fbpx
Wikipedia

Religion in India

Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices. Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture and the Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world's major religions, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, which are collectively known as native Indian Religions or Dharmic Religions.

Religion in India (2011 Census)[1]

  Hinduism (79.8%)
  Islam (14.2%)
  Christianity (2.3%)
  Sikhism (1.7%)
  Buddhism (0.7%)
  Jainism (0.4%)
  No religion (inc. Atheism, Agnosticism, Secularism and Unanswered) (0.25%)
  Other (incl. Baháʼí Faith, Zoroastrianism, Judaism) (0.15%)
A Murti of the Hindu god Lord Vishnu one of the Trimurti(Supreme deites in Hinduism).
Muslim men in an Islamic library in Delhi
St. Philomena's Cathedral in Mysore is one of the tallest churches in Asia.
A Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple, Amritsar, Punjab

The Preamble to the Constitution of India states that India is a secular state,[2][3] and the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a fundamental right.[4]

According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the population of India practices Hinduism, 14.2% adheres to Islam, 2.3% adheres to Christianity, 1.7% adheres to Sikhism, 0.7% adheres to Buddhism and 0.4% adheres to Jainism. Zoroastrianism, Sanamahism and Judaism also have an ancient history in India, and each has several thousands of Indian adherents. India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism (i.e. Parsis and Iranis) and Bahá'í Faith in the world,[5] even though these religions are otherwise largely exclusive to their native Persia.

Secularism

 
Preamble of the Indian Constitution

The Constitution of India, declares India to be a secular state with no state religion.[6] The Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India enacted in 1976 asserts the Preamble to the Constitution of India as secular.[7] It was enacted by Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed who was pressured by Indira Gandhi, during the leadup to the Emergency.[citation needed] However, the Supreme Court of India in the 1994 case S. R. Bommai v. Union of India established that India had been secular since the formation of the Republic on 26 January 1950.[8] Secularism in India is understood to mean not a separation of religion from state, but a state that supports or participates in a neutral manner in the affairs of all religious groups and as well as atheism.[9]

However, the original copy of Indian constitution has an illustration of Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana in Part III on Fundamental Rights and Rama has been considered as the true guardian of people's rights.[10] Article 48 of the Indian constitution prohibits the slaughter of cows or calves (a sacred animal in Hinduism) and the same is a criminal offense in most states of India.[11][12]

Secularism is defined as a basic structure doctrine of the constitution through the argument of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case, that cannot be removed or amended by any means.[13] However, there is no mention of the term “Basic Structure” anywhere in the Constitution of India. The idea that the Parliament cannot introduce laws that would amend the basic structure of the constitution have been evolved judicially over time and many cases.[14]

The particular provisions regarding secularism and freedom of religion in India in the constitution are:

  • Article 14: grants equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all.[15]
  • Article 15: enlarges the concept of secularism to the widest possible extent by prohibiting discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.[16]
  • Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of any religion.[17]
  • Article 26: Freedom to manage religious affairs.[18]
  • Article 27: Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.[19]
  • Article 28: Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.[20]
  • Articles 29 and 30: provide cultural and educational rights to the minorities.[21][22]
  • Article 51A: i.e. Fundamental Duties obliges all the citizens to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood and to value and preserve the heritage of the country's composite diverse culture.[23]

History

Pre-historic religion

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian "subcontinent" derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals.[24] Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife.[25] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[26]

 
The Pashupati seal, discovered at the Indus Valley Civilization city of Mohenjo-daro, identified with the Hindu god Shiva

Indus Valley Civilization

The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1400 BCE and was centered on the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility.[27] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilisation sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire.[28] A Shivlinga of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found,[27] however this interpretation has been disputed by Srinivasan [29]

Evolution of Hinduism

Hinduism is often regarded as the oldest religion in the world,[30] with roots tracing back to prehistoric times, over 5,000 years ago.[31] Hinduism spread through parts of Southeastern Asia, China, and Afghanistan. Hindus worship a single divine entity (paramatma, lit."first-soul") with different forms.[32]

 
An early 19th century manuscript of the Rigveda written in Devanagari

Hinduism's origins include the cultural elements of the Indus Valley Civilisation along with other Indian civilisations.[33] The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rigveda, produced during the Vedic period and dating to 1700–1100 BCE.[γ][34] During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems, in their current form including Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly from 500 to 100 BCE,[35] although these were orally transmitted through families for centuries prior to this period.[36]

After 200 BCE, several schools of thought were formally codified in the Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa, and Vedanta.[37] Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools and atheistic philosophies. Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as orthodox include Samkhya and Mimamsa.[38]

Rise of Shramana Religions

 
A statue of 24th and last Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira
 
A carving of Ashoka at Sanchi. Ashoka is credited with promoting the spread of Buddhism in India and throughout Asia

The Śramaṇa tradition includes Jainism,[39] known endonymically as Jain Dharm, and Buddhism[40] known endonymically as Bauddh Dharm, and others such as the Ājīvikas, Ajñanas, and others.[41][42]

The historical roots of Jainism in India have been traced to the 9th century BCE with the rise of Parshvanatha, the 23th Tirthankar, and his Jain philosophy,[43][44] and to Mahavira (599–527 BCE), the 24th Jain Tirthankara. Jainism traces its roots further back to the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha. Mahavira stressed on the five vows.

Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546 to 324 BCE) rose to power.[citation needed] His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. Indian Buddhism peaked during the reign of Ashoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhism following his conversion and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE.[45] He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[46] Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and Kosala.

The decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to a variety of factors, which include the resurgence of Hinduism in the 10th and 11th centuries under Sankaracharya, the later Turkish invasion, the Buddhist focus on renunciation as opposed to familial values and private property, Hinduism's own use and appropriation of Buddhist and Jain ideals of renunciation and ahimsa, and others. Although Buddhism virtually disappeared from mainstream India by the 11th century CE, its presence remained and manifested itself through other movements such as the Bhakti tradition, Vaishnavism, and the Bauls of Bengal, who are influenced by the Sahajjyana form of Buddhism that was popular in Bengal during the Pala period.

Bhakti Movement

During the 14th–17th centuries, when North India was under Muslim rule, the Bhakti movement swept through Central and Northern India. The Bhakti movement actually started in the eighth century in south India (present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and gradually spread northwards.[47] It was initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or saints. Dnyaneshwar, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Surdas, Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Ravidas, Namdeo, Eknath, Ramdas, Tukaram, and other mystics were some of the saints in the North. They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterized by an abundance of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces. The Bhakti movement gave rise to several different movements throughout India

During the Bhakti movement, many Hindu groups regarded as outside the traditional Hindu caste system followed Bhakti traditions by worshipping/following saints belonging to their respective communities. For example, Guru Ravidas was a Chamar of Uttar Pradesh; Guru Parsuram Ramnami was a Chura[dubious ] of Chhattisgarh, and Maharishi Ram Naval was a Bhangi of Rajasthan. In their lifetimes, several of these saints even went to the extent of fighting conversion from foreign missionaries, encouraging only Hinduism within their communities. In Assam for example, tribals were led by Gurudev Kalicharan Bramha of the Brahmo Samaj; in Nagaland by Kacha Naga; and in Central India by Birsa Munda, Hanuman Aaron, Jatra Bhagat, and Budhu Bhagat.

Kabir Sect

The Kabir Panth is a religious movement based on the teachings of the Indian poet saint Kabir (1398–1518).[48]

Kabir sermonized a monotheism that appealed clearly to the poor and convinced them of their access to god with no liaison. He denied both Hinduism and Islam, as well as meaningless religious rituals, and condemned double standards.[49] This infuriated the orthodox aristocracy. No one could frighten Kabir who was bold enough to stand up for himself and his beliefs.[50]

The Kabir Panth considers Kabir as its principal guru or even as a divinity—truth incarnate. Kabir's influence is testimony to his massive authority, even for those whose beliefs and practices he condemned so unsparingly. For Sikhs he is a forerunner and converser of Nanak, the originating Sikh Guru (spiritual guide). Muslims place him in Sufi (mystical) lineages, and for Hindus he becomes a Vaishnavite with universalist leanings.[51]

Sikhism

 
Sikh pilgrims at the causeway to the sanctum of the Harmandir Sahib, the holiest Sikh Gurdwara

Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469–1539) was the founder of Sikhism, known endonymically as Sikh Dharm.[52][53] The Guru Granth Sahib was first compiled by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, from the writings of the first five Sikh gurus and others saints who preached the concept of universal brotherhood, including those of the Hindu and Muslim faith. Before the death of Guru Gobind Singh, the Guru Granth Sahib was declared the eternal guru.[54] Sikhism recognises all humans as equal before Waheguru,[55] regardless of colour, caste, or lineage.[56] Sikhism strongly rejects the beliefs of fasting (vrata), superstitions, idol worship,[57][58] and circumcision.[59][60] The Sikhs believe in one eternal god and follow the teachings of the 10 gurus, the 5 K's of Sikhism, the hukums of Guru Gobind Singh, Sikh Rehat Maryada, and Nitnem.

Introduction of Abrahamic religions

Judaism

Jews first arrived as traders from Judea in the city of Kochi, Kerala, in 562 BCE.[61] More Jews came as exiles from Israel in the year 70 CE, after the destruction of the Second Temple.[62]

Christianity

 
A procession during the Feast of St. Sebastian at St. Mary's Forane Church, Athirampuzha, Kerala

Christianity was introduced to India by Thomas the Apostle (a direct disciple of Jesus Christ),[63] who visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE and proselytized natives at large, who are known as Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasrani) today. India's oldest church, the world's oldest existing church structure and built by Thomas the Apostle in 57 CE, called Thiruvithamcode Arappally or Thomaiyar Kovil as named by the then Chera king Udayancheral, is located at Thiruvithamcode in Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu, India. It is now declared an international St. Thomas pilgrim center.[64] There is a general scholarly consensus that Christianity was rooted in India by the 6th century CE, including some communities who used Syriac liturgically, and it is a possibility that the religion's existence in India extends to as far back as the 1st century.[65][66][67] Christianity in India has different denominations like Syrian Orthodox, Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodox and others.

Most Christians reside in South India, particularly in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa.[68][69] There are also large Christian populations in Northeast India.[70] Christianity in India was expanded in the 16th century by Catholic Portuguese expeditions and by Protestant missionaries in the 18th and 19th centuries.[71]

Islam

 
Girls chase doves in front of the Jama Masjid in Delhi. The mosque is one of the largest in India.

Islam is the second largest religion in India, with 14.2% of the country's population or roughly 172 million people identifying as adherents of Islam (2011 census).[72][73][74][75][76][77] It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries.[78]

Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders in Malabar coast, Kerala, it started to become a major religion during the Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent.[79] The Cheraman Juma Mosque is the first mosque in India located in Methala, Kodungallur Taluk, Thrissur District in Kerala.[80] A legend claims that it was built in 629 CE, which makes it the oldest mosque in the Indian subcontinent which is still in use.[80] It was built by Malik Deenar, Persian companion of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, on the orders of the successor of Cheraman Perumal, the Chera King of modern-day Kerala.[81] Islam's spread in India mostly took place under the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1858), greatly aided by the mystic Sufi tradition.[82]

Census statistics

 
Map of majority religious groups by region in India.
  Hindu
  Muslim
  Christian
  Sikh
  Buddhist
  Other
India's Religious diversity as of the 2011 census[83]
Religion Population %
Hindus 966,257,353 79.8%
Muslims 172,245,158 14.2%
Christians 27,819,588 2.3%
Sikhs 20,833,116 1.72%
Buddhists 8,442,972 0.7%
Jains 4,451,753 0.37%
Other religions 7,937,734 0.67%
Not stated 2,867,303 0.24%
Total 1,210,854,977 100%

There are six religions in India which have been awarded "National minority" status—Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, and Zoroastrians (Parsis).[84][85]

Population trends for major religious groups in India (1951–2011)
Religious
group
Population
% 1951
Population
% 1961
Population
% 1971
Population
% 1981
Population
% 1991
Population
% 2001
Population
% 2011[86]
Hinduism 84.1% 83.45% 82.73% 82.30% 81.53% 80.46% 79.80%
Islam 9.8% 10.69% 11.21% 11.75% 12.61% 13.43% 14.23%
Christianity 2.30% 2.44% 2.60% 2.44% 2.32% 2.34% 2.30%
Sikhism 1.79% 1.79% 1.89% 1.92% 1.94% 1.87% 1.72%
Buddhism 0.74% 0.74% 0.70% 0.70% 0.77% 0.77% 0.70%
Jainism 0.46% 0.46% 0.48% 0.47% 0.40% 0.41% 0.37%
Zoroastrianism 0.13% 0.09% 0.09% 0.09% 0.08% 0.06% not counted
Others/Religion not specified 0.43% 0.43% 0.41% 0.42% 0.44% 0.72% 0.88%

The following is a breakdown of India's religious communities:

Characteristics of religious groups[86]
Religious
group
Population (2011)
%
Growth
(2001-2011)[87][88]
Sex ratio (2011)
(total)[89]
Sex ratio (2011)
(rural)
Sex ratio (2011)
(urban)
Sex ratio (2011)
(child)[90]
Literacy (2011)
(%)[91]
Work participation (2011)
(%)[89][92]
Hinduism 79.80% 16.8% 939 946 921 913 73.3% 41.0%
Islam 14.23% 24.6% 951 957 941 943 68.5% 32.6%
Christianity 2.30% 15.5% 1023 1008 1046 958 84.5% 41.9%
Sikhism 1.72% 8.4% 903 905 898 828 75.4% 36.3%
Buddhism 0.70% 6.1% 965 960 973 933 81.3% 43.1%
Jainism 0.37% 5.4% 954 935 959 889 94.9% 35.5%
Others/Religion not specified 0.90% n/a 959 947 975 974 n/a n/a

Note: When compared with 2001, India's population rose by 17.7% in 2011 with an average sex ratio of 943 and a literacy rate of 74.4%. The average work participation stood at 39.79%.

Religions

Hinduism

 
Akshardham Temple in New Delhi of the BAPS Swaminarayan sect

Hinduism is an ancient religion with the largest religious grouping in India, with around 966 million adherents as of 2011, composing 79.8% of the population.[86] Hinduism is diverse, with monotheism, henotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, atheism, animism, agnosticism, and gnosticism being represented.[93][94][95][96][97] The term Hindu, originally a geographical description, derives from the Sanskrit, Sindhu, (the historical appellation for the Indus River), and refers to a person from the land of the river Sindhu.[98] Hindus following the traditional religion call it Sanatana Dharma (or "Eternal Way").[99] The adherents of Sanatana Dharma call themselves as "Sanatani", the original word for the adherents of Sanatana Dharma. Hindu reformist Sects such as the Arya samaj do not use the term Sanatani.

Islam

Islam is a monotheistic religion centered on the belief in one God and following the example of Muhammad; it is the largest minority religion in India. About 14.2% of the country's population or approx. 172.2 million people identify as adherents of Islam (2011 census).[83][100][101][102] Out of 172.2 million Muslims in India as per 2011 census, it was found that more than 100 million of them are from low caste converts specially Dalits.[103][104] The Islamic Invasion during Medieval Era has obtained the religion a significant population of adherents. The religion is regarded as "Minority religion" and the adherents are given "Special privileges".[citation needed][clarification needed] It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-majority countries. Muslims are a majority in states Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep,[105] and live in high concentrations in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala.[105][106] There has been no particular census conducted in India with regards to sects, but sources suggest the largest denomination is Sunni Islam[107] with a substantial minority of Shia Muslims and Ahmadiyya Muslims. Indian sources like Times of India and DNA reported the Indian Shiite population in mid-2005–2006 to be between 25% and 31% of entire Muslim population of India, which accounts them in numbers between 40 and 50 million.[108][109][107][110]

Christianity

Christianity is a monotheistic religion centred on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament. It is the third largest religion of India, making up 2.3% of the population. St. Thomas is credited with introduction of Christianity in India. He arrived on the Malabar Coast in 52 CE.[111][112][113] The tradition of origin among Saint Thomas Christians relates to the arrival of Saint Thomas, one of the 12 disciples of Jesus at the ancient seaport Muziris on the Kerala coast in 52 CE. The families Sankaramangalam, Pakalomattam, Kalli, and Kaliyankal were considered particularly preeminent, and historically the most aristocratic Syriac Christian families tended to claim descent from these families.

It is also possible for Aramaic-speaking Jews from Galilee to make a trip to Kerala in the 1st century. The Cochin Jews are known to have existed in Kerala around that time. The earliest known source connecting the apostle to India is the Acts of Thomas, likely written in the early 3rd century, perhaps in Edessa.

Marth Mariam Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Arakuzha was founded in 999

The text describes Thomas' adventures in bringing Christianity to India, a tradition later expanded upon in early Indian sources such as the "Thomma Parvam" ("Song of Thomas"). Generally he is described as arriving in or around Maliankara and founding Seven Churches and half churches, or Ezharapallikal: Kodungallur, Kollam, Niranam, Nilackal (Chayal), Kokkamangalam, Kottakkavu, Palayoor, Thiruvithamcode Arappalli and Aruvithura church (half church). A number of 3rd- and 4th-century Roman writers also mention Thomas' trip to India, including Ambrose of Milan, Gregory of Nazianzus, Jerome, and Ephrem the Syrian, while Eusebius of Caesarea records that his teacher Pantaenus visited a Christian community in India in the 2nd century. There came into existence a Christian community who were mainly merchants.

Christianity expanded in the rest of India during the period of British colonial rule. Christians comprise the majority of natives of Nagaland and Mizoram as well as of Meghalaya and have significant populations in Manipur, Goa, Kerala and Mumbai.

Sikhism

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion began in fifteenth-century Punjab with the teachings of Guru Nanak and nine successive Sikh gurus. As of 2011, there were 20.8 million Sikhs in India. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs, and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in neighboring Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Haryana. These areas were historically a part of Greater Punjab. However, there is no data for specific number of Nanak followers (Nanakpanthis) in India, but they are believed to be in crores somewhere around 14 crores.[114][115][116] Karnail Singh Panjoli, member, Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, says that there are several communities within the term ‘Nanakpanthis’ too. “There are groups like Sikhligarh, Vanjaarey, Nirmaley, Lubaney, Johri, Satnamiye, Udaasiyas etc. who call themselves Nanakpanthis. They follow guru Nanak and Sri Guru Granth Sahib.[117][118]

Buddhism

Buddhism is an Indian, transtheistic religion and philosophy. Around 8.5 million Buddhists live in India, about 0.7% of the total population.[119] Buddhism as a religion is practised mainly in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a significant religion in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Darjeeling in West Bengal, and the Lahaul and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh. Besides, a significant number of Buddhists reside in Maharashtra. They are the Buddhists or Navayana Buddhists who, under the influence of B. R. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism in order to escape the casteist practices within Hinduism. Ambedkar is a crucial figure, along with Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka and Kripasaran Mahasthavira of Chittagong behind the revival of Buddhism in India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The escape of the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzing Gyatso to India fleeing Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959 and the setting up of the Tibetan Government in Exile at Dharamshala in Mcleodganj in Himachal Pradesh has also accelerated the resurgence of Buddhism in India. The effective religion in Sikkim, which joined the Indian Union in 1975 (making it India's 22nd state) remains Vajrayana Buddhism, and Padmasambhava or Guru Ugyen is a revered presence there.

Jainism

Jainism is a non-theistic Indian religion and philosophical system originating in Iron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.45 million) of India's population, and are concentrated in the states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.[105]

Judaism

 
The interior of the Paradesi Synagogue in Cochin.

Also present in India, Judaism is a monotheistic religion from the Levant. There is today a very small community of Indian Jews. There were more Jews in India historically, including the Cochin Jews of Kerala, the Bene Israel of Maharashtra, and the Baghdadi Jews near Mumbai. Since Indian independence, two primarily proselyte Indian Jewish communities have developed in India: the Bnei Menashe of Mizoram and Manipur, and the Bene Ephraim, also called Telugu Jews. Of the approximately 95,000 Jews of Indian extraction, fewer than 20,000 remain in India. Some parts of India are especially popular with Israelis, swelling local Jewish populations seasonally.[citation needed]

Other religions

 
The Baháʼí Faith's Lotus Temple in Delhi, India

As of the census of 2001, Parsis (followers of Zoroastrianism in India) represent approximately 0.006% of the total population of India,[120] with relatively high concentrations in and around the city of Mumbai. Parsis number around 61,000 in India.[121] There are several tribal religions in India, such as Donyi-Polo. Santhal is also one of the many tribal religions followed by the Santhal people who number around 4 million but only around 23,645 follow the religion.[citation needed]

It is difficult to establish the exact numbers of Baháʼís in India. The religion came to India from Iran in about 1850 and gained some converts from the Muslim population of India. The first Sikh and Hindu converts came by 1910, and in 1960 there were fewer than 1,000 Baháʼís in all of India. Beginning in 1961, large numbers from scheduled castes became Baháʼís, and by 1993 Baháʼís reported about 2.2 million members,[5] though later sources have claimed 2 million,[122] or "more than 1 million".[123]

Atheism

Around 2.9 million people in India did not state their religion in the 2001 census and were counted in the category, "religion not stated". They were 0.24% of India's population. Their number have significantly increased 4 times from 0.7 million in 2001 census at an average annual rate of 15%.[124] K. Veeramani, a Dravidar Kazhagam leader, said that he believed that the number of atheists in India was actually higher as many people don't reveal their atheism out of fear.[125]

According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were non-religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.[126]

Law

The preamble to the Constitution of India proclaims India a "sovereign socialist secular democratic republic". The word secular was inserted into the Preamble by the Forty-second Amendment Act of 1976. It mandates equal treatment and tolerance of all religions. India does not have an official state religion; it enshrines the right to practice, preach, and propagate any religion. No religious instruction is imparted in government-supported schools. In S. R. Bommai v. Union of India, the Supreme Court of India held that secularism was an integral tenet of the Constitution and that there was separation of state and religion.[127]

Freedom of religion is a fundamental right according to the Indian Constitution. The Constitution also suggests a uniform civil code for its citizens as a Directive Principle.[128] This has not been implemented until now as Directive Principles are Constitutionally unenforceable. The Supreme Court has further held that the enactment of a uniform civil code all at once may be counter-productive to the unity of the nation, and only a gradual progressive change should be brought about (Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh, 1996).[129] In Maharishi Avadesh v Union of India (1994) the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking a writ of mandamus against the government to introduce a common civil code, and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on the legislature.[130]

Major religious communities not based in India continue to be governed by their own personal laws. Whilst Muslims, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews have personal laws exclusive to themselves; Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are governed by a single personal law known as Hindu personal law. Article 25 (2)(b) of the Constitution of India states that references to Hindus include "persons professing the Sikh, Jain, or Buddhist religion".[131] Furthermore, the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 defines the legal status of Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs as legal Hindus but not "Hindus by religion".[132] Supreme Court in 2005 gave verdict that Jains, Sikhs, and Buddhist are part of broader Hindu fold, as they are Indic religions and interconnected to each other, though they are distinct religions.[133]

Aspects

Religion plays a major role in the Indian way of life.[134] Rituals, worship, and other religious activities are very prominent in an individual's daily life; it is also a principal organizer of social life. The degree of religiosity varies amongst individuals; in recent decades, religious orthodoxy and observances have become less common in Indian society, particularly amongst young urban-dwellers.[citation needed]

Rituals

 
A puja performed on the banks of the overflowing Shipra River in Ujjain during the summer monsoon.

The vast majority of Indians engage in religious rituals daily.[135] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[136] Observation of rituals vary greatly amongst regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping puja, fire sacrifice called Yajna[citation needed] at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foods before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts like Vedas, and Puranas singing hymns in praise of gods.[136]

A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity, or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralized, before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[136] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[136]

Muslims offer five daily prayers at specific times of the day, indicated by adhan (call to prayer) from the local mosques. Before offering prayers, they must ritually clean themselves by performing wudu, which involves washing parts of the body that are generally exposed to dirt or dust. A recent study by the Sachar Committee found that 3–4% of Muslim children study in madrasas (Islamic schools).[137]

Diet

 
A vegetarian thali from Rajasthan.

Dietary habits in India are significantly influenced by religion. According to a survey, 31% of Indian population claims to be vegetarian, and mainly practice lacto-vegetarianism.[138][139][140] Vegetarianism is less common among Sikhs, Muslims, Christians, Bahá'ís, Parsis, and Jews.Despite the majority of population having no objection to meat consumption, globally India has the lowest meat consumption per capita.[141] Non-vegetarian Indians mostly prefer poultry, fish, other seafood, goat, and sheep as their sources of meat.[142] Hinduism forbids beef whilst islam forbids pork. The smaller populations of christians, tribals, and some dalit communities have no objection to eating either beef or pork.[143] Jainism requires followers, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Furthermore, the religion also forbids Jains from eating any vegetable that involves digging it from the ground. This rule, therefore, excludes all Root vegetables such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, ginger, carrots, garlic, radishes, etc. from a Jain diet.

Ceremonies

 
A Hindu wedding ceremony.

Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, major life-cycle rituals include annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by boys belonging to some upper-castes such as Brahmin and Kshatriya only), and shraadh (paying homage to a deceased individual).[144][145] According to the findings of a 1995 national research paper, for most people in India, a betrothal of a young couple placing an expectation upon an exact date and time of a future wedding was a matter decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[144] A significant reduction in the proportion of arranged marriages has however taken place since 1995, reflecting an incremental change.[citation needed]

Muslims practice a series of life-cycle rituals that differ from those of Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists.[146] Several rituals mark the first days of life—including the whispering call to prayer, first bath, and shaving of the head. Religious instruction begins early. Male circumcision usually takes place after birth; in some families, it may be delayed until after the onset of puberty.[146]

Marriage requires a payment by the husband to the wife, called Meher, and the solemnization of a marital contract in a social gathering.[146] After the burial of the dead, friends and relatives gather to console the bereaved, read and recite the Quran, and pray for the soul of the deceased.[146] Indian Islam is distinguished by the emphasis it places on shrines commemorating great Sufi saints.[146]

Pilgrimages

Many Hindu families have their own family patron deity or the kuladevata.[149] This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor.[149][150] The Khandoba of Jejuri is an example of a Kuladevata of some Maharashtrian families; he is a common Kuladevata to several castes ranging from Brahmins to Dalits.[151] The practice of worshipping local or territorial deities as Kuladevata began in the period of the Yadava dynasty.[150] Other family deities of the people of Maharashtra are Bhavani of Tuljapur, Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur, Renuka of Mahur, and Balaji of Tirupati.

India hosts numerous pilgrimage sites belonging to many religions. Hindus worldwide recognise several Indian holy cities, including Allahabad (officially known as Prayagraj), Haridwar, Varanasi, Ujjain, Rameshwaram, and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include Puri, which hosts a major Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple.

Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka, and Rameswaram compose the main pilgrimage circuit of Char Dham (four abodes) hosting the four holiest Hindu temples: Badrinath Temple, Jagannath Temple, Dwarkadheesh Temple and Ramanathaswamy Temple, respectively. The Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri compose the smaller Chota Char Dham (mini four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated amongst Allahabad (Prayagraj), Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. The Thalaimaippathi at Swamithope is the leading pilgrim center for the Ayyavazhis.

Seven of the Eight Great Places of Buddhism are in India. Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar are the places where important events in the life of Gautama Buddha took place. Sanchi hosts a Buddhist stupa erected by the emperor Ashoka. Many Buddhist monasteries dot the Himalayan foothills of India, where Buddhism remains a major presence. These include the Rumtek Monastery, Enchey Monastery, and Pemayangtse Monastery in Sikkim, the Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh, the Kye Monastery and Tabo Monastery in Spiti, the Ghum Monastery in Darjeeling, and Durpin Dara Monastery in Kalimpong, the Thikse Monastery in Leh, the Namgyal Monastery in Dharamshala, among many others.

For Sunni Muslims, the Dargah Shareef of Khwaza Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer is a major pilgrimage site.[152] Other Islamic pilgrimages include those to the Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti in Fatehpur Sikri, Jama Masjid in Delhi, and to Haji Ali Dargah in Mumbai. Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu, Palitana, Pavapuri, Girnar, and Shravanabelagola are notable pilgrimage sites (tirtha) in Jainism.

The Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar is the most sacred gurdwara of Sikhism.[153]

Relatively new pilgrimage sites include the samadhi of Meher Baba in Meherabad, which is visited by his followers from around the world[154] and the Saibaba temple in Shirdi. [155]

Minority beliefs and sects

Hinduism contains many different sub-cultures just like most other religions. The major aspects outlined above hold true for the majority of the Hindu population, but not all. Just as each state is home to an individual language, Hinduism harbors various sub-cultures whose traditions may or may not be shared by other Indians. A sect from Gujarat called the Prajapatis for example, holds water as the sacred ornament to every meal. Before and after a meal, an individual is expected to pour water in the palms of their right hand and sip the water three times.[156] This is often seen as a purification gesture: food is regarded as being holy and every individual must purify themselves before touching their food.

Other minor sects in India carry no specific name, but they are uniquely identified by the last names of each family. This convention is used more frequently in South India than in North India. For example, a relatively prominent sect in southern India prohibits making important decisions, commencing new tasks, and doing other intellectually or spiritually engaged actions after sunset. Historians believe that this tradition was derived from the concept of Rahukaalam, in which Hindus believe that a specific period of the day is inauspicious. Stringent family beliefs are thought to have led to the development of a more constrained religious hierarchy.[157] Over time, this belief was extended to discourage taking major actions and even staying awake for long periods after sunset. Examples of families which follow this tradition include Gudivada, Padalapalli, Pantham, and Kashyap.[156]

Religiosity

Religiosity among Indians (2012 Survey)[126]

  Religious (81%)
  Atheists (3%)
  Irreligion (13%)
  Not stated (3%)

India has a population of 123 crore per a 2012 demographic survey by Indian government.[158] According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were non-religious, 3% were convinced atheists, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.[126]

Cambridge University Press in 2004 demographic study, have found that there are 102.87 million atheists and agnostics living in India, thus constituting 9.1% of the total population, out of total 1.1296 billion people respectively.[159][160]

Religion and politics

 
Takht Sri Hazur Sahib, Nanded, built over the place where Guru Gobind Singh Ji was cremated in 1708, the inner chamber is still called Angitha Sahib.

Politics

Religious politics, particularly that expressed by the Hindutva movement, has strongly influenced Indian politics in the last quarter of the 20th century. Many of the elements underlying India's casteism and communalism originated during the colonial era, when the colonial government frequently politicized religion in an attempt to stave off increasing nationalistic sentiments in India.[161] The Indian Councils Act 1909 (widely known as the Morley-Minto Reforms Act), which established separate Hindu and Muslim electorates for the Imperial Legislature and provincial councils, was particularly divisive, increasing tensions between the two communities.[162]

Due to the high degree of oppression faced by the lower castes, the Constitution of India included provisions for affirmative action for certain sections of Indian society. Many states ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) introduced laws that made conversion more difficult; they assert that such conversions are often forced or allured.[163] The BJP, a national political party, also gained widespread media attention after its leaders associated themselves with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and other prominent religious issues.[164]

A well-known accusation that Indian political parties make for their rivals is that they play vote bank politics, meaning give political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community. Both the Congress Party and the BJP have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics. The Shah Bano case, a divorce lawsuit, generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim orthodoxy by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate the Supreme Court's decision. After the 2002 Gujarat violence, there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics.[165]

Caste-based politics is also important in India; caste-based discrimination and the reservation system continue to be major issues that are hotly debated.[166][167]

Education

Political parties have been accused of using their political power to manipulate educational content in a revisionist manner. The BJP-led NDA government was accused of teaching history from a Hindutva outlook in public schools by the opposition parties.[168] The next government, formed by the UPA and led by the Congress Party, pledged to undo this and reinstate the secular form of thought in the Indian educational system.[169] Hindu groups allege that the UPA promote Marxist theories in school curricula.[170][171]

Communalism

Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. After Indian independence in 1947, India was partitioned along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The partition led to rioting amongst Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.[Δ][172] Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; the Indian government recognizes no official religion.

Communal conflicts

 
Aftermath of Hindu-Muslim clashes in Calcutta, following the 1946 Direct Action Day, which was announced by the All India Muslim League to show the strength of Muslim feelings towards its demand for an "autonomous and sovereign" Muslim state called Pakistan.[173][174]

Communal conflicts have periodically plagued India since it became independent in 1947.[175] The roots of such strife lie largely in the underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities, which emerged under the Raj and during the bloody Partition of India. Such conflict also stems from the competing ideologies of Hindu nationalism versus Islamic fundamentalism; both are prevalent in parts of the Hindu and Muslim populations. This issue has plagued India since before independence. The lack of education among the masses and the ease with which corrupt politicians can take advantage of the same has been attributed as the major reason for religious conflicts in India. Even though Freedom of religion is an integral part of the India constitution, the inability to hold a communal mob accountable for its collectove actions has limited the exercise of religious freedom in India.

Alongside other major Indian independence leaders, Mahatma Gandhi and his Shanti sainiks ("peace soldiers") worked to quell early outbreaks of religious conflict in Bengal, including riots in Calcutta (now in West Bengal) and Noakhali District (in modern-day Bangladesh) that accompanied Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Direct Action Day, which was launched on 16 August 1946. These conflicts, waged largely with rocks and knives and accompanied by widespread looting and arson, were crude affairs. Explosives and firearms, which are rarely found in India, were far less likely to be used.[176]

Major post-independence communal conflicts include the 1984 Anti-Sikh riots, which followed Operation Blue Star by the Indian Army; heavy artillery, tanks, and helicopters were employed against the Sikh partisans inside the Harmandir Sahib, causing heavy damage to Sikhism's holiest Gurdwara. According to the Indian government estimates, the assault caused the deaths of up to 100 soldiers, 250 militants, and hundreds of civilians.[177]

This triggered Indira Gandhi's assassination by her outraged Sikh bodyguards on 31 October 1984, which set off a four-day period during which Sikhs were massacred; The Government of India reported 2,700 Sikh deaths however human rights organizations and newspapers report the death toll to be 10,000–17,000. In the aftermath of the riot, the Government of India reported 20,000 had fled the city, however the PUCL reported "at least" 50,000 displaced persons.[178]

The most affected regions were neighbourhoods in Delhi. Human rights organisations and the newspapers believe the massacre was organised.[179] The collusion of political officials in the massacres and the failure to prosecute any killers alienated normal Sikhs and increased support for the Khalistan movement. The Akal Takht, the governing religious body of Sikhism, considers the killings to be a genocide.[180]

Other incidents include the 1992 Bombay riots that followed the demolition of the Babri Mosque as a result of the Ayodhya debate, and the 2002 Gujarat violence where 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus were killed and which was preceded by the Godhra Train Burning.[181] Lesser incidents plague many towns and villages; the representative was the killing of five people in Mau, Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.[181]

Demand for Hindu Rashtra, law and politics

Most Right Wing Hindu organisations like RSS, Bajrang Dal, Vishwa Hindu Parishad have demanded that India should be declared a "Hindu nation" by constitution to safeguard the rights and life of Hindus in this largest democracy.[182][183][184] As far as citizens are concerned, only 7/20th Indian Hindus are in the favour of making India as Hindu Rashtra.[185] Nearly two-thirds of Indian Hindus (64% of the population) say's that it is very important to be Hindu to be truly Indian or citizen of India.[186]

As of 28 July 2020, there were pleas going on Supreme Court of India to remove the words "secular" and "socialist" from the Preamble to the Constitution of India.[187] Recently ex-Rajya Sabha MP Subramanian Swamy's have made Plead to Supreme Court of India for Deletion of "Socialist" and "Secular" words from Preamble to the Constitution of India.[188][189]

See also

Notes

Footnotes

  • ^ α: The data exclude the Mao-Maram, Paomata, and Purul subdivisions of Manipur's Senapati district.
  • ^ β: The data are "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); the 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and the 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir.
  • ^ γ: Oberlies (1998, p. 155) gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158), based on "cumulative evidence", sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE. The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives a range of 1500–1000 BCE. The hymns certainly post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE. It cannot be ruled out that archaic elements of the Rigveda go back to only a few generations after this time, but philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the latter half of the second millennium.
  • ^ Δ: According to the most conservative estimates given by Symonds (1950, p. 74), half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.
  • ^ ε: Statistic describes resident Indian nationals up to six years in age.

Citations

  1. ^ "India has 79.8% Hindus, 14.2% Muslims, says 2011 census data on religion". Firstpost. 26 August 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2016.
  2. ^ "Preamble to the Indian Constitution".
  3. ^ "S. R. Bommai v. Union of India".
  4. ^ Basu, Durga Das (2013). Introduction to the Constitution of India (21 ed.). LexisNexis. p. 124. ISBN 978-81-803-8918-4.
  5. ^ a b Smith 2008, p. 94.
  6. ^ "Constitution of India|Legislative Department | Ministry of Law and Justice | GoI".
  7. ^ . Government of India. Archived from the original on 28 March 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  8. ^ https://indiankanoon.org/doc/60799/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=238573f48275b685fc4286d86fb7f8d791b95b89-1605159943-0-AUH3bFyciTLUFhD1SxBDxmdiWyx30gRbc9sKNMEp2AVFRikpp9Yj04upKlxDKg_g67cgonAuoofwtbmSbe7LiFvmdvh1UpVsGEiqmE8NRpW9IZOEaFfi0nC_hORolA9ehgyy8bJ19HFLaV5jtvnCBm9aDQBTp_-rkgKXSxmi5tSu9XKBw1fOvLunDzLkIS1P5Hnoz1yZ6hRi3oBb7brYxYqdXJe-3q0-BNsLFbEaLkO_yaPSbwXcAdvByLdw3yqOivpiMoL6XXvbtnp3IQBCNCtUP6oABTxAbcofz2vMJei_V6_RBiFUFq0DniR6cd7PxtJ-IdP6T6u5yk3b1T-owvbOVfS74wnCJe-ke8RIQXBt[bare URL]
  9. ^ "Secularism".
  10. ^ "Why painting of Ram in India's Constitution matters". 26 January 2021.
  11. ^ "Cow protection was a sensitive subject in India even when the Constitution was being framed".
  12. ^ https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1452355/[bare URL]
  13. ^ "Secularism is a basic feature of Constitution | Deccan Herald". 18 December 2019.
  14. ^ "Basic Structure Doctrine of the Indian Constitution - Explanation & Landmark Cases, Indian Polity".
  15. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  16. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  17. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  18. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  19. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  20. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  21. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  22. ^ "Constitution of India". www.constitutionofindia.net. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  23. ^ https://doj.gov.in › sites › filesPDF Web results Text of Article 51-A PART IVA FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES 51A ...
  24. ^ "Discovering & deciphering rock art". Frontline. Frontline. 11 November 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
  25. ^ Heehs 2002, p. 39.
  26. ^ "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 7 August 2007.
  27. ^ a b Fowler 1997, p. 90.
  28. ^ SUBRAMANIAN, T. S. (17 April 2015). "Harappan surprise". Frontline. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
  29. ^ Srinivasan, D. (1984) “Unhinging Śiva from the Indus civilization,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. Cambridge University Press, 116(1), pp. 77–89. doi: 10.1017/S0035869X00166134.
  30. ^ P. 484 Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions By Wendy Doniger, M. Webster, Merriam-Webster, Inc
  31. ^ P. 169 The Encyclopedia of Religion By Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams
  32. ^ P. 22 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Geography By Joseph Gonzalez, Michael D Smith, Thomas E. Sherer
  33. ^ "Hinduism". web.csulb.edu. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  34. ^ Oberlies 1998, p. 155.
  35. ^ Goldman 2007, p. 23.
  36. ^ Rinehart 2004, p. 28.
  37. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi
  38. ^ "Indian Philosophy: Orthodox and Heterodox Schools". ClearIAS. 5 October 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  39. ^ Zimmer 1952, p. 182-183.
  40. ^ Svarghese, Alexander P. 2008. India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World. pp. 259–60.
  41. ^ AL Basham (1951), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812048, pp. 94–103
  42. ^ James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z, Volume 2 of The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 639. ISBN 978-0823922871.
  43. ^ Dundas 2002, p. 30.
  44. ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 182-183.
  45. ^ Mark, Joshua J. (24 June 2020). "Ashoka the Great". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  46. ^ Heehs 2002, p. 106.
  47. ^ Schomer & McLeod (1987), p. 1.
  48. ^ Director (Research Services Division). "Ritual and reform in the Ka..." researchers.anu.edu.au. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  49. ^ "Kabir in His Time, And Ours". The Wire. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  50. ^ Venkatesh, Karthik (12 November 2016). "A brief history of the Bhakti movement". Livemint. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  51. ^ "Kabir | Indian mystic and poet". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  52. ^ Singh, Nirbhai (1990). Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. pp. 1–3.
  53. ^ Takhar, Opinderjit Kaur (2016). Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs. Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Taylor & Francis. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-351-90010-2.
  54. ^ "The Last Guru – the Guru Granth Sahib - Waheguru (God) and authority - Edexcel - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - Edexcel". BBC Bitesize. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  55. ^ Akal Ustat, Verse 85-15-1
  56. ^ Akal Ustat, verse 3 to 4
  57. ^ Star, Brian Leaf Rockford Register (15 August 2015). "Sikhs condemn fasting, visiting places of pilgrimage, superstitions, worship of the dead, idol worship and other blind rituals". Rockford Register Star. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  58. ^ "Petition in HC seeks ban on 'Nanak Shah Fakir'". The Tribune (India). 7 September 2015. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
  59. ^ Dhillon, Dalbir Singh (28 August 2015). "Sikhism Origin and Development". Google Books. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  60. ^ Glausiusz, Josie (14 March 2004). "miscellaneous". Circumcision. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  61. ^ Yisrael, Muzeon (1995). The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities. UPNE. ISBN 978-965-278-179-6.
  62. ^ Schreiber, Mordecai (2003). The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia. Rockville, MD: Schreiber Publishing. p. 125. ISBN 1887563776.
  63. ^ Edessa. Acta Thomae. Edessa.
  64. ^ "Palayur | Archdiocese of Trichur". www.trichurarchdiocese.org. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  65. ^ Farhadian, Charles E. (20 February 2012). Introducing World Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-8249-2.
  66. ^ Leslie Brown, (1956) The Indian Christians of St. Thomas. An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1956, 1982 (repr.)
  67. ^ Origin of Christianity in India – A Historiographical Critique by Dr. Benedict Vadakkekara. (2007). ISBN 81-7495-258-6.
  68. ^ Ross, Israel J. (1 January 1979). "Ritual and Music in South India: Syrian Christian Liturgical Music in Kerala". Asian Music. 11 (1): 80–98. doi:10.2307/833968. JSTOR 833968.
  69. ^ "Christianity". India Mirror. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
  70. ^ . www.bibleforu.com. Archived from the original on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
  71. ^ . M.B. Herald, Vol. 35, No. 9. Archived from the original on 9 March 2008. Retrieved 13 March 2008.
  72. ^ S, Rukmini; Singh, Vijaita (25 August 2015). "Muslim population growth slows". The Hindu – via www.thehindu.com.
  73. ^ Abantika Ghosh, Vijaita Singh (24 January 2015). "Census 2011: Muslims record decadal growth of 24.6 pc, Hindus 16.8 pc". Indian Express. Indian Express. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
  74. ^ "Muslim politics:At a crossroads". livemint.com. Livemint. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
  75. ^ Vijaita Singh (24 February 2015). "Over 180 million Muslims in India but they are not part of global terror groups: Govt". Indian Express. Indian Express. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  76. ^ "Muslim representation on decline". The Times of India. 31 August 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
  77. ^ "The Untold Census Story". OpenMagazine-PR Ramesh. 15 March 2014.
  78. ^ nationsonline.org, klaus kästle-. "Islamic world, countries with a cultural Islamic population - Nations Online Project". www.nationsonline.org. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  79. ^ Zafar, Abu. "Islam and Muslims in India-Science and Technology Division, Taipei Economic and Cultural Center in New Delhi-MOST". www.most.gov.tw. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  80. ^ a b "Cheraman Juma Masjid - the first mosque in India | Religious sites at Muziris Heritage Area, Ernakulam". www.muzirisheritage.org. Cheraman Juma Masjid. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  81. ^ Nambiar, Sridevi (26 July 2017). "The Story Behind India's Oldest Mosque". Culture Trip. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  82. ^ chandru. . Southasiaanalysis.org. Archived from the original on 18 December 2010. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  83. ^ a b https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS[bare URL spreadsheet file]
  84. ^ "National minority status for Jains". Archived from the original on 10 November 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  85. ^ "Jains become sixth minority community - Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis". 21 January 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  86. ^ a b c . 2011 Census of India. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015. Retrieved 25 August 2015. Percentages are calculated from population figures for individual religions in this word document by dividing them from total population of India.
  87. ^ Aloke Tikku (26 August 2015). "Muslim population grows marginally faster: Census 2011 data". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  88. ^ "Census 2011: Hindus dip to below 80 per cent of population; Muslim share up, slows down". The Indian Express. 26 August 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  89. ^ a b "Census 2011: Sikhs, Jains have the worst sex ratio - Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis". 31 December 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  90. ^ . Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  91. ^ "Jains most literate in North, Muslims the least". 4 January 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  92. ^ "Only 33% of Muslims work, lowest among all religions - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  93. ^ Rogers, Peter (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1. AuthorHouse. p. 109. ISBN 978-1-4389-7968-7.
  94. ^ Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991). Hinduism, a way of life. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 71. ISBN 978-81-208-0899-7.
  95. ^ "Polytheism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2007.
  96. ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (2002). The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-56023-181-3.
  97. ^ Devanandan, P. D. (1955). The Renaissance Of Hinduism: A Survey of Hindu Religious History from 1800–1950. Theology Today, 12(2), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/004057365501200207
  98. ^ "Meaning and Origin Of The Word "Hindu"". www.shraddhananda.com. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
  99. ^ "Hinduism As Santana Dharma, the Eternal Religion". www.hinduwebsite.com. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  100. ^ "Muslim population growth slows". The Hindu. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
  101. ^ "India has 79.8% Hindus, 14.2% Muslims, says 2011 census data on religion". Firstpost. 26 August 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
  102. ^ S, Rukmini; Singh, Vijaita (18 October 2016). "Muslim population growth slows". The Hindu. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  103. ^ "Millions of Dalit Muslims face caste discrimination". International Dalit Solidarity Network. 30 June 2016.
  104. ^ "India: Official Dalit population exceeds 200 million". International Dalit Solidarity Network. 29 May 2013.
  105. ^ a b c "Religion in India". Religion, webindia123.com. Suni Systems (P) Ltd. Retrieved 18 April 2007.
  106. ^ "Census of India 2001: Data on Religion". Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  107. ^ a b Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs. "India". 2001-2009.state.gov. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
  108. ^ . The Times of India. 6 November 2006. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
  109. ^ "Talaq rights proposed for Shia women". Daily News and Analysis, www.dnaindia.com. 5 November 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
  110. ^ "India Third in Global Muslim Population". Twocircles.net. 8 October 2009. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
  111. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milic; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Mbiti, John; Pelikan, Jaroslav (14 February 2008). The Encyclodedia of Christianity, Vol. 5. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2.
  112. ^ Yisrael, Muzeon (1995). The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities. UPNE. ISBN 978-965-278-179-6.
  113. ^ "NSC NETWORK – Early references about the Apostolate of Saint Thomas in India, Records about the Indian tradition, Saint Thomas Christians & Statements by Indian Statesmen". Nasrani.net. 16 February 2007. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  114. ^ "Navjot Singh Siddhu claims that 14 crore Nanakpanthi Sikhs live in India". Freepressjournal.
  115. ^ "According to rough estimates report, there are 12-15 crore Nanak Naam Lewas (Nanakpanthi) across the world". News Indian Express. 10 November 2019.
  116. ^ "Pak invites Sikh community to invest in commercial projects along Nankana-Kartarpur Corridor". Business Standard India. 13 January 2019 – via Business Standard.
  117. ^ Goyal, Divya (10 November 2019). "Explained: Who are Nanak Naam Lewa, and why Kartarpur Corridor can't be limited to Sikhs". The Indian Express. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  118. ^ "Navjot Singh Sidhu thinks there are 14 crore Sikhs in India instead of 2.4 crore". Free Press Journal.
  119. ^ "Religion". Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
  120. ^ Bose, Ashish; et al. (4 December 2004). "Growth of the Parsi population in India". Mumbai: Government of India: National Commission for Minorities: 3. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  121. ^ "Why is India's wealthy Parsi community vanishing?". BBC News. 9 January 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  122. ^ Momen 2008, pp. 154–5.
  123. ^ Hartz 2009, p. 10.
  124. ^ Daniyal, Shoaib. "People without religion have risen in Census 2011, but atheists have nothing to cheer about". Scroll.in. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  125. ^ "2.87 million Indians have no faith, census reveals for first time". The Times of India. 27 August 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  126. ^ a b c (PDF). WIN-Gallup. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
  127. ^ Swami, Praveen (1 November 1997). . Frontline. 14 (22). Archived from the original on 30 December 2001. Retrieved 17 April 2007.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  128. ^ Constitution of India-Part IV Article 44 Directive Principles of State Policy
  129. ^ Iyer VRK (6 September 2003). . The Hindu. Archived from the original on 5 December 2003. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  130. ^ Lavakare, Arvind (21 May 2002). "Where's the Uniform Civil Code?". rediff.com. Rediff.com India Limited. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  131. ^ Bakshi, P M (1996). Constitution Of India. Universal Law Publishing Co.P Ltd. p. 41. ISBN 978-81-7534-003-9. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
  132. ^ Diwan, Paras (1981). Modern Hindu law: codified and uncodified. Allahabad Law Agency. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
  133. ^ "The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Nation". www.tribuneindia.com.
  134. ^ "Among Wealthy Nations ... The U.S. Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion". The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 19 December 2002. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
  135. ^ . Religions of India. Global Peace Works. Archived from the original on 1 March 2005. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  136. ^ a b c d "Domestic Worship". Country Studies. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  137. ^ Chishti S, Jacob J (1 December 2006). . The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2007.
  138. ^ Yadav, Yogendra; Sanjay Kumar (14 August 2006). . hinduonnet.com. The Hindu. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2007.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  139. ^ "Countries With The Highest Rates Of Vegetarianism". WorldAtlas. 20 September 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  140. ^ . Archived from the original on 4 March 2011.
  141. ^ Devi, S. M.; Balachandar, V.; Lee, S. I.; Kim, I. H. (2014). "An Outline of Meat Consumption in the Indian Population - A Pilot Review". Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources. 34 (4). p. 507. doi:10.5851/kosfa.2014.34.4.507. PMC 4662155. PMID 26761289.
  142. ^ Ridgwell and Ridgway (1987), Food Around the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198327288, page 67
  143. ^ PATOLE, SHAHU (2016). "Why I wrote a book on Dalit food". Express Foodie beta. No. SEPTEMBER 8. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
  144. ^ a b "Life-Cycle Rituals". Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  145. ^ Banerjee, Suresh Chandra (2012). "Shraddha". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
  146. ^ a b c d e "Islamic Traditions in South Asia". Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
  147. ^ "Mahamagam Festival". Retrieved 14 February 2014.
  148. ^ Madan Prasad Bezbaruah; Dr. Krishna Gopal; Phal S. Girota (2003), Fairs and Festivals of India, p. 326, ISBN 9788121208093, retrieved 14 February 2014
  149. ^ a b Hassan 1920, pp. 110–111.
  150. ^ a b Walunjkar, pp. 285–287.
  151. ^ Government of Maharashtra 1962.
  152. ^ "Ajmer Sharif Dargah, Shrine of Moinuddin Chishti, Ajmer - Rajasthan Tourism". www.tourism.rajasthan.gov.in. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  153. ^ "Sri Harmandir Sahib. Amritsar (Punjab, India)". library.nga.gov. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  154. ^ "In His Service: A Newsletter From Meherabad" 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. June 2011. Myrtle Beach: Sheriar Press. p. 4.
  155. ^ [S Srinivas – Journal of Contemporary Religion, 1999 – Taylor & Francis]
  156. ^ a b R. Blake Michael – The Origins of Virasaiva Sects, 1992 – Motilal Banarsidass Pub
  157. ^ "Untitled Document". Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  158. ^ "India's population at 123 crore as of March 2012: Minister". The Economic Times. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
  159. ^ "Most Atheist Countries 2022".
  160. ^ "Population Pyramids of the World from 1950 to 2100".
  161. ^ Makkar 1993, p. 141
  162. ^ Olson & Shadle 1996, p. 759
  163. ^ . BJP Today. 15 (9). 1–15 May 2006. Archived from the original on 21 September 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
  164. ^ Ludden 1996, pp. 64–65
  165. ^ Times News Network (25 March 2002). . The Times of India. Archived from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
  166. ^ Chadha M (5 December 2006). "Despair of the discriminated Dalits". BBC News. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
  167. ^ Giridharadas A (22 April 2006). "Turning point in India's caste war". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
  168. ^ "Saffronisation of Indian Education". www.educationobserver.com.
  169. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labour (8 November 2005). "International Religious Freedom Report 2005". 2005 Report on International Religious Freedom. U.S. State Department. Retrieved 3 June 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  170. ^ Upadhyay R (21 August 2001). . South Asia Analysis Group. Archived from the original on 17 December 2005. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
  171. ^ Upadhyay R (26 February 2000). . South Asia Analysis Group. Archived from the original on 17 December 2005. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
  172. ^ Symonds 1950, p. 74.
  173. ^ Sengupta, Debjani (2006). "A City Feeding on Itself: Testimonies and Histories of 'Direct Action' Day" (PDF). In Narula, Monica (ed.). Turbulence. Serai Reader. Vol. 6. The Sarai Programme, Center for the Study of Developing Societies. pp. 288–295. OCLC 607413832.
  174. ^ L/I/1/425. The British Library Archives, London.
  175. ^ "Chronology of communal violence in India". Hindustan Times. Hindustan Times. 10 February 2004. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
  176. ^ Shepard 1987, pp. 45–46.
  177. ^ Nichols, B (2003). (PDF). Australasian Political Studies Association Conference. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2009. Retrieved 4 September 2007.
  178. ^ Mukhoty, Gobinda; Kothari, Rajni (1984). "Who are the Guilty?". People's Union for Civil Liberties. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  179. ^ Watch/Asia, Human Rights; (U.S.), Physicians for Human Rights (May 1994). Dead silence: the legacy of human rights abuses in Punjab. Human Rights Watch. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-56432-130-5. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
  180. ^ . Hindustan Times. 14 July 2010. Archived from the original on 17 July 2010. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  181. ^ a b Human Rights Watch 2006, p. 265.
  182. ^ "Declare India a 'Hindu Rashtra': Hindu convention resolution". Hindustan Times. 17 June 2017. from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
  183. ^ "'Hindu Rashtra' draft proposes Varanasi as capital instead of Delhi". 13 August 2022.
  184. ^ "India to become Hindu Rashtra by 2025, hints organiser of All India Hindu conference". 12 June 2022.
  185. ^ "Does India belong to only Hindus? Nearly 75% of Hindus say 'No', finds CSDS survey". 14 June 2019.
  186. ^ "Key findings about religion in India".
  187. ^ "Plea in SC seeks to remove words 'socialist', 'secular' from Constitution's preamble-India News, Firstpost". Firstpost. 29 July 2020. from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
  188. ^ "Subramanian Swamy's Plea to Delete 'Socialism' & 'Secularism' from Preamble to Constitution : Supreme Court to Hear on Sep 23". 2 September 2022.
  189. ^ https://www.thestatesman.com/subramanian-swamy-seeks-deletion/amp/[bare URL]

References

  • Charlton, Sue Ellen M (2004). Comparing Asian Politics: India, China, and Japan. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-4204-X.
  • Chatterjee, S; Datta, D (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (8th ed.). University of Calcutta. ASIN: B0007BFXK4.
  • Goldman, RP (2007). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-06663-9.
  • Hartz, Paula (2009). World Religions: Baha'i Faith (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60413-104-8.
  • Heehs, P (2002). Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3650-5.
  • Human Rights Watch; Press, Seven Stories (2006). Human Rights Watch World Report 2006. Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1-58322-715-6.
  • Ludden, David E (1996). Contesting the Nation: Religion, Community, and the Politics of Democracy in India. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1585-0.
  • Makkar, SPS (1993). Law, Social Change and Communal Harmony. ABS Publications. ISBN 81-7072-047-8.
  • Olson, James Stuart; Shadle, Robert (1996). Historical Dictionary of the British Empire. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29367-8.
  • Radhakrishnan, S; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
  • Rinehart, R (2004). Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice. ABC-Clio. ISBN 1-57607-905-8.
  • Schomer, Karine; McLeod, William Hewat (1987). The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India. Berkeley Religious Studies Series. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0277-3. OCLC 925707272.
  • Shepard, Mark (1987). Gandhi Today: A Report on Mahatma Gandhi's Successors. Shepard Publications. ISBN 0-938497-04-9.

Further reading

  • Jain, Sandhya (2010). Evangelical intrusions: [Tripura, a case study]. New Delhi: Rupa & Co.
  • Elst, K (2002). Who is a Hindu?: Hindu revivalist views of Animism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and other offshoots of Hinduism.
  • Goel, S.G. (2016). History of Hindu-Christian encounters, AD 304 to 1996.
  • Goel, S. R. (1988). Catholic ashrams: Adopting and adapting Hindu Dharma.
  • Panikkar, K. M. (1959). Asia and Western dominance. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781597406017.
  • Malhotra, Rajiv (2011). Being Different: An Indian Challenge to Western Universalism. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-9-350-29190-0.)
  • Rajiv Malhotra (2014), Indra's Net: Defending Hinduism's Philosophical Unity (Publisher: HarperCollins India; ISBN 978-9-351-36244-9)
  • Swarup, Ram (1984). Buddhism vis-a-vis Hinduism.
  • Swarup, R (1995). Hindu view of Christianity and Islam.
  • Shourie, Arun (1979). Hinduism, essence, and consequence: A study of the Upanishads, the Gita, and the Brahma-Sutras. Sahibabad, Distt. Ghaziabad: Vikas. ISBN 9780706908343.
  • Shourie, Arun (2006). Missionaries in India: Continuities, Changes, dilemmas. New Delhi: Rupa Publications. ISBN 9788172232702.

External links

  •   Media related to Religion in India at Wikimedia Commons
Religions in India
  • . www.indohistory.com. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2008.
Statistics
  • "Census of India 2001: Data on religion" (PDF). Government of India (Office of the Registrar General). Retrieved 28 May 2007.
Reports
  • "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India". United States Department of State. Retrieved 28 May 2007.

religion, india, characterised, diversity, religious, beliefs, practices, throughout, india, history, religion, been, important, part, country, culture, indian, subcontinent, birthplace, four, world, major, religions, namely, hinduism, buddhism, jainism, sikhi. Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and practices Throughout India s history religion has been an important part of the country s culture and the Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world s major religions namely Hinduism Buddhism Jainism and Sikhism which are collectively known as native Indian Religions or Dharmic Religions Religion in India 2011 Census 1 Hinduism 79 8 Islam 14 2 Christianity 2 3 Sikhism 1 7 Buddhism 0 7 Tribal Religion incl Sarnaism Bon Animism Kirat Mundhum Donyi Polo 0 5 Jainism 0 4 No religion inc Atheism Agnosticism Secularism and Unanswered 0 25 Other incl Bahaʼi Faith Zoroastrianism Judaism 0 15 A Murti of the Hindu god Lord Vishnu one of the Trimurti Supreme deites in Hinduism Muslim men in an Islamic library in DelhiSt Philomena s Cathedral in Mysore is one of the tallest churches in Asia A Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple Amritsar Punjab The Preamble to the Constitution of India states that India is a secular state 2 3 and the Constitution of India has declared the right to freedom of religion to be a fundamental right 4 According to the 2011 census 79 8 of the population of India practices Hinduism 14 2 adheres to Islam 2 3 adheres to Christianity 1 7 adheres to Sikhism 0 7 adheres to Buddhism and 0 4 adheres to Jainism Zoroastrianism Sanamahism and Judaism also have an ancient history in India and each has several thousands of Indian adherents India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism i e Parsis and Iranis and Baha i Faith in the world 5 even though these religions are otherwise largely exclusive to their native Persia Contents 1 Secularism 2 History 2 1 Pre historic religion 2 2 Indus Valley Civilization 2 3 Evolution of Hinduism 2 4 Rise of Shramana Religions 2 5 Bhakti Movement 2 5 1 Kabir Sect 2 6 Sikhism 2 7 Introduction of Abrahamic religions 2 7 1 Judaism 2 7 2 Christianity 2 7 3 Islam 3 Census statistics 4 Religions 4 1 Hinduism 4 2 Islam 4 3 Christianity 4 4 Sikhism 4 5 Buddhism 4 6 Jainism 4 7 Judaism 4 8 Other religions 4 9 Atheism 5 Law 6 Aspects 6 1 Rituals 6 2 Diet 6 3 Ceremonies 6 4 Pilgrimages 6 5 Minority beliefs and sects 7 Religiosity 8 Religion and politics 8 1 Politics 8 2 Education 8 3 Communalism 8 4 Communal conflicts 8 5 Demand for Hindu Rashtra law and politics 9 See also 10 Notes 10 1 Footnotes 10 2 Citations 11 References 11 1 Further reading 12 External linksSecularismMain articles Secularism in India and Freedom of religion in India Preamble of the Indian Constitution The Constitution of India declares India to be a secular state with no state religion 6 The Forty second Amendment of the Constitution of India enacted in 1976 asserts the Preamble to the Constitution of India as secular 7 It was enacted by Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed who was pressured by Indira Gandhi during the leadup to the Emergency citation needed However the Supreme Court of India in the 1994 case S R Bommai v Union of India established that India had been secular since the formation of the Republic on 26 January 1950 8 Secularism in India is understood to mean not a separation of religion from state but a state that supports or participates in a neutral manner in the affairs of all religious groups and as well as atheism 9 However the original copy of Indian constitution has an illustration of Rama Sita and Lakshmana in Part III on Fundamental Rights and Rama has been considered as the true guardian of people s rights 10 Article 48 of the Indian constitution prohibits the slaughter of cows or calves a sacred animal in Hinduism and the same is a criminal offense in most states of India 11 12 Secularism is defined as a basic structure doctrine of the constitution through the argument of Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala case that cannot be removed or amended by any means 13 However there is no mention of the term Basic Structure anywhere in the Constitution of India The idea that the Parliament cannot introduce laws that would amend the basic structure of the constitution have been evolved judicially over time and many cases 14 The particular provisions regarding secularism and freedom of religion in India in the constitution are Article 14 grants equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all 15 Article 15 enlarges the concept of secularism to the widest possible extent by prohibiting discrimination on grounds of religion race caste sex or place of birth 16 Article 25 Freedom of conscience and free profession practice and propagation of any religion 17 Article 26 Freedom to manage religious affairs 18 Article 27 Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion 19 Article 28 Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions 20 Articles 29 and 30 provide cultural and educational rights to the minorities 21 22 Article 51A i e Fundamental Duties obliges all the citizens to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood and to value and preserve the heritage of the country s composite diverse culture 23 HistoryMain article Indian religions See also Religious thinkers of India and Indian philosophy Pre historic religion Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals 24 Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife 25 Other South Asian Stone Age sites such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music 26 The Pashupati seal discovered at the Indus Valley Civilization city of Mohenjo daro identified with the Hindu god Shiva Indus Valley Civilization Main article Indus Valley Civilisation The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation which lasted from 3300 to 1400 BCE and was centered on the Indus and Ghaggar Hakra river valleys may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility 27 Excavations of Indus Valley Civilisation sites show seals with animals and fire altars indicating rituals associated with fire 28 A Shivlinga of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found 27 however this interpretation has been disputed by Srinivasan 29 Evolution of Hinduism Main article History of Hinduism Hinduism is often regarded as the oldest religion in the world 30 with roots tracing back to prehistoric times over 5 000 years ago 31 Hinduism spread through parts of Southeastern Asia China and Afghanistan Hindus worship a single divine entity paramatma lit first soul with different forms 32 An early 19th century manuscript of the Rigveda written in Devanagari Hinduism s origins include the cultural elements of the Indus Valley Civilisation along with other Indian civilisations 33 The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rigveda produced during the Vedic period and dating to 1700 1100 BCE g 34 During the Epic and Puranic periods the earliest versions of the epic poems in their current form including Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly from 500 to 100 BCE 35 although these were orally transmitted through families for centuries prior to this period 36 After 200 BCE several schools of thought were formally codified in the Indian philosophy including Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta 37 Hinduism otherwise a highly theistic religion hosted atheistic schools and atheistic philosophies Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as orthodox include Samkhya and Mimamsa 38 Rise of Shramana Religions Main articles Jainism in India and History of Buddhism in India This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia s quality standards You can help The talk page may contain suggestions March 2020 A statue of 24th and last Jain Tirthankar Mahavira A carving of Ashoka at Sanchi Ashoka is credited with promoting the spread of Buddhism in India and throughout Asia The Sramaṇa tradition includes Jainism 39 known endonymically as Jain Dharm and Buddhism 40 known endonymically as Bauddh Dharm and others such as the Ajivikas Ajnanas and others 41 42 The historical roots of Jainism in India have been traced to the 9th century BCE with the rise of Parshvanatha the 23th Tirthankar and his Jain philosophy 43 44 and to Mahavira 599 527 BCE the 24th Jain Tirthankara Jainism traces its roots further back to the first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha Mahavira stressed on the five vows Gautama Buddha who founded Buddhism was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha which lasted from 546 to 324 BCE rose to power citation needed His family was native to the plains of Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal Indian Buddhism peaked during the reign of Ashoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire who patronised Buddhism following his conversion and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE 45 He sent missionaries abroad allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia 46 Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and Kosala The decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to a variety of factors which include the resurgence of Hinduism in the 10th and 11th centuries under Sankaracharya the later Turkish invasion the Buddhist focus on renunciation as opposed to familial values and private property Hinduism s own use and appropriation of Buddhist and Jain ideals of renunciation and ahimsa and others Although Buddhism virtually disappeared from mainstream India by the 11th century CE its presence remained and manifested itself through other movements such as the Bhakti tradition Vaishnavism and the Bauls of Bengal who are influenced by the Sahajjyana form of Buddhism that was popular in Bengal during the Pala period Bhakti Movement This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Religion in India news newspapers books scholar JSTOR August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Bhakti movement During the 14th 17th centuries when North India was under Muslim rule the Bhakti movement swept through Central and Northern India The Bhakti movement actually started in the eighth century in south India present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala and gradually spread northwards 47 It was initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or saints Dnyaneshwar Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Vallabhacharya Surdas Meera Bai Kabir Tulsidas Ravidas Namdeo Eknath Ramdas Tukaram and other mystics were some of the saints in the North They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy and simply express their overwhelming love for God This period was also characterized by an abundance of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces The Bhakti movement gave rise to several different movements throughout IndiaDuring the Bhakti movement many Hindu groups regarded as outside the traditional Hindu caste system followed Bhakti traditions by worshipping following saints belonging to their respective communities For example Guru Ravidas was a Chamar of Uttar Pradesh Guru Parsuram Ramnami was a Chura dubious discuss of Chhattisgarh and Maharishi Ram Naval was a Bhangi of Rajasthan In their lifetimes several of these saints even went to the extent of fighting conversion from foreign missionaries encouraging only Hinduism within their communities In Assam for example tribals were led by Gurudev Kalicharan Bramha of the Brahmo Samaj in Nagaland by Kacha Naga and in Central India by Birsa Munda Hanuman Aaron Jatra Bhagat and Budhu Bhagat Kabir Sect The Kabir Panth is a religious movement based on the teachings of the Indian poet saint Kabir 1398 1518 48 Kabir sermonized a monotheism that appealed clearly to the poor and convinced them of their access to god with no liaison He denied both Hinduism and Islam as well as meaningless religious rituals and condemned double standards 49 This infuriated the orthodox aristocracy No one could frighten Kabir who was bold enough to stand up for himself and his beliefs 50 The Kabir Panth considers Kabir as its principal guru or even as a divinity truth incarnate Kabir s influence is testimony to his massive authority even for those whose beliefs and practices he condemned so unsparingly For Sikhs he is a forerunner and converser of Nanak the originating Sikh Guru spiritual guide Muslims place him in Sufi mystical lineages and for Hindus he becomes a Vaishnavite with universalist leanings 51 Sikhism Main article Sikhism in India Sikh pilgrims at the causeway to the sanctum of the Harmandir Sahib the holiest Sikh Gurdwara Guru Nanak Dev Ji 1469 1539 was the founder of Sikhism known endonymically as Sikh Dharm 52 53 The Guru Granth Sahib was first compiled by the fifth Sikh guru Guru Arjan Dev from the writings of the first five Sikh gurus and others saints who preached the concept of universal brotherhood including those of the Hindu and Muslim faith Before the death of Guru Gobind Singh the Guru Granth Sahib was declared the eternal guru 54 Sikhism recognises all humans as equal before Waheguru 55 regardless of colour caste or lineage 56 Sikhism strongly rejects the beliefs of fasting vrata superstitions idol worship 57 58 and circumcision 59 60 The Sikhs believe in one eternal god and follow the teachings of the 10 gurus the 5 K s of Sikhism the hukums of Guru Gobind Singh Sikh Rehat Maryada and Nitnem Introduction of Abrahamic religions Judaism Main article History of the Jews in India Jews first arrived as traders from Judea in the city of Kochi Kerala in 562 BCE 61 More Jews came as exiles from Israel in the year 70 CE after the destruction of the Second Temple 62 Christianity Main article Christianity in India A procession during the Feast of St Sebastian at St Mary s Forane Church Athirampuzha Kerala Christianity was introduced to India by Thomas the Apostle a direct disciple of Jesus Christ 63 who visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE and proselytized natives at large who are known as Saint Thomas Christians also known as Syrian Christians or Nasrani today India s oldest church the world s oldest existing church structure and built by Thomas the Apostle in 57 CE called Thiruvithamcode Arappally or Thomaiyar Kovil as named by the then Chera king Udayancheral is located at Thiruvithamcode in Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu India It is now declared an international St Thomas pilgrim center 64 There is a general scholarly consensus that Christianity was rooted in India by the 6th century CE including some communities who used Syriac liturgically and it is a possibility that the religion s existence in India extends to as far back as the 1st century 65 66 67 Christianity in India has different denominations like Syrian Orthodox Catholicism Protestantism Oriental Orthodox and others Most Christians reside in South India particularly in Kerala Tamil Nadu and Goa 68 69 There are also large Christian populations in Northeast India 70 Christianity in India was expanded in the 16th century by Catholic Portuguese expeditions and by Protestant missionaries in the 18th and 19th centuries 71 Islam Main article Islam in India Girls chase doves in front of the Jama Masjid in Delhi The mosque is one of the largest in India Islam is the second largest religion in India with 14 2 of the country s population or roughly 172 million people identifying as adherents of Islam 2011 census 72 73 74 75 76 77 It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population outside Muslim majority countries 78 Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders in Malabar coast Kerala it started to become a major religion during the Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent 79 The Cheraman Juma Mosque is the first mosque in India located in Methala Kodungallur Taluk Thrissur District in Kerala 80 A legend claims that it was built in 629 CE which makes it the oldest mosque in the Indian subcontinent which is still in use 80 It was built by Malik Deenar Persian companion of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad on the orders of the successor of Cheraman Perumal the Chera King of modern day Kerala 81 Islam s spread in India mostly took place under the Delhi Sultanate 1206 1526 and the Mughal Empire 1526 1858 greatly aided by the mystic Sufi tradition 82 Census statisticsSee also Hinduism in India Islam in India Christianity in India History of Buddhism in India Sikhism in India Jainism in India History of the Jews in India Parsis Bahaʼi Faith in India Tribal religions in India and Irreligion in India Map of majority religious groups by region in India Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Other India s Religious diversity as of the 2011 census 83 Religion Population Hindus 966 257 353 79 8 Muslims 172 245 158 14 2 Christians 27 819 588 2 3 Sikhs 20 833 116 1 72 Buddhists 8 442 972 0 7 Jains 4 451 753 0 37 Other religions 7 937 734 0 67 Not stated 2 867 303 0 24 Total 1 210 854 977 100 There are six religions in India which have been awarded National minority status Muslims Christians Sikhs Jains Buddhists and Zoroastrians Parsis 84 85 Population trends for major religious groups in India 1951 2011 Religiousgroup Population 1951 Population 1961 Population 1971 Population 1981 Population 1991 Population 2001 Population 2011 86 Hinduism 84 1 83 45 82 73 82 30 81 53 80 46 79 80 Islam 9 8 10 69 11 21 11 75 12 61 13 43 14 23 Christianity 2 30 2 44 2 60 2 44 2 32 2 34 2 30 Sikhism 1 79 1 79 1 89 1 92 1 94 1 87 1 72 Buddhism 0 74 0 74 0 70 0 70 0 77 0 77 0 70 Jainism 0 46 0 46 0 48 0 47 0 40 0 41 0 37 Zoroastrianism 0 13 0 09 0 09 0 09 0 08 0 06 not countedOthers Religion not specified 0 43 0 43 0 41 0 42 0 44 0 72 0 88 The following is a breakdown of India s religious communities Characteristics of religious groups 86 Religiousgroup Population 2011 Growth 2001 2011 87 88 Sex ratio 2011 total 89 Sex ratio 2011 rural Sex ratio 2011 urban Sex ratio 2011 child 90 Literacy 2011 91 Work participation 2011 89 92 Hinduism 79 80 16 8 939 946 921 913 73 3 41 0 Islam 14 23 24 6 951 957 941 943 68 5 32 6 Christianity 2 30 15 5 1023 1008 1046 958 84 5 41 9 Sikhism 1 72 8 4 903 905 898 828 75 4 36 3 Buddhism 0 70 6 1 965 960 973 933 81 3 43 1 Jainism 0 37 5 4 954 935 959 889 94 9 35 5 Others Religion not specified 0 90 n a 959 947 975 974 n a n aNote When compared with 2001 India s population rose by 17 7 in 2011 with an average sex ratio of 943 and a literacy rate of 74 4 The average work participation stood at 39 79 ReligionsHinduism Main article Hinduism in India Akshardham Temple in New Delhi of the BAPS Swaminarayan sect Hinduism is an ancient religion with the largest religious grouping in India with around 966 million adherents as of 2011 composing 79 8 of the population 86 Hinduism is diverse with monotheism henotheism polytheism panentheism pantheism monism atheism animism agnosticism and gnosticism being represented 93 94 95 96 97 The term Hindu originally a geographical description derives from the Sanskrit Sindhu the historical appellation for the Indus River and refers to a person from the land of the river Sindhu 98 Hindus following the traditional religion call it Sanatana Dharma or Eternal Way 99 The adherents of Sanatana Dharma call themselves as Sanatani the original word for the adherents of Sanatana Dharma Hindu reformist Sects such as the Arya samaj do not use the term Sanatani Islam Main article Islam in India Jama Masjid Delhi Islam is a monotheistic religion centered on the belief in one God and following the example of Muhammad it is the largest minority religion in India About 14 2 of the country s population or approx 172 2 million people identify as adherents of Islam 2011 census 83 100 101 102 Out of 172 2 million Muslims in India as per 2011 census it was found that more than 100 million of them are from low caste converts specially Dalits 103 104 The Islamic Invasion during Medieval Era has obtained the religion a significant population of adherents The religion is regarded as Minority religion and the adherents are given Special privileges citation needed clarification needed It makes India the country with the largest Muslim population outside Muslim majority countries Muslims are a majority in states Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep 105 and live in high concentrations in Uttar Pradesh Bihar West Bengal Assam and Kerala 105 106 There has been no particular census conducted in India with regards to sects but sources suggest the largest denomination is Sunni Islam 107 with a substantial minority of Shia Muslims and Ahmadiyya Muslims Indian sources like Times of India and DNA reported the Indian Shiite population in mid 2005 2006 to be between 25 and 31 of entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40 and 50 million 108 109 107 110 Christianity Main article Christianity in India The Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health of Velankanni in Tamil Nadu is a very devoted Catholic Marian shrine Christianity is a monotheistic religion centred on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament It is the third largest religion of India making up 2 3 of the population St Thomas is credited with introduction of Christianity in India He arrived on the Malabar Coast in 52 CE 111 112 113 The tradition of origin among Saint Thomas Christians relates to the arrival of Saint Thomas one of the 12 disciples of Jesus at the ancient seaport Muziris on the Kerala coast in 52 CE The families Sankaramangalam Pakalomattam Kalli and Kaliyankal were considered particularly preeminent and historically the most aristocratic Syriac Christian families tended to claim descent from these families It is also possible for Aramaic speaking Jews from Galilee to make a trip to Kerala in the 1st century The Cochin Jews are known to have existed in Kerala around that time The earliest known source connecting the apostle to India is the Acts of Thomas likely written in the early 3rd century perhaps in Edessa Marth Mariam Syro Malabar Catholic Forane Church Arakuzha was founded in 999The text describes Thomas adventures in bringing Christianity to India a tradition later expanded upon in early Indian sources such as the Thomma Parvam Song of Thomas Generally he is described as arriving in or around Maliankara and founding Seven Churches and half churches or Ezharapallikal Kodungallur Kollam Niranam Nilackal Chayal Kokkamangalam Kottakkavu Palayoor Thiruvithamcode Arappalli and Aruvithura church half church A number of 3rd and 4th century Roman writers also mention Thomas trip to India including Ambrose of Milan Gregory of Nazianzus Jerome and Ephrem the Syrian while Eusebius of Caesarea records that his teacher Pantaenus visited a Christian community in India in the 2nd century There came into existence a Christian community who were mainly merchants Christianity expanded in the rest of India during the period of British colonial rule Christians comprise the majority of natives of Nagaland and Mizoram as well as of Meghalaya and have significant populations in Manipur Goa Kerala and Mumbai Sikhism Main article Sikhism in India Golden Temple Sikhism is a monotheistic religion began in fifteenth century Punjab with the teachings of Guru Nanak and nine successive Sikh gurus As of 2011 there were 20 8 million Sikhs in India Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority There are also significant populations of Sikhs in neighboring Chandigarh Himachal Pradesh Delhi and Haryana These areas were historically a part of Greater Punjab However there is no data for specific number of Nanak followers Nanakpanthis in India but they are believed to be in crores somewhere around 14 crores 114 115 116 Karnail Singh Panjoli member Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee says that there are several communities within the term Nanakpanthis too There are groups like Sikhligarh Vanjaarey Nirmaley Lubaney Johri Satnamiye Udaasiyas etc who call themselves Nanakpanthis They follow guru Nanak and Sri Guru Granth Sahib 117 118 Buddhism Main article History of Buddhism in India Mahabodhi temple Buddhism is an Indian transtheistic religion and philosophy Around 8 5 million Buddhists live in India about 0 7 of the total population 119 Buddhism as a religion is practised mainly in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a significant religion in Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Ladakh Darjeeling in West Bengal and the Lahaul and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh Besides a significant number of Buddhists reside in Maharashtra They are the Buddhists or Navayana Buddhists who under the influence of B R Ambedkar embraced Buddhism in order to escape the casteist practices within Hinduism Ambedkar is a crucial figure along with Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka and Kripasaran Mahasthavira of Chittagong behind the revival of Buddhism in India in the 19th and 20th centuries The escape of the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzing Gyatso to India fleeing Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959 and the setting up of the Tibetan Government in Exile at Dharamshala in Mcleodganj in Himachal Pradesh has also accelerated the resurgence of Buddhism in India The effective religion in Sikkim which joined the Indian Union in 1975 making it India s 22nd state remains Vajrayana Buddhism and Padmasambhava or Guru Ugyen is a revered presence there Jainism Main article Jainism in India Ranakpur Jain temple Jainism is a non theistic Indian religion and philosophical system originating in Iron Age India Jains compose 0 4 around 4 45 million of India s population and are concentrated in the states of Gujarat Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra and Rajasthan 105 Judaism Main article History of the Jews in India The interior of the Paradesi Synagogue in Cochin Also present in India Judaism is a monotheistic religion from the Levant There is today a very small community of Indian Jews There were more Jews in India historically including the Cochin Jews of Kerala the Bene Israel of Maharashtra and the Baghdadi Jews near Mumbai Since Indian independence two primarily proselyte Indian Jewish communities have developed in India the Bnei Menashe of Mizoram and Manipur and the Bene Ephraim also called Telugu Jews Of the approximately 95 000 Jews of Indian extraction fewer than 20 000 remain in India Some parts of India are especially popular with Israelis swelling local Jewish populations seasonally citation needed Other religions The Bahaʼi Faith s Lotus Temple in Delhi India As of the census of 2001 Parsis followers of Zoroastrianism in India represent approximately 0 006 of the total population of India 120 with relatively high concentrations in and around the city of Mumbai Parsis number around 61 000 in India 121 There are several tribal religions in India such as Donyi Polo Santhal is also one of the many tribal religions followed by the Santhal people who number around 4 million but only around 23 645 follow the religion citation needed It is difficult to establish the exact numbers of Bahaʼis in India The religion came to India from Iran in about 1850 and gained some converts from the Muslim population of India The first Sikh and Hindu converts came by 1910 and in 1960 there were fewer than 1 000 Bahaʼis in all of India Beginning in 1961 large numbers from scheduled castes became Bahaʼis and by 1993 Bahaʼis reported about 2 2 million members 5 though later sources have claimed 2 million 122 or more than 1 million 123 Atheism Main article Irreligion in India Around 2 9 million people in India did not state their religion in the 2001 census and were counted in the category religion not stated They were 0 24 of India s population Their number have significantly increased 4 times from 0 7 million in 2001 census at an average annual rate of 15 124 K Veeramani a Dravidar Kazhagam leader said that he believed that the number of atheists in India was actually higher as many people don t reveal their atheism out of fear 125 According to the 2012 WIN Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report 81 of Indians were religious 13 were non religious 3 were convinced atheists and 3 were unsure or did not respond 126 LawMain articles Constitution of India Fundamental Rights Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India Secularism in India and Indian religion Status in the Republic of India See also Jain law The preamble to the Constitution of India proclaims India a sovereign socialist secular democratic republic The word secular was inserted into the Preamble by the Forty second Amendment Act of 1976 It mandates equal treatment and tolerance of all religions India does not have an official state religion it enshrines the right to practice preach and propagate any religion No religious instruction is imparted in government supported schools In S R Bommai v Union of India the Supreme Court of India held that secularism was an integral tenet of the Constitution and that there was separation of state and religion 127 Freedom of religion is a fundamental right according to the Indian Constitution The Constitution also suggests a uniform civil code for its citizens as a Directive Principle 128 This has not been implemented until now as Directive Principles are Constitutionally unenforceable The Supreme Court has further held that the enactment of a uniform civil code all at once may be counter productive to the unity of the nation and only a gradual progressive change should be brought about Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh 1996 129 In Maharishi Avadesh v Union of India 1994 the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking a writ of mandamus against the government to introduce a common civil code and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on the legislature 130 Major religious communities not based in India continue to be governed by their own personal laws Whilst Muslims Christians Zoroastrians and Jews have personal laws exclusive to themselves Hindus Jains Buddhists and Sikhs are governed by a single personal law known as Hindu personal law Article 25 2 b of the Constitution of India states that references to Hindus include persons professing the Sikh Jain or Buddhist religion 131 Furthermore the Hindu Marriage Act 1955 defines the legal status of Jains Buddhists and Sikhs as legal Hindus but not Hindus by religion 132 Supreme Court in 2005 gave verdict that Jains Sikhs and Buddhist are part of broader Hindu fold as they are Indic religions and interconnected to each other though they are distinct religions 133 AspectsReligion plays a major role in the Indian way of life 134 Rituals worship and other religious activities are very prominent in an individual s daily life it is also a principal organizer of social life The degree of religiosity varies amongst individuals in recent decades religious orthodoxy and observances have become less common in Indian society particularly amongst young urban dwellers citation needed Rituals A puja performed on the banks of the overflowing Shipra River in Ujjain during the summer monsoon The vast majority of Indians engage in religious rituals daily 135 Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home 136 Observation of rituals vary greatly amongst regions villages and individuals Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping puja fire sacrifice called Yajna citation needed at the dawn after bathing usually at a family shrine and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foods before the images of deities recitation from religious scripts like Vedas and Puranas singing hymns in praise of gods 136 A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner which must be overcome or neutralized before or during ritual procedures Purification usually with water is thus a typical feature of most religious action 136 Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit gained through the performance of charity or good works that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world 136 Muslims offer five daily prayers at specific times of the day indicated by adhan call to prayer from the local mosques Before offering prayers they must ritually clean themselves by performing wudu which involves washing parts of the body that are generally exposed to dirt or dust A recent study by the Sachar Committee found that 3 4 of Muslim children study in madrasas Islamic schools 137 Diet A vegetarian thali from Rajasthan See also Vegetarianism and religion and Fasting Dietary habits in India are significantly influenced by religion According to a survey 31 of Indian population claims to be vegetarian and mainly practice lacto vegetarianism 138 139 140 Vegetarianism is less common among Sikhs Muslims Christians Baha is Parsis and Jews Despite the majority of population having no objection to meat consumption globally India has the lowest meat consumption per capita 141 Non vegetarian Indians mostly prefer poultry fish other seafood goat and sheep as their sources of meat 142 Hinduism forbids beef whilst islam forbids pork The smaller populations of christians tribals and some dalit communities have no objection to eating either beef or pork 143 Jainism requires followers from all its sects and traditions to be vegetarian Furthermore the religion also forbids Jains from eating any vegetable that involves digging it from the ground This rule therefore excludes all Root vegetables such as potatoes sweet potatoes ginger carrots garlic radishes etc from a Jain diet Ceremonies A Hindu wedding ceremony Occasions like birth marriage and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs In Hinduism major life cycle rituals include annaprashan a baby s first intake of solid food upanayanam sacred thread ceremony undergone by boys belonging to some upper castes such as Brahmin and Kshatriya only and shraadh paying homage to a deceased individual 144 145 According to the findings of a 1995 national research paper for most people in India a betrothal of a young couple placing an expectation upon an exact date and time of a future wedding was a matter decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers 144 A significant reduction in the proportion of arranged marriages has however taken place since 1995 reflecting an incremental change citation needed Muslims practice a series of life cycle rituals that differ from those of Hindus Jains and Buddhists 146 Several rituals mark the first days of life including the whispering call to prayer first bath and shaving of the head Religious instruction begins early Male circumcision usually takes place after birth in some families it may be delayed until after the onset of puberty 146 Marriage requires a payment by the husband to the wife called Meher and the solemnization of a marital contract in a social gathering 146 After the burial of the dead friends and relatives gather to console the bereaved read and recite the Quran and pray for the soul of the deceased 146 Indian Islam is distinguished by the emphasis it places on shrines commemorating great Sufi saints 146 Pilgrimages See also Hindu pilgrimage sites in India and Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth 2019 Prayag Kumbh Mela held in Allahabad officially known as Prayagraj attracted around 120 million people from around the world Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelve years in Tamil Nadu Mahamagam Festival which is held at Kumbakonam This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South 147 148 Maramon Convention the largest annual Christian gathering in Asia organised by the Mar Thoma Syrian Church Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh was built in the 1600s is the largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa Tibet The Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the oldest stone structure in India Built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century BCE it houses the relics of Buddha Siddhartha Gautama Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim is one of the major tourist attractions of Northeast India Many Hindu families have their own family patron deity or the kuladevata 149 This deity is common to a lineage or a clan of several families who are connected to each other through a common ancestor 149 150 The Khandoba of Jejuri is an example of a Kuladevata of some Maharashtrian families he is a common Kuladevata to several castes ranging from Brahmins to Dalits 151 The practice of worshipping local or territorial deities as Kuladevata began in the period of the Yadava dynasty 150 Other family deities of the people of Maharashtra are Bhavani of Tuljapur Mahalaxmi of Kolhapur Renuka of Mahur and Balaji of Tirupati India hosts numerous pilgrimage sites belonging to many religions Hindus worldwide recognise several Indian holy cities including Allahabad officially known as Prayagraj Haridwar Varanasi Ujjain Rameshwaram and Vrindavan Notable temple cities include Puri which hosts a major Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration Tirumala Tirupati home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Katra home to the Vaishno Devi temple Badrinath Puri Dwarka and Rameswaram compose the main pilgrimage circuit of Char Dham four abodes hosting the four holiest Hindu temples Badrinath Temple Jagannath Temple Dwarkadheesh Temple and Ramanathaswamy Temple respectively The Himalayan towns of Badrinath Kedarnath Gangotri and Yamunotri compose the smaller Chota Char Dham mini four abodes pilgrimage circuit The Kumbh Mela the pitcher festival is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years the location is rotated amongst Allahabad Prayagraj Haridwar Nashik and Ujjain The Thalaimaippathi at Swamithope is the leading pilgrim center for the Ayyavazhis Seven of the Eight Great Places of Buddhism are in India Bodh Gaya Sarnath and Kushinagar are the places where important events in the life of Gautama Buddha took place Sanchi hosts a Buddhist stupa erected by the emperor Ashoka Many Buddhist monasteries dot the Himalayan foothills of India where Buddhism remains a major presence These include the Rumtek Monastery Enchey Monastery and Pemayangtse Monastery in Sikkim the Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh the Kye Monastery and Tabo Monastery in Spiti the Ghum Monastery in Darjeeling and Durpin Dara Monastery in Kalimpong the Thikse Monastery in Leh the Namgyal Monastery in Dharamshala among many others For Sunni Muslims the Dargah Shareef of Khwaza Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer is a major pilgrimage site 152 Other Islamic pilgrimages include those to the Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti in Fatehpur Sikri Jama Masjid in Delhi and to Haji Ali Dargah in Mumbai Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu Palitana Pavapuri Girnar and Shravanabelagola are notable pilgrimage sites tirtha in Jainism The Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar is the most sacred gurdwara of Sikhism 153 Relatively new pilgrimage sites include the samadhi of Meher Baba in Meherabad which is visited by his followers from around the world 154 and the Saibaba temple in Shirdi 155 Minority beliefs and sects Hinduism contains many different sub cultures just like most other religions The major aspects outlined above hold true for the majority of the Hindu population but not all Just as each state is home to an individual language Hinduism harbors various sub cultures whose traditions may or may not be shared by other Indians A sect from Gujarat called the Prajapatis for example holds water as the sacred ornament to every meal Before and after a meal an individual is expected to pour water in the palms of their right hand and sip the water three times 156 This is often seen as a purification gesture food is regarded as being holy and every individual must purify themselves before touching their food Other minor sects in India carry no specific name but they are uniquely identified by the last names of each family This convention is used more frequently in South India than in North India For example a relatively prominent sect in southern India prohibits making important decisions commencing new tasks and doing other intellectually or spiritually engaged actions after sunset Historians believe that this tradition was derived from the concept of Rahukaalam in which Hindus believe that a specific period of the day is inauspicious Stringent family beliefs are thought to have led to the development of a more constrained religious hierarchy 157 Over time this belief was extended to discourage taking major actions and even staying awake for long periods after sunset Examples of families which follow this tradition include Gudivada Padalapalli Pantham and Kashyap 156 ReligiositySee also Irreligion in India Religiosity among Indians 2012 Survey 126 Religious 81 Atheists 3 Irreligion 13 Not stated 3 India has a population of 123 crore per a 2012 demographic survey by Indian government 158 According to the 2012 WIN Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report 81 of Indians were religious 13 were non religious 3 were convinced atheists and 3 were unsure or did not respond 126 Cambridge University Press in 2004 demographic study have found that there are 102 87 million atheists and agnostics living in India thus constituting 9 1 of the total population out of total 1 1296 billion people respectively 159 160 Religion and politicsMain articles Indian Mujahideen Jamaat e Islami Hind and List of organisations banned by the Government of India See also Freedom of religion in India Takht Sri Hazur Sahib Nanded built over the place where Guru Gobind Singh Ji was cremated in 1708 the inner chamber is still called Angitha Sahib Politics Religious politics particularly that expressed by the Hindutva movement has strongly influenced Indian politics in the last quarter of the 20th century Many of the elements underlying India s casteism and communalism originated during the colonial era when the colonial government frequently politicized religion in an attempt to stave off increasing nationalistic sentiments in India 161 The Indian Councils Act 1909 widely known as the Morley Minto Reforms Act which established separate Hindu and Muslim electorates for the Imperial Legislature and provincial councils was particularly divisive increasing tensions between the two communities 162 Due to the high degree of oppression faced by the lower castes the Constitution of India included provisions for affirmative action for certain sections of Indian society Many states ruled by the Bharatiya Janata Party BJP introduced laws that made conversion more difficult they assert that such conversions are often forced or allured 163 The BJP a national political party also gained widespread media attention after its leaders associated themselves with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and other prominent religious issues 164 A well known accusation that Indian political parties make for their rivals is that they play vote bank politics meaning give political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community Both the Congress Party and the BJP have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics The Shah Bano case a divorce lawsuit generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim orthodoxy by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate the Supreme Court s decision After the 2002 Gujarat violence there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics 165 Caste based politics is also important in India caste based discrimination and the reservation system continue to be major issues that are hotly debated 166 167 Education The neutrality of this section is disputed Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met July 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message Political parties have been accused of using their political power to manipulate educational content in a revisionist manner The BJP led NDA government was accused of teaching history from a Hindutva outlook in public schools by the opposition parties 168 The next government formed by the UPA and led by the Congress Party pledged to undo this and reinstate the secular form of thought in the Indian educational system 169 Hindu groups allege that the UPA promote Marxist theories in school curricula 170 171 Communalism Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India After Indian independence in 1947 India was partitioned along religious lines into two states the Muslim majority Dominion of Pakistan comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People s Republic of Bangladesh and the Hindu majority Union of India later the Republic of India The partition led to rioting amongst Hindus Muslims and Sikhs in Punjab Bengal Delhi and other parts of India 500 000 died as a result of the violence The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history D 172 Since its independence India has periodically witnessed large scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities The Republic of India is secular the Indian government recognizes no official religion Communal conflicts Main articles Religious violence in India and Terrorism in India Aftermath of Hindu Muslim clashes in Calcutta following the 1946 Direct Action Day which was announced by the All India Muslim League to show the strength of Muslim feelings towards its demand for an autonomous and sovereign Muslim state called Pakistan 173 174 Communal conflicts have periodically plagued India since it became independent in 1947 175 The roots of such strife lie largely in the underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities which emerged under the Raj and during the bloody Partition of India Such conflict also stems from the competing ideologies of Hindu nationalism versus Islamic fundamentalism both are prevalent in parts of the Hindu and Muslim populations This issue has plagued India since before independence The lack of education among the masses and the ease with which corrupt politicians can take advantage of the same has been attributed as the major reason for religious conflicts in India Even though Freedom of religion is an integral part of the India constitution the inability to hold a communal mob accountable for its collectove actions has limited the exercise of religious freedom in India Alongside other major Indian independence leaders Mahatma Gandhi and his Shanti sainiks peace soldiers worked to quell early outbreaks of religious conflict in Bengal including riots in Calcutta now in West Bengal and Noakhali District in modern day Bangladesh that accompanied Muhammad Ali Jinnah s Direct Action Day which was launched on 16 August 1946 These conflicts waged largely with rocks and knives and accompanied by widespread looting and arson were crude affairs Explosives and firearms which are rarely found in India were far less likely to be used 176 Major post independence communal conflicts include the 1984 Anti Sikh riots which followed Operation Blue Star by the Indian Army heavy artillery tanks and helicopters were employed against the Sikh partisans inside the Harmandir Sahib causing heavy damage to Sikhism s holiest Gurdwara According to the Indian government estimates the assault caused the deaths of up to 100 soldiers 250 militants and hundreds of civilians 177 This triggered Indira Gandhi s assassination by her outraged Sikh bodyguards on 31 October 1984 which set off a four day period during which Sikhs were massacred The Government of India reported 2 700 Sikh deaths however human rights organizations and newspapers report the death toll to be 10 000 17 000 In the aftermath of the riot the Government of India reported 20 000 had fled the city however the PUCL reported at least 50 000 displaced persons 178 The most affected regions were neighbourhoods in Delhi Human rights organisations and the newspapers believe the massacre was organised 179 The collusion of political officials in the massacres and the failure to prosecute any killers alienated normal Sikhs and increased support for the Khalistan movement The Akal Takht the governing religious body of Sikhism considers the killings to be a genocide 180 Other incidents include the 1992 Bombay riots that followed the demolition of the Babri Mosque as a result of the Ayodhya debate and the 2002 Gujarat violence where 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus were killed and which was preceded by the Godhra Train Burning 181 Lesser incidents plague many towns and villages the representative was the killing of five people in Mau Uttar Pradesh during Hindu Muslim rioting which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival 181 Demand for Hindu Rashtra law and politics Main articles Hindu nationalism and Hindutva Most Right Wing Hindu organisations like RSS Bajrang Dal Vishwa Hindu Parishad have demanded that India should be declared a Hindu nation by constitution to safeguard the rights and life of Hindus in this largest democracy 182 183 184 As far as citizens are concerned only 7 20th Indian Hindus are in the favour of making India as Hindu Rashtra 185 Nearly two thirds of Indian Hindus 64 of the population say s that it is very important to be Hindu to be truly Indian or citizen of India 186 As of 28 July 2020 there were pleas going on Supreme Court of India to remove the words secular and socialist from the Preamble to the Constitution of India 187 Recently ex Rajya Sabha MP Subramanian Swamy s have made Plead to Supreme Court of India for Deletion of Socialist and Secular words from Preamble to the Constitution of India 188 189 See also India portal Religion portalDalit Buddhist movement List of Hindu festivals Religion in KeralaNotesFootnotes a The data exclude the Mao Maram Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Manipur s Senapati district b The data are unadjusted without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir the 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and the 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir g Oberlies 1998 p 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are far more uncertain Oberlies p 158 based on cumulative evidence sets a wide range of 1700 1100 BCE The EIEC s v Indo Iranian languages p 306 gives a range of 1500 1000 BCE The hymns certainly post date Indo Iranian separation of ca 2000 BCE It cannot be ruled out that archaic elements of the Rigveda go back to only a few generations after this time but philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the latter half of the second millennium D According to the most conservative estimates given by Symonds 1950 p 74 half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless e Statistic describes resident Indian nationals up to six years in age Citations India has 79 8 Hindus 14 2 Muslims says 2011 census data on religion Firstpost 26 August 2016 Retrieved 14 August 2016 Preamble to the Indian Constitution S R Bommai v Union of India Basu Durga Das 2013 Introduction to the Constitution of India 21 ed LexisNexis p 124 ISBN 978 81 803 8918 4 a b Smith 2008 p 94 Constitution of India Legislative Department Ministry of Law and Justice GoI The Constitution Forty Second Amendment Act 1976 Government of India Archived from the original on 28 March 2015 Retrieved 1 December 2010 https indiankanoon org doc 60799 cf chl jschl tk 238573f48275b685fc4286d86fb7f8d791b95b89 1605159943 0 AUH3bFyciTLUFhD1SxBDxmdiWyx30gRbc9sKNMEp2AVFRikpp9Yj04upKlxDKg g67cgonAuoofwtbmSbe7LiFvmdvh1UpVsGEiqmE8NRpW9IZOEaFfi0nC hORolA9ehgyy8bJ19HFLaV5jtvnCBm9aDQBTp rkgKXSxmi5tSu9XKBw1fOvLunDzLkIS1P5Hnoz1yZ6hRi3oBb7brYxYqdXJe 3q0 BNsLFbEaLkO yaPSbwXcAdvByLdw3yqOivpiMoL6XXvbtnp3IQBCNCtUP6oABTxAbcofz2vMJei V6 RBiFUFq0DniR6cd7PxtJ IdP6T6u5yk3b1T owvbOVfS74wnCJe ke8RIQXBt bare URL Secularism Why painting of Ram in India s Constitution matters 26 January 2021 Cow protection was a sensitive subject in India even when the Constitution was being framed https indiankanoon org doc 1452355 bare URL Secularism is a basic feature of Constitution Deccan Herald 18 December 2019 Basic Structure Doctrine of the Indian Constitution Explanation amp Landmark Cases Indian Polity Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 Constitution of India www constitutionofindia net Retrieved 21 February 2022 https doj gov in sites filesPDF Web results Text of Article 51 A PART IVA FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES 51A Discovering amp deciphering rock art Frontline Frontline 11 November 2015 Retrieved 6 January 2021 Heehs 2002 p 39 Ancient Indians made rock music BBC News 19 March 2004 Retrieved 7 August 2007 a b Fowler 1997 p 90 SUBRAMANIAN T S 17 April 2015 Harappan surprise Frontline Retrieved 6 January 2021 Srinivasan D 1984 Unhinging Siva from the Indus civilization Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain amp Ireland Cambridge University Press 116 1 pp 77 89 doi 10 1017 S0035869X00166134 P 484 Merriam Webster s Encyclopedia of World Religions By Wendy Doniger M Webster Merriam Webster Inc P 169 The Encyclopedia of Religion By Mircea Eliade Charles J Adams P 22 The Complete Idiot s Guide to Geography By Joseph Gonzalez Michael D Smith Thomas E Sherer Hinduism web csulb edu Retrieved 7 January 2021 Oberlies 1998 p 155 Goldman 2007 p 23 Rinehart 2004 p 28 Radhakrishnan amp Moore 1967 p xviii xxi Indian Philosophy Orthodox and Heterodox Schools ClearIAS 5 October 2014 Retrieved 7 January 2021 Zimmer 1952 p 182 183 sfn error no target CITEREFZimmer1952 help Svarghese Alexander P 2008 India History Religion Vision And Contribution To The World pp 259 60 AL Basham 1951 History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas a Vanished Indian Religion Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 8120812048 pp 94 103 James G Lochtefeld 2002 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism N Z Volume 2 of The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism The Rosen Publishing Group p 639 ISBN 978 0823922871 Dundas 2002 p 30 Zimmer 1953 p 182 183 Mark Joshua J 24 June 2020 Ashoka the Great World History Encyclopedia Retrieved 7 January 2021 Heehs 2002 p 106 Schomer amp McLeod 1987 p 1 Director Research Services Division Ritual and reform in the Ka researchers anu edu au Retrieved 23 July 2020 Kabir in His Time And Ours The Wire Retrieved 7 January 2021 Venkatesh Karthik 12 November 2016 A brief history of the Bhakti movement Livemint Retrieved 23 July 2020 Kabir Indian mystic and poet Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 23 July 2020 Singh Nirbhai 1990 Philosophy of Sikhism Reality and Its Manifestations New Delhi Atlantic Publishers pp 1 3 Takhar Opinderjit Kaur 2016 Sikh Identity An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs Abingdon on Thames England Taylor amp Francis p 147 ISBN 978 1 351 90010 2 The Last Guru the Guru Granth Sahib Waheguru God and authority Edexcel GCSE Religious Studies Revision Edexcel BBC Bitesize Retrieved 7 January 2021 Akal Ustat Verse 85 15 1 Akal Ustat verse 3 to 4 Star Brian Leaf Rockford Register 15 August 2015 Sikhs condemn fasting visiting places of pilgrimage superstitions worship of the dead idol worship and other blind rituals Rockford Register Star Retrieved 7 September 2015 Petition in HC seeks ban on Nanak Shah Fakir The Tribune India 7 September 2015 Retrieved 2 September 2016 Dhillon Dalbir Singh 28 August 2015 Sikhism Origin and Development Google Books Retrieved 7 September 2015 Glausiusz Josie 14 March 2004 miscellaneous Circumcision Retrieved 7 September 2015 Yisrael Muzeon 1995 The Jews of India A Story of Three Communities UPNE ISBN 978 965 278 179 6 Schreiber Mordecai 2003 The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia Rockville MD Schreiber Publishing p 125 ISBN 1887563776 Edessa Acta Thomae Edessa Palayur Archdiocese of Trichur www trichurarchdiocese org Retrieved 7 January 2021 Farhadian Charles E 20 February 2012 Introducing World Christianity John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 978 1 4051 8249 2 Leslie Brown 1956 The Indian Christians of St Thomas An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar Cambridge Cambridge University Press 1956 1982 repr Origin of Christianity in India A Historiographical Critique by Dr Benedict Vadakkekara 2007 ISBN 81 7495 258 6 Ross Israel J 1 January 1979 Ritual and Music in South India Syrian Christian Liturgical Music in Kerala Asian Music 11 1 80 98 doi 10 2307 833968 JSTOR 833968 Christianity India Mirror Retrieved 13 March 2008 The Story of India www bibleforu com Archived from the original on 8 March 2008 Retrieved 13 March 2008 Christianity in India M B Herald Vol 35 No 9 Archived from the original on 9 March 2008 Retrieved 13 March 2008 S Rukmini Singh Vijaita 25 August 2015 Muslim population growth slows The Hindu via www thehindu com Abantika Ghosh Vijaita Singh 24 January 2015 Census 2011 Muslims record decadal growth of 24 6 pc Hindus 16 8 pc Indian Express Indian Express Retrieved 27 January 2015 Muslim politics At a crossroads livemint com Livemint 30 May 2014 Retrieved 28 October 2014 Vijaita Singh 24 February 2015 Over 180 million Muslims in India but they are not part of global terror groups Govt Indian Express Indian Express Retrieved 24 February 2015 Muslim representation on decline The Times of India 31 August 2015 Retrieved 31 August 2015 The Untold Census Story OpenMagazine PR Ramesh 15 March 2014 nationsonline org klaus kastle Islamic world countries with a cultural Islamic population Nations Online Project www nationsonline org Retrieved 7 January 2021 Zafar Abu Islam and Muslims in India Science and Technology Division Taipei Economic and Cultural Center in New Delhi MOST www most gov tw Retrieved 7 January 2021 a b Cheraman Juma Masjid the first mosque in India Religious sites at Muziris Heritage Area Ernakulam www muzirisheritage org Cheraman Juma Masjid Retrieved 7 January 2021 Nambiar Sridevi 26 July 2017 The Story Behind India s Oldest Mosque Culture Trip Retrieved 7 January 2021 chandru SUFISM IN INDIA Its origin history and politics Southasiaanalysis org Archived from the original on 18 December 2010 Retrieved 3 February 2011 a b https www censusindia gov in 2011census C 01 DDW00C 01 20MDDS XLS bare URL spreadsheet file National minority status for Jains Archived from the original on 10 November 2014 Retrieved 20 July 2016 Jains become sixth minority community Latest News amp Updates at Daily News amp Analysis 21 January 2014 Retrieved 20 July 2016 a b c Population by religious community 2011 2011 Census of India Office of the Registrar General amp Census Commissioner Archived from the original on 25 August 2015 Retrieved 25 August 2015 Percentages are calculated from population figures for individual religions in this word document by dividing them from total population of India Aloke Tikku 26 August 2015 Muslim population grows marginally faster Census 2011 data Hindustan Times Retrieved 18 October 2016 Census 2011 Hindus dip to below 80 per cent of population Muslim share up slows down The Indian Express 26 August 2015 Retrieved 20 July 2016 a b Census 2011 Sikhs Jains have the worst sex ratio Latest News amp Updates at Daily News amp Analysis 31 December 2015 Retrieved 20 July 2016 The Times Group Archived from the original on 25 December 2018 Retrieved 20 July 2016 Jains most literate in North Muslims the least 4 January 2016 Retrieved 20 July 2016 Only 33 of Muslims work lowest among all religions Times of India The Times of India Retrieved 20 July 2016 Rogers Peter 2009 Ultimate Truth Book 1 AuthorHouse p 109 ISBN 978 1 4389 7968 7 Chakravarti Sitansu 1991 Hinduism a way of life Motilal Banarsidass Publ p 71 ISBN 978 81 208 0899 7 Polytheism Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica Online 2007 Retrieved 5 July 2007 Pattanaik Devdutt 2002 The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore Routledge p 38 ISBN 978 1 56023 181 3 Devanandan P D 1955 The Renaissance Of Hinduism A Survey of Hindu Religious History from 1800 1950 Theology Today 12 2 189 205 https doi org 10 1177 004057365501200207 Meaning and Origin Of The Word Hindu www shraddhananda com Retrieved 28 October 2016 Hinduism As Santana Dharma the Eternal Religion www hinduwebsite com Retrieved 7 January 2021 Muslim population growth slows The Hindu Retrieved 28 July 2017 India has 79 8 Hindus 14 2 Muslims says 2011 census data on religion Firstpost 26 August 2015 Retrieved 28 July 2017 S Rukmini Singh Vijaita 18 October 2016 Muslim population growth slows The Hindu Retrieved 18 October 2016 Millions of Dalit Muslims face caste discrimination International Dalit Solidarity Network 30 June 2016 India Official Dalit population exceeds 200 million International Dalit Solidarity Network 29 May 2013 a b c Religion in India Religion webindia123 com Suni Systems P Ltd Retrieved 18 April 2007 Census of India 2001 Data on Religion Office of the Registrar General India Retrieved 31 December 2007 a b Department Of State The Office of Electronic Information Bureau of Public Affairs India 2001 2009 state gov Retrieved 21 February 2022 Shia women too can initiate divorce The Times of India 6 November 2006 Archived from the original on 11 August 2011 Retrieved 21 June 2010 Talaq rights proposed for Shia women Daily News and Analysis www dnaindia com 5 November 2006 Retrieved 21 June 2010 India Third in Global Muslim Population Twocircles net 8 October 2009 Retrieved 3 July 2010 Fahlbusch Erwin Lochman Jan Milic Bromiley Geoffrey William Mbiti John Pelikan Jaroslav 14 February 2008 The Encyclodedia of Christianity Vol 5 Wm B Eerdmans Publishing ISBN 978 0 8028 2417 2 Yisrael Muzeon 1995 The Jews of India A Story of Three Communities UPNE ISBN 978 965 278 179 6 NSC NETWORK Early references about the Apostolate of Saint Thomas in India Records about the Indian tradition Saint Thomas Christians amp Statements by Indian Statesmen Nasrani net 16 February 2007 Retrieved 3 February 2011 Navjot Singh Siddhu claims that 14 crore Nanakpanthi Sikhs live in India Freepressjournal According to rough estimates report there are 12 15 crore Nanak Naam Lewas Nanakpanthi across the world News Indian Express 10 November 2019 Pak invites Sikh community to invest in commercial projects along Nankana Kartarpur Corridor Business Standard India 13 January 2019 via Business Standard Goyal Divya 10 November 2019 Explained Who are Nanak Naam Lewa and why Kartarpur Corridor can t be limited to Sikhs The Indian Express Retrieved 30 November 2020 Navjot Singh Sidhu thinks there are 14 crore Sikhs in India instead of 2 4 crore Free Press Journal Religion Office of the Registrar General amp Census Commissioner India Retrieved 6 January 2021 Bose Ashish et al 4 December 2004 Growth of the Parsi population in India Mumbai Government of India National Commission for Minorities 3 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Why is India s wealthy Parsi community vanishing BBC News 9 January 2016 Retrieved 7 January 2021 Momen 2008 pp 154 5 Hartz 2009 p 10 Daniyal Shoaib People without religion have risen in Census 2011 but atheists have nothing to cheer about Scroll in Retrieved 8 August 2022 2 87 million Indians have no faith census reveals for first time The Times of India 27 August 2015 Retrieved 10 September 2015 a b c Global Index of Religion And Atheism PDF WIN Gallup Archived from the original PDF on 16 October 2012 Retrieved 3 September 2013 Swami Praveen 1 November 1997 Protecting secularism and federal fair play Frontline 14 22 Archived from the original on 30 December 2001 Retrieved 17 April 2007 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint unfit URL link Constitution of India Part IV Article 44 Directive Principles of State Policy Iyer VRK 6 September 2003 Unifying personal laws The Hindu Archived from the original on 5 December 2003 Retrieved 19 April 2007 Lavakare Arvind 21 May 2002 Where s the Uniform Civil Code rediff com Rediff com India Limited Retrieved 19 April 2007 Bakshi P M 1996 Constitution Of India Universal Law Publishing Co P Ltd p 41 ISBN 978 81 7534 003 9 Retrieved 15 July 2010 Diwan Paras 1981 Modern Hindu law codified and uncodified Allahabad Law Agency Retrieved 15 July 2010 The Tribune Chandigarh India Nation www tribuneindia com Among Wealthy Nations The U S Stands Alone in its Embrace of Religion The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press 19 December 2002 Retrieved 3 June 2007 Religious Life Religions of India Global Peace Works Archived from the original on 1 March 2005 Retrieved 19 April 2007 a b c d Domestic Worship Country Studies The Library of Congress September 1995 Retrieved 19 April 2007 Chishti S Jacob J 1 December 2006 Sachar nails madrasa myth Only 4 of Muslim kids go there The Indian Express Archived from the original on 29 September 2007 Retrieved 21 April 2007 Yadav Yogendra Sanjay Kumar 14 August 2006 The food habits of a nation hinduonnet com The Hindu Archived from the original on 4 March 2011 Retrieved 21 April 2007 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint unfit URL link Countries With The Highest Rates Of Vegetarianism WorldAtlas 20 September 2019 Retrieved 3 July 2020 The Hindu Front Page The food habits of a nation Archived from the original on 4 March 2011 Devi S M Balachandar V Lee S I Kim I H 2014 An Outline of Meat Consumption in the Indian Population A Pilot Review Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources 34 4 p 507 doi 10 5851 kosfa 2014 34 4 507 PMC 4662155 PMID 26761289 Ridgwell and Ridgway 1987 Food Around the World Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0198327288 page 67 PATOLE SHAHU 2016 Why I wrote a book on Dalit food Express Foodie beta No SEPTEMBER 8 Retrieved 11 September 2016 a b Life Cycle Rituals Country Studies India The Library of Congress September 1995 Retrieved 19 April 2007 Banerjee Suresh Chandra 2012 Shraddha In Islam Sirajul Jamal Ahmed A eds Banglapedia National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh Second ed Asiatic Society of Bangladesh a b c d e Islamic Traditions in South Asia Country Studies India The Library of Congress September 1995 Retrieved 19 April 2007 Mahamagam Festival Retrieved 14 February 2014 Madan Prasad Bezbaruah Dr Krishna Gopal Phal S Girota 2003 Fairs and Festivals of India p 326 ISBN 9788121208093 retrieved 14 February 2014 a b Hassan 1920 pp 110 111 sfn error no target CITEREFHassan1920 help a b Walunjkar pp 285 287 sfn error no target CITEREFWalunjkar help Government of Maharashtra 1962 sfn error no target CITEREFGovernment of Maharashtra1962 help Ajmer Sharif Dargah Shrine of Moinuddin Chishti Ajmer Rajasthan Tourism www tourism rajasthan gov in Retrieved 7 January 2021 Sri Harmandir Sahib Amritsar Punjab India library nga gov Retrieved 7 January 2021 In His Service A Newsletter From Meherabad Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine June 2011 Myrtle Beach Sheriar Press p 4 S Srinivas Journal of Contemporary Religion 1999 Taylor amp Francis a b R Blake Michael The Origins of Virasaiva Sects 1992 Motilal Banarsidass Pub Untitled Document Retrieved 20 July 2016 India s population at 123 crore as of March 2012 Minister The Economic Times Retrieved 28 October 2021 Most Atheist Countries 2022 Population Pyramids of the World from 1950 to 2100 Makkar 1993 p 141 Olson amp Shadle 1996 p 759 Constitution doesn t permit forced conversions Naqvi BJP Today 15 9 1 15 May 2006 Archived from the original on 21 September 2007 Retrieved 20 April 2007 Ludden 1996 pp 64 65 Times News Network 25 March 2002 Togadia wants parties to stop vote bank politics The Times of India Archived from the original on 16 October 2012 Retrieved 20 April 2007 Chadha M 5 December 2006 Despair of the discriminated Dalits BBC News Retrieved 3 June 2007 Giridharadas A 22 April 2006 Turning point in India s caste war International Herald Tribune Retrieved 3 June 2007 Saffronisation of Indian Education www educationobserver com Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labour 8 November 2005 International Religious Freedom Report 2005 2005 Report on International Religious Freedom U S State Department Retrieved 3 June 2007 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Upadhyay R 21 August 2001 The politics of education in India the need for a national debate South Asia Analysis Group Archived from the original on 17 December 2005 Retrieved 3 June 2007 Upadhyay R 26 February 2000 Opposition in India in search of genuine issues South Asia Analysis Group Archived from the original on 17 December 2005 Retrieved 3 June 2007 Symonds 1950 p 74 Sengupta Debjani 2006 A City Feeding on Itself Testimonies and Histories of Direct Action Day PDF In Narula Monica ed Turbulence Serai Reader Vol 6 The Sarai Programme Center for the Study of Developing Societies pp 288 295 OCLC 607413832 L I 1 425 The British Library Archives London Chronology of communal violence in India Hindustan Times Hindustan Times 10 February 2004 Retrieved 7 January 2021 Shepard 1987 pp 45 46 Nichols B 2003 The Politics of Assassination Case Studies and Analysis PDF Australasian Political Studies Association Conference Archived from the original PDF on 5 March 2009 Retrieved 4 September 2007 Mukhoty Gobinda Kothari Rajni 1984 Who are the Guilty People s Union for Civil Liberties a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Watch Asia Human Rights U S Physicians for Human Rights May 1994 Dead silence the legacy of human rights abuses in Punjab Human Rights Watch p 10 ISBN 978 1 56432 130 5 Retrieved 29 July 2010 1984 riots were Sikh genocide Akal Takht Hindustan Times Hindustan Times 14 July 2010 Archived from the original on 17 July 2010 Retrieved 17 July 2010 a b Human Rights Watch 2006 p 265 Declare India a Hindu Rashtra Hindu convention resolution Hindustan Times 17 June 2017 Archived from the original on 1 May 2021 Retrieved 2 September 2021 Hindu Rashtra draft proposes Varanasi as capital instead of Delhi 13 August 2022 India to become Hindu Rashtra by 2025 hints organiser of All India Hindu conference 12 June 2022 Does India belong to only Hindus Nearly 75 of Hindus say No finds CSDS survey 14 June 2019 Key findings about religion in India Plea in SC seeks to remove words socialist secular from Constitution s preamble India News Firstpost Firstpost 29 July 2020 Archived from the original on 10 June 2021 Retrieved 2 September 2021 Subramanian Swamy s Plea to Delete Socialism amp Secularism from Preamble to Constitution Supreme Court to Hear on Sep 23 2 September 2022 https www thestatesman com subramanian swamy seeks deletion amp bare URL ReferencesCharlton Sue Ellen M 2004 Comparing Asian Politics India China and Japan Westview Press ISBN 0 8133 4204 X Chatterjee S Datta D 1984 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy 8th ed University of Calcutta ASIN B0007BFXK4 Chopra R M A Study of Religions 2015 Anuradha Prakashan New Delhi ISBN 978 93 82339 94 6 Dundas Paul 2002 1992 The Jains Second ed London and New York Routledge ISBN 0 415 26605 X Fowler Jeaneane D 1997 Hinduism Beliefs and Practices Sussex Academic Press ISBN 1 898723 60 5 Goldman RP 2007 The Ramayana of Valmiki An Epic of Ancient India Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 06663 9 Hartz Paula 2009 World Religions Baha i Faith 3rd ed New York NY Chelsea House Publishers ISBN 978 1 60413 104 8 Heehs P 2002 Indian Religions A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience New York New York University Press ISBN 0 8147 3650 5 Human Rights Watch Press Seven Stories 2006 Human Rights Watch World Report 2006 Seven Stories Press ISBN 1 58322 715 6 Ludden David E 1996 Contesting the Nation Religion Community and the Politics of Democracy in India University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 0 8122 1585 0 Makkar SPS 1993 Law Social Change and Communal Harmony ABS Publications ISBN 81 7072 047 8 Momen Moojan 2008 The Baha i Faith Beginner s Guide Oxford Oneworld Publications ISBN 978 1 85168 563 9 Oberlies T 1998 Die Religion des Rgveda Wien Olson James Stuart Shadle Robert 1996 Historical Dictionary of the British Empire Greenwood Press ISBN 0 313 29367 8 Radhakrishnan S Moore CA 1967 A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy Princeton University Press ISBN 0 691 01958 4 Rinehart R 2004 Contemporary Hinduism Ritual Culture and Practice ABC Clio ISBN 1 57607 905 8 Schomer Karine McLeod William Hewat 1987 The Sants Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India Berkeley Religious Studies Series Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0277 3 OCLC 925707272 Shepard Mark 1987 Gandhi Today A Report on Mahatma Gandhi s Successors Shepard Publications ISBN 0 938497 04 9 Smith Peter 2008 An Introduction to the Baha i Faith Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 86251 6 Symonds R 1950 The Making of Pakistan Faber and Faber Vadakkekara Benedict 2007 Origin of Christianity in India A Historiographical Critique Delhi Media House ISBN 9788174952585 Zimmer Heinrich 1953 April 1952 Campbell Joseph ed Philosophies Of India London Routledge amp Kegan Paul Ltd ISBN 978 81 208 0739 6Further reading Jain Sandhya 2010 Evangelical intrusions Tripura a case study New Delhi Rupa amp Co Elst K 2002 Who is a Hindu Hindu revivalist views of Animism Buddhism Sikhism and other offshoots of Hinduism Goel S G 2016 History of Hindu Christian encounters AD 304 to 1996 Goel S R 1988 Catholic ashrams Adopting and adapting Hindu Dharma Panikkar K M 1959 Asia and Western dominance London Allen amp Unwin ISBN 9781597406017 Malhotra Rajiv 2011 Being Different An Indian Challenge to Western Universalism HarperCollins ISBN 978 9 350 29190 0 Rajiv Malhotra 2014 Indra s Net Defending Hinduism s Philosophical Unity Publisher HarperCollins India ISBN 978 9 351 36244 9 Swarup Ram 1984 Buddhism vis a vis Hinduism Swarup R 1995 Hindu view of Christianity and Islam Shourie Arun 1979 Hinduism essence and consequence A study of the Upanishads the Gita and the Brahma Sutras Sahibabad Distt Ghaziabad Vikas ISBN 9780706908343 Shourie Arun 2006 Missionaries in India Continuities Changes dilemmas New Delhi Rupa Publications ISBN 9788172232702 External links Media related to Religion in India at Wikimedia CommonsReligions in India History of Religions in India www indohistory com Archived from the original on 25 December 2018 Retrieved 1 January 2008 Statistics Census of India 2001 Data on religion PDF Government of India Office of the Registrar General Retrieved 28 May 2007 Reports International Religious Freedom Report 2006 India United States Department of State Retrieved 28 May 2007 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Religion in India amp oldid 1147068395, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.