Saṃsara amp oldid 1139976499, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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