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Phonograph record

A phonograph record (also known as a gramophone record, especially in British English), a vinyl record (for later varieties only), or simply a record or vinyl is an analog sound storage medium in the form of a flat disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the outside edge and ends near the center of the disc. The stored sound information is made audible by playing the record on a phonograph.

A typical black 12-inch LP record

Until the 1940s, for about half a century, the discs were commonly made from shellac, with earlier records having a fine abrasive filler mixed in. The "vinyl" records of the late 20th century, made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC), then became commonplace.

Overview edit

 
Conductor and cast members of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company with acoustic recording horn at HMV, c. 1924

The phonograph record was the primary medium used for music reproduction throughout the 20th century. It had co-existed with the phonograph cylinder from the late 1880s and had effectively superseded it by around 1912. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as the compact cassette were mass-marketed. By the 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the record left the mainstream in 1991.[1] Since the 1990s, records continue to be manufactured and sold on a smaller scale, and during the 1990s and early 2000s were commonly used by disc jockeys (DJs), especially in dance music genres. They were also listened to by a growing number of audiophiles. The phonograph record has made a niche resurgence as a format for rock music in the early 21st century—9.2 million records were sold in the US in 2014, a 260% increase since 2009.[2] Likewise, sales in the UK increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014.[3]

Phonograph records are generally described by their diameter in inches (12-inch, 10-inch, 7-inch) (although they were designed in millimeters[4]), the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) at which they are played (8+13, 16+23, 33+13, 45, 78),[5] and their time capacity, determined by their diameter and speed (LP [long playing], 12-inch disc, 33+13 rpm; SP [single], 10-inch disc, 78 rpm, or 7-inch disc, 45 rpm; EP [extended play], 12-inch disc or 7-inch disc, 33+13 or 45 rpm); their reproductive quality, or level of fidelity (high-fidelity, orthophonic, full-range, etc.); and the number of audio channels (mono, stereo, quad, etc.).

The phrase broken record refers to a malfunction[6] when the needle skips/jumps back to the previous groove and plays the same section over and over again indefinitely.[7][8][9]

Continued production edit

As of 2017, 48 record pressing facilities exist worldwide, 18 in the US and 30 in other countries. The increased popularity of the record has led to the investment in new and modern record-pressing machines.[10] Only two producers of lacquers (acetate discs or master discs) remain: Apollo Masters in California, and MDC in Japan.[11] On February 6, 2020, a fire destroyed the Apollo Masters plant. According to the Apollo Masters website, their future is still uncertain.[12]

History edit

Manufacture of disc records began in the late 19th century, at first competing with earlier cylinder records. Price, ease of use and storage made the disc record dominant by the 1910s. The standard format of disc records became known to later generations as "78s" after their playback speed in revolutions per minute, although that speed only became standardized in the late 1920s. In the late 1940s new formats pressed in vinyl, the 45 rpm single and 33 rpm long playing "LP", were introduced, gradually overtaking the formerly standard "78s" over the next decade. The late 1950s saw the introduction of stereophonic sound on commercial discs.

Predecessors edit

The phonautograph was invented by 1857 by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville.[13] It could not, however, play back recorded sound,[14] as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings,[15] which he called phonautograms.[16] Prior to this, tuning forks had been used in this way to create direct tracings of the vibrations of sound-producing objects, as by English physicist Thomas Young in 1807.[17]

In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the first phonograph,[18] which etched sound recordings onto phonograph cylinders. Unlike the phonautograph, Edison's phonograph could both record and reproduce sound, via two separate needles, one for each function.[19]

The first disc records edit

 
Emile Berliner with disc record gramophone

The first commercially sold disc records were created by Emile Berliner in the 1880s. Emile Berliner improved the quality of recordings while his manufacturing associate Eldridge R. Johnson, who owned a machine shop in Camden, New Jersey, eventually improved the mechanism of the gramophone with a spring motor and a speed regulating governor, resulting in a sound quality equal to Edison's cylinders. Abandoning Berliner's "Gramophone" trademark for legal reasons in the United States, Johnson's and Berliner's separate companies reorganized in 1901 to form the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden, New Jersey, whose products would come to dominate the market for several decades.[20]

Berliner's Montreal factory, which became the Canadian branch of RCA Victor, still exists. There is a dedicated museum in Montreal for Berliner (Musée des ondes Emile Berliner).[21]

78 rpm disc developments edit

 
Hungarian Pathé record, 90 to 100 rpm

Early speeds edit

Early disc recordings were produced in a variety of speeds ranging from 60 to 130 rpm, and a variety of sizes. As early as 1894, Emile Berliner's United States Gramophone Company was selling single-sided 7-inch discs with an advertised standard speed of "about 70 rpm".[22]

One standard audio recording handbook describes speed regulators, or governors, as being part of a wave of improvement introduced rapidly after 1897. A picture of a hand-cranked 1898 Berliner Gramophone shows a governor, and says that spring drives had replaced hand drives. It notes that:

The speed regulator was furnished with an indicator that showed the speed when the machine was running so that the records, on reproduction, could be revolved at exactly the same speed...The literature does not disclose why 78 rpm was chosen for the phonograph industry, apparently this just happened to be the speed created by one of the early machines and, for no other reason continued to be used.[23]

 
A multinational product: an operatic duet sung by Enrico Caruso and Antonio Scotti, recorded in the US in 1906 by the Victor Talking Machine Company, manufactured c. 1908 in Hanover, Germany, for the Gramophone Company, Victor's affiliate in England

In 1912, the Gramophone Company set 78 rpm as their recording standard, based on the average of recordings they had been releasing at the time, and started selling players whose governors had a nominal speed of 78 rpm.[24] By 1925, 78 rpm was becoming standardized across the industry. However, the exact speed differed between places with alternating current electricity supply at 60 hertz (cycles per second, Hz) and those at 50 Hz. Where the mains supply was 60 Hz, the actual speed was 78.26 rpm: that of a 60 Hz stroboscope illuminating 92-bar calibration markings. Where it was 50 Hz, it was 77.92 rpm: that of a 50 Hz stroboscope illuminating 77-bar calibration markings.[24]

Acoustic recording edit

Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound was collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus. Sensitivity and frequency range were poor, and frequency response was very irregular, giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality. A singer almost had to put their face in the recording horn. A way of reducing resonance was to wrap the recording horn with tape.[25]

Even drums, if planned and placed properly, could be effectively recorded and heard on even the earliest jazz and military band recordings. The loudest instruments such as the drums and trumpets were positioned the farthest away from the collecting horn. Lillian Hardin Armstrong, a member of King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, which recorded at Gennett Records in 1923, remembered that at first Oliver and his young second trumpet, Louis Armstrong, stood next to each other and Oliver's horn could not be heard. "They put Louis about fifteen feet over in the corner, looking all sad."[26][27]

Electrical recording edit

 
An electronically recorded disc from Carl Lindström AG, Germany, c. 1930

During the first half of the 1920s, engineers at Western Electric, as well as independent inventors such as Orlando Marsh, developed technology for capturing sound with a microphone, amplifying it with vacuum tubes[28] (known as valves in the UK[29]), and then using the amplified signal to drive an electromechanical recording head. Western Electric's innovations resulted in a broader and smoother frequency response, which produced a dramatically fuller, clearer and more natural-sounding recording. Soft or distant sounds that were previously impossible to record could now be captured. Volume was now limited only by the groove spacing on the record and the amplification of the playback device. Victor and Columbia licensed the new electrical system from Western Electric and recorded the first electrical discs during the spring of 1925. The first electrically recorded Victor Red Seal record was Chopin's "Impromptus" and Schubert's "Litanei" performed by pianist Alfred Cortot at Victor's studios in Camden, New Jersey.[28]

A 1926 Wanamaker's ad in The New York Times offers records "by the latest Victor process of electrical recording".[30] It was recognized as a breakthrough; in 1930, a Times music critic stated:

... the time has come for serious musical criticism to take account of performances of great music reproduced by means of the records. To claim that the records have succeeded in exact and complete reproduction of all details of symphonic or operatic performances ... would be extravagant ... [but] the article of today is so far in advance of the old machines as hardly to admit classification under the same name. Electrical recording and reproduction have combined to retain vitality and color in recitals by proxy.[31]

 
Examples of Congolese 78 rpm records
 
A 10-inch blank for making an individually cut one-off recording made from Decelith, a proprietary PVC-based material produced by a German Company ECW that was used to make commercial flexible blanks prior to World War II[32]

The Orthophonic Victrola had an interior folded exponential horn, a sophisticated design informed by impedance-matching and transmission-line theory, and designed to provide a relatively flat frequency response. Victor's first public demonstration of the Orthophonic Victrola on October 6, 1925, at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel was front-page news in The New York Times, which reported:

The audience broke into applause ... John Philip Sousa [said]: '[Gentlemen], that is a band. This is the first time I have ever heard music with any soul to it produced by a mechanical talking machine' ... The new instrument is a feat of mathematics and physics. It is not the result of innumerable experiments, but was worked out on paper in advance of being built in the laboratory ... The new machine has a range of from 100 to 5,000 [cycles per second], or five and a half octaves ... The 'phonograph tone' is eliminated by the new recording and reproducing process.[33]

Sales of records plummeted precipitously during the early years of the Great Depression of the 1930s, and the entire record industry in America nearly foundered. In 1932, RCA Victor introduced a basic, inexpensive turntable called the Duo Jr., which was designed to be connected to their radio receivers. According to Edward Wallerstein (the general manager of the RCA Victor Division), this device was "instrumental in revitalizing the industry".[34]

78 rpm materials edit

The production of shellac records continued throughout the 78 rpm era, which lasted until 1948 in industrialized nations.[35]

During the Second World War, the United States Armed Forces produced thousands of 12-inch vinyl 78 rpm V-Discs for use by the troops overseas.[36] After the war, the use of vinyl became more practical as new record players with lightweight crystal pickups and precision-ground styli made of sapphire or an exotic osmium alloy proliferated. In late 1945, RCA Victor began offering "De Luxe" transparent red vinylite pressings of some Red Seal classical 78s, at a de luxe price. Later, Decca Records introduced vinyl Deccalite 78s, while other record companies used various vinyl formulations trademarked as Metrolite, Merco Plastic, and Sav-o-flex, but these were mainly used to produce "unbreakable" children's records and special thin vinyl DJ pressings for shipment to radio stations.[37]

78 rpm recording time edit

The playing time of a phonograph record is directly proportional to the available groove length divided by the turntable speed. Total groove length in turn depends on how closely the grooves are spaced, in addition to the record diameter. At the beginning of the 20th century, the early discs played for two minutes, the same as cylinder records.[38] The 12-inch disc, introduced by Victor in 1903, increased the playing time to three and a half minutes.[39] Because the standard 10-inch 78 rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side, most popular recordings were limited to that duration.[40] For example, when King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings, recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, in 1923, one side was 2:09 and four sides were 2:52–2:59.[41]

In January 1938, Milt Gabler started recording for Commodore Records, and to allow for longer continuous performances, he recorded some 12-inch discs. Eddie Condon explained: "Gabler realized that a jam session needs room for development." The first two 12-inch recordings did not take advantage of their capability: "Carnegie Drag" was 3m 15s; "Carnegie Jump", 2m 41s. But at the second session, on April 30, the two 12-inch recordings were longer: "Embraceable You" was 4m 05s; "Serenade to a Shylock", 4m 32s.[42][43] Another way to overcome the time limitation was to issue a selection extending to both sides of a single record. Vaudeville stars Gallagher and Shean recorded "Mr. Gallagher and Mr. Shean", written by themselves or, allegedly, by Bryan Foy, as two sides of a 10-inch 78 in 1922 for Victor.[44] Longer musical pieces were released as a set of records. In 1903 HMV in England made the first complete recording of an opera, Verdi's Ernani, on 40 single-sided discs.[45] In 1940, Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band's recording of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find" in four parts, issued on both sides of two 12-inch 78s. The limited duration of recordings persisted from their advent until the introduction of the LP record in 1948. In popular music, the time limit of 3+12 minutes on a 10-inch 78 rpm record meant that singers seldom recorded long pieces. One exception is Frank Sinatra's recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Soliloquy", from Carousel, made on May 28, 1946. Because it ran 7m 57s, longer than both sides of a standard 78 rpm 10-inch record, it was released on Columbia's Masterwork label (the classical division) as two sides of a 12-inch record.[46]

In the 78 era, classical-music and spoken-word items generally were released on the longer 12-inch 78s, about 4–5 minutes per side. For example, on June 10 1924, four months after the 12 February premier of Rhapsody in Blue, George Gershwin recorded an abridged version of the seventeen-minute work with Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra. It was released on two sides of Victor 55225 and ran for 8m 59s.[47]

Record albums edit

"Record albums" were originally booklets containing collections of multiple disc records of related material, the name being related to photograph albums or scrap albums. [48] German record company Odeon pioneered the album in 1909 when it released the Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky on four double-sided discs in a specially designed package.[45] It was not until the LP era that an entire album of material could be included on a single record.

78 rpm releases in the microgroove era edit

In 1968, when the hit movie Thoroughly Modern Millie was inspiring revivals of Jazz Age music, Reprise planned to release a series of 78-rpm singles from their artists on their label at the time, called the Reprise Speed Series. Only one disc actually saw release, Randy Newman's "I Think It's Going to Rain Today", a track from his self-titled debut album (with "The Beehive State" on the flipside).[49] Reprise did not proceed further with the series due to a lack of sales for the single, and a lack of general interest in the concept.[50]

In 1978, guitarist and vocalist Leon Redbone released a promotional 78-rpm single featuring two songs ("Alabama Jubilee" and "Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone") from his Champagne Charlie album.[51]

In the same vein of Tin Pan Alley revivals, R. Crumb & His Cheap Suit Serenaders issued a number of 78-rpm singles on their Blue Goose record label. The most familiar of these releases is probably R. Crumb & His Cheap Suit Serenaders' Party Record (1980, issued as a "Red Goose" record on a 12-inch single), with the double-entendre "My Girl's Pussy" on the "A" side and the X-rated "Christopher Columbus" on the "B" side.

In the 1990s Rhino Records issued a series of boxed sets of 78-rpm reissues of early rock and roll hits, intended for owners of vintage jukeboxes. The records were made of vinyl, however, and some of the earlier vintage 78-rpm jukeboxes and record players (the ones that were pre-war) were designed with heavy tone arms to play the hard slate-impregnated shellac records of their time. These vinyl Rhino 78s were softer and would be destroyed by old juke boxes and old record players, but play very well on newer 78-capable turntables with modern lightweight tone arms and jewel needles.[52]

As a special release for Record Store Day 2011, Capitol re-released The Beach Boys single "Good Vibrations" in the form of a 10-inch 78-rpm record (b/w "Heroes and Villains"). More recently, The Reverend Peyton's Big Damn Band has released their tribute to blues guitarist Charley Patton Peyton on Patton on both 12-inch LP and 10-inch 78s.[53]

New sizes and materials after WWII: 45 rpm singles, LPs, and vinyl records edit

 
A 12-inch LP being played. The stylus is in contact with the surface.
 
Grooves on a modern 33 rpm record
 
Uncommon Columbia 7-inch vinyl 33+13 rpm microgroove ZLP from 1948

CBS Laboratories had long been at work for Columbia Records to develop a phonograph record that would hold at least 20 minutes per side.[54][55]

Research began in 1939, was suspended during World War II, and then resumed in 1945.[56] Columbia Records unveiled the LP at a press conference in the Waldorf-Astoria on June 21, 1948, in two formats: 10 inches (25 centimetres) in diameter, matching that of 78 rpm singles, and 12 inches (30 centimetres) in diameter.[56][57][58]

 
Boston Pops conductor Arthur Fiedler demonstrating the new RCA Victor 45 rpm player and record in February 1949

Unwilling to accept and license Columbia's system, in February 1949, RCA Victor released the first 45 rpm single, 7 inches in diameter with a large center hole. The 45 rpm player included a changing mechanism that allowed multiple disks to be stacked, much as a conventional changer handled 78s. Also like 78s, the short playing time of a single 45 rpm side meant that long works, such as symphonies and operas, had to be released on multiple 45s instead of a single LP, but RCA Victor claimed that the new high-speed changer rendered side breaks so brief as to be inconsequential. Early 45 rpm records were made from either vinyl or polystyrene.[59] They had a playing time of eight minutes.[60]

At first the two systems were marketed in competition, in what was called "The War of the Speeds".[61]

Speeds edit

Shellac era edit

 
Edison Records Diamond Disc label, early 1920s. Edison Disc Records always ran at 80 rpm.

At least one attempt to lengthen playing time was made in the early 1920s. World Records produced records that played at a constant linear velocity, controlled by Noel Pemberton Billing's patented add-on speed governor.[62]

In the 1920s, 78.26 rpm was standardized when stroboscopic discs and turntable edge markings were introduced to standardize the speeds of recording lathes. At that speed, a strobe disc with 92 lines would "stand still" in 60 Hz light. In regions of the world that use 50 Hz current, the standard was 77.92 rpm (and a disk with 77 lines).[24]

 
Columbia and RCA Victor's competition extended to equipment. Some turntables included spindle size adapters, but other turntables required snap-in inserts like this one to adapt Victor's larger 45 rpm spindle size to the smaller spindle size available on nearly all turntables.[63] Shown is one popular design in use for many years.

The older 78 rpm format continued to be mass-produced alongside the newer formats using new materials in decreasing numbers until the summer of 1958 in the U.S., and in a few countries, such as the Philippines and India (both countries issued recordings by the Beatles on 78s), into the late 1960s. For example, Columbia Records' last reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 78 rpm records was an album called Young at Heart, issued in November 1954.[64]

Microgroove and vinyl era edit

 
1959 Seeburg 16 rpm record (label only)

Columbia and RCA Victor each pursued their R&D secretly.[65]

The Seeburg Corporation introduced the Seeburg Background Music System in 1959, using a 16+23 rpm 9-inch record with 2-inch center hole. Each record held 40 minutes of music per side, recorded at 420 grooves per inch.[66]

The commercial rivalry between RCA Victor and Columbia Records led to RCA Victor's introduction of what it had intended to be a competing vinyl format, the 7-inch (175 mm) 45 rpm disc, with a much larger center hole. For a two-year period from 1948 to 1950, record companies and consumers faced uncertainty over which of these formats would ultimately prevail in what was known as the "War of the Speeds" (see also Format war). In 1949 Capitol and Decca adopted the new LP format and RCA Victor gave in and issued its first LP in January 1950. The 45 rpm size was gaining in popularity, too, and Columbia issued its first 45s in February 1951. By 1954, 200 million 45s had been sold.[67]

Eventually the 12-inch (300 mm) 33+13 rpm LP prevailed as the dominant format for musical albums, and 10-inch LPs were no longer issued. The last Columbia Records reissue of any Frank Sinatra songs on a 10-inch LP record was an album called Hall of Fame, CL 2600, issued on October 26, 1956, containing six songs, one each by Tony Bennett, Rosemary Clooney, Johnnie Ray, Frank Sinatra, Doris Day, and Frankie Laine.[64]

 
45 rpm vinyl record from 1965

The 45 rpm discs also came in a variety known as extended play (EP), which achieved up to 10–15 minutes play at the expense of attenuating (and possibly compressing) the sound to reduce the width required by the groove. EP discs were cheaper to produce and were used in cases where unit sales were likely to be more limited or to reissue LP albums on the smaller format for those people who had only 45 rpm players. LP albums could be purchased one EP at a time, with four items per EP, or in a boxed set with three EPs or twelve items. The large center hole on 45s allows easier handling by jukebox mechanisms. EPs were generally discontinued by the late 1950s in the U.S. as three- and four-speed record players replaced the individual 45 players. One indication of the decline of the 45 rpm EP is that the last Columbia Records reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 45 rpm EP records, called Frank Sinatra (Columbia B-2641) was issued on 7 December 1959.[64]

From the mid-1950s through the 1960s, in the U.S. the common home record player or "stereo" (after the introduction of stereo recording) would typically have had these features: a three- or four-speed player (78, 45, 33+13, and sometimes 16+23 rpm); with changer, a tall spindle that would hold several records and automatically drop a new record on top of the previous one when it had finished playing, a combination cartridge with both 78 and microgroove styli and a way to flip between the two; and some kind of adapter for playing the 45s with their larger center hole. The adapter could be a small solid circle that fit onto the bottom of the spindle (meaning only one 45 could be played at a time) or a larger adapter that fit over the entire spindle, permitting a stack of 45s to be played.[63]

RCA Victor 45s were also adapted to the smaller spindle of an LP player with a plastic snap-in insert known as a "spider".[63] These inserts, commissioned by RCA president David Sarnoff and were invented by Thomas Hutchison.[68]

Capacitance Electronic Discs were videodiscs invented by RCA, based on mechanically tracked ultra-microgrooves (9541 grooves/inch) on a 12-inch conductive vinyl disc.[69]

High fidelity edit

The term "high fidelity" was coined in the 1920s by some manufacturers of radio receivers and phonographs to differentiate their better-sounding products claimed as providing "perfect" sound reproduction.[70] The term began to be used by some audio engineers and consumers through the 1930s and 1940s. After 1949 a variety of improvements in recording and playback technologies, especially stereo recordings, which became widely available in 1958, gave a boost to the "hi-fi" classification of products, leading to sales of individual components for the home such as amplifiers, loudspeakers, phonographs, and tape players.[71] High Fidelity and Audio were two magazines that hi-fi consumers and engineers could read for reviews of playback equipment and recordings.

Stereophonic sound edit

 
Decoding the left channel

A stereophonic phonograph provides two channels of audio, one left and one right. This is achieved by adding another vertical dimension of movement to the needle in addition to the horizontal one. As a result, the needle now moves not only left and right, but also up and down. But since those two dimensions do not have the same sensitivity to vibration, the difference needs to be evened out by having each channel take half its information from each direction by turning the channels 45 degrees from horizontal.[72]

As a result of the 45-degree turn and some vector algebra, it can be demonstrated that out of the new horizontal and vertical directions, one would represent the sum of the two channels, and the other representing the difference. Record makers decide to pick the directions such that the traditional horizontal direction codes for the sum. As a result, an ordinary mono disk will be decoded correctly as "no difference between channels", and an ordinary mono player would simply play the sum of a stereophonic record without too much loss of information.[72]

In 1957 the first commercial stereo two-channel records were issued first by Audio Fidelity followed by a translucent blue vinyl on Bel Canto Records, the first of which was a multi-colored-vinyl sampler featuring A Stereo Tour of Los Angeles narrated by Jack Wagner on one side, and a collection of tracks from various Bel Canto albums on the back.[73]

Noise reduction systems edit

A similar scheme aiming at the high-end audiophile market, and achieving a noise reduction of about 20 to 25 dB(A), was the Telefunken/Nakamichi High-Com II noise reduction system being adapted to vinyl in 1979. A decoder was commercially available[74] but only one demo record[75] is known to have been produced in this format.

The availability of encoded disks in any of these formats stopped in the mid-1980s.[76]

Yet another noise reduction system for vinyl records was the UC compander system developed by Zentrum Wissenschaft und Technik (ZWT) of Kombinat Rundfunk und Fernsehen [de] (RFT).[77] The system deliberately reduced disk noise by 10 to 12 dB(A) only[78] to remain virtually free of recognizable acoustical artifacts even when records were played back without an UC expander. In fact, the system was undocumentedly introduced into the market by several East-German record labels since 1983.[79][78][80] Over 500 UC-encoded titles were produced[79] without an expander becoming available to the public. The only[80] UC expander was built into a turntable manufactured by Phonotechnik Pirna/Zittau.[81]

Formats edit

Types of records edit

The usual diameters of the holes on an EP record are 0.286 inches (7.26 mm).[82]

Sizes of records in the United States and the UK are generally measured in inches, e.g. 7-inch records, which are generally 45 rpm records. LPs were 10-inch records at first, but soon the 12-inch size became by far the most common. Generally, 78s were 10-inch, but 12-inch and 7-inch and even smaller were made—the so-called "little wonders".[83]

Standard formats edit

 
A standard wide-hole 7-inch vinyl record from 1978 on its sleeve
Diameter Finished Diameter Name Revolutions per minute Approximate duration
16 in (41 cm) 15+1516″ ±332 Transcription disc 33+13 rpm 15 min/side
12 in (30 cm) 11+78″ ±132 LP (Long Play) 33+13 rpm 22 min/side
Maxi Single, 12-inch single 45 rpm 15 min/side
Single 78 rpm 4–5 min/side.
10 in (25 cm) 9+78″ ±132 LP (Long Play) 33+13 rpm 12–15 min/side
EP (Extended Play) 45 rpm 9–12 min/side
Single 78 rpm 3 min/side
7 in (18 cm) 6+78″ ±132 EP (Extended Play) 33+13 rpm 7 min/side
EP (Extended Play) 45 rpm 8 min/side
Single 45 rpm 5+13 min/side
 
Example of 7″ EMI single with notched center hole
Notes:
  • Columbia pressed many 7-inch 33+13 rpm vinyl singles in 1949, but were dropped in early 1950 due to the popularity of the RCA Victor 45.[84][full citation needed]
  • Original hole diameters were 0.286″ ±0.001″ for 33+13 and 78.26 rpm records, and 1.504″ ±0.002″ for 45 rpm records.[85]

Less common formats edit

Flexi discs were thin flexible records that were distributed with magazines and as promotional gifts from the 1960s to the 1980s.

In March 1949, as RCA Victor released the 45, Columbia released several hundred 7-inch, 33+13 rpm, small-spindle-hole singles. This format was soon dropped as it became clear that the RCA Victor 45 was the single of choice and the Columbia 12-inch LP would be the album of choice.[86] The first release of the 45 came in seven colors: black 47-xxxx popular series, yellow 47-xxxx juvenile series, green (teal) 48-xxxx country series, deep red 49-xxxx classical series, bright red (cerise) 50-xxxx blues/spiritual series, light blue 51-xxxx international series, dark blue 52-xxxx light classics. Most colors were soon dropped in favor of black because of production problems. However, yellow and deep red were continued until about 1952.[87] The first 45 rpm record created for sale was "PeeWee the Piccolo" RCA Victor 47-0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant, Indianapolis on December 7, 1948, by R. O. Price, plant manager.[88]

In the 1970s, the government of Bhutan produced now-collectible postage stamps on playable vinyl mini-discs.[89]

Structure edit

 
Comparison of several forms of disk storage showing tracks (tracks not to scale); green denotes start and red denotes end.
* Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W) recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV modes.

Increasingly from the early 20th century, and almost exclusively since the 1920s, both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves. Occasional records have been issued since then with a recording on only one side. In the 1980s Columbia records briefly issued a series of less expensive one-sided 45 rpm singles.[90]

Since its inception in 1948, vinyl record standards for the United States follow the guidelines of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).[91]

Vinyl quality edit

The sound quality and durability of vinyl records is highly dependent on the quality of the vinyl. During the early 1970s, as a cost-cutting move, much of the industry began reducing the thickness and quality of vinyl used in mass-market manufacturing. RCA Records marketed their lightweight LP as Dynaflex, which, at the time, was considered inferior by many record collectors.[92]

New or "virgin" heavy/heavyweight (180–220 g) vinyl is commonly used for modern audiophile vinyl releases in all genres. Many collectors prefer to have heavyweight vinyl albums, which have been reported to have better sound than normal vinyl because of their higher tolerance against deformation caused by normal play.[93]

Limitations edit

Shellac edit

One problem with shellac was that the size of the disks tended to be larger because it was limited to 80–100 groove walls per inch before the risk of groove collapse became too high, whereas vinyl could have up to 260 groove walls per inch.[94][95]

Vinyl edit

Although vinyl records are strong and do not break easily, they scratch due to its soft material sometimes resulting in ruining the record. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating a "locked groove" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase "like a broken record" or "like a scratched record", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself.[96]

 
A dusty/scratched vinyl record being played. The dust settles into the grooves.

A further limitation of the gramophone record is that fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses; there is more vinyl per second available for fine reproduction of high frequencies at the large-diameter beginning of the groove than exist at the smaller diameters close to the end of the side. At the start of a groove on an LP there are 510 mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200–210 mm of vinyl per second—less than half the linear resolution.[97]

There is controversy about the relative quality of CD sound and LP sound when the latter is heard under the very best conditions (see Comparison of analog and digital recording). One technical advantage with vinyl compared to the optical CD is that if correctly handled and stored, the vinyl record will be playable for decades and possibly centuries,[98] which is longer than some versions of the optical CD.[99] For vinyl records to be playable for years to come, they need to be handled with care and stored properly. Guidelines for proper vinyl storage include not stacking records on top of each other, avoiding heat or direct sunlight and placing them in a temperature-controlled area that will help prevent vinyl records from warping and scratching. Collectors store their records in a variety of boxes, cubes, shelves and racks.[100]

Sound fidelity edit

At the time of the introduction of the compact disc (CD) in 1982, the stereo LP pressed in vinyl continued to suffer from a variety of limitations:

The stereo image was not made up of fully discrete Left and Right channels; each channel's signal coming out of the cartridge contained a small amount of the signal from the other channel, with more crosstalk at higher frequencies. High-quality disc cutting equipment was capable of making a master disc with 30–40 dB of stereo separation at 1,000 Hz, but the playback cartridges had lesser performance of about 20 to 30 dB of separation at 1000 Hz, with separation decreasing as frequency increased, such that at 12 kHz the separation was about 10–15 dB.[101] A common modern view is that stereo isolation must be higher than this to achieve a proper stereo soundstage. However, in the 1950s the BBC determined in a series of tests that only 20–25 dB is required for the impression of full stereo separation.[102]

Thin, closely spaced spiral grooves that allow for increased playing time on a 33+13 rpm microgroove LP lead to a tinny pre-echo warning of upcoming loud sounds. The cutting stylus unavoidably transfers some of the subsequent groove wall's impulse signal into the previous groove wall. It is discernible by some listeners throughout certain recordings, but a quiet passage followed by a loud sound will allow anyone to hear a faint pre-echo of the loud sound occurring 1.8 seconds ahead of time.[103]

LP versus CD edit

Audiophiles have differed over the relative merits of the LP versus the CD since the digital disc was introduced.[104] In large part, the claim for vinyl superiority is due to the necessity for digital recordings to presume upper and lower bounds, sampling the tones and soundwaves within those limits and using the resulting information to store and recall the audio. Effectively, the digital recording is an idealized representation of a physical soundwave, while an analog recording captures the physical vibrations across their full frequency. Because most modern vinyl records are made from playbacks of files recorded digitally, there is no out-of-bounds audio to transfer to the disc.[105] Vinyl's drawbacks, however, include surface noise, less resolution due to a lower dynamic range, and greater sensitivity to handling.[106] Modern anti-aliasing filters and oversampling systems used in digital recordings have eliminated perceived problems observed with very early CD players.[107]

There is a theory that vinyl records can audibly represent higher frequencies than compact discs, though most of this is noise and not relevant to human hearing. According to Red Book specifications, the compact disc has a frequency response of 20 Hz up to 22,050 Hz, and most CD players measure flat within a fraction of a decibel from at least 0 Hz to 20 kHz at full output. Due to the distance required between grooves, it is not possible for an LP to reproduce as low frequencies as a CD. Additionally, turntable rumble and acoustic feedback obscures the low-end limit of vinyl but the upper end can be, with some cartridges, reasonably flat within a few decibels to 30 kHz, with gentle roll-off. Carrier signals of Quad LPs popular in the 1970s were at 30 kHz to be out of the range of human hearing. The average human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from 20 Hz to a maximum of around 20,000 Hz.[108] The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person. High frequency sensitivity decreases as a person ages, a process called presbycusis.[109]

Preservation edit

 
45 rpm records, like this single from 1956, usually had a chosen A-side, for radio promotion as a possible hit, with a flip side or B-side by the same artist—though some had two A-sides.

As the playing of gramophone records causes gradual degradation of the recording, they are best preserved by transferring them onto other media and playing the records as rarely as possible. They need to be stored on edge, and do best under environmental conditions that most humans would find comfortable.[110]

Where old disc recordings are considered to be of artistic or historic interest, from before the era of tape or where no tape master exists, archivists play back the disc on suitable equipment and record the result, typically onto a digital format, which can be copied and manipulated to remove analog flaws without any further damage to the source recording. For example, Nimbus Records uses a specially built horn record player to transfer 78s.[111] Anyone can do this using a standard record player with a suitable pickup, a phono-preamp (pre-amplifier) and a typical personal computer. However, for accurate transfer, professional archivists carefully choose the correct stylus shape and diameter, tracking weight, equalisation curve and other playback parameters and use high-quality analogue-to-digital converters.[112]

As an alternative to playback with a stylus, a recording can be read optically, processed with software that calculates the velocity that the stylus would be moving in the mapped grooves and converted to a digital recording format. This does no further damage to the disc and generally produces a better sound than normal playback. This technique also has the potential to allow for reconstruction of broken or otherwise damaged discs.[113]

Current status edit

 
A DJ mixing vinyl records with a DJ mixer at the Sundance Film Festival in 2003

Groove recordings, first designed in the final quarter of the 19th century, held a predominant position for nearly a century—withstanding competition from reel-to-reel tape, the 8-track cartridge, and the compact cassette. The widespread popularity of Sony's Walkman was a factor that contributed to the vinyl's lessening usage in the 1980s.[114] In 1988, the compact disc surpassed the gramophone record in unit sales. Vinyl records experienced a sudden decline in popularity between 1988 and 1991,[115] when the major label distributors restricted their return policies, which retailers had been relying on to maintain and swap out stocks of relatively unpopular titles. First the distributors began charging retailers more for new products if they returned unsold vinyl, and then they stopped providing any credit at all for returns. Retailers, fearing they would be stuck with anything they ordered, only ordered proven, popular titles that they knew would sell, and devoted more shelf space to CDs and cassettes. Record companies also removed many vinyl titles from production and distribution, further undermining the availability of the format and leading to the closure of pressing plants. This rapid decline in the availability of records accelerated the format's decline in popularity, and is seen by some as a deliberate ploy to make consumers switch to CDs, which unlike today, were more profitable for the record companies.[116][117][118][119]

In spite of their flaws, such as the lack of portability, records still have enthusiastic supporters. Vinyl records continue to be manufactured and sold today.[120]

In the United Kingdom, the popularity of indie rock caused sales of new vinyl records (particularly 7 inch singles) to increase significantly in 2006.[121][122]

In the United States, annual vinyl sales increased by 85.8% between 2006 and 2007, although starting from a low base,[123] and by 89% between 2007 and 2008.[124] However, sales increases have moderated over recent years falling to less than 10% during 2017.[125]

Figures released in the United States in early 2009 showed that sales of vinyl albums nearly doubled in 2008, with 1.88 million sold—up from just under 1 million in 2007.[126] In 2009, 3.5 million units sold in the United States, including 3.2 million albums, the highest number since 1998.[127][128]

Sales have continued to rise into the 2010s, with around 2.8 million sold in 2010, which is the most sales since record keeping began in 1991, when vinyl had been overshadowed by Compact Cassettes and compact discs.[129]

In 2021, Taylor Swift sold 102,000 copies of her ninth studio album Evermore on vinyl. The sales of the record beat the largest sales in one week on vinyl since Nielsen started tracking vinyl sales in 1991. The sales record was previously held by Jack White who sold 40,000 copies of his second solo release, Lazaretto, on vinyl in 2014. In 2014, the sale of vinyl records was the only physical music medium with increasing sales with relation to the previous year. Sales of other mediums including individual digital tracks, digital albums and compact discs have fallen, the last having the greatest drop-in-sales rate.[130]

In 2011, the Entertainment Retailers Association in the United Kingdom found that consumers were willing to pay on average £16.30 (€19.37, US$25.81) for a single vinyl record, as opposed to £7.82 (€9.30, US$12.38) for a CD and £6.80 (€8.09, US$10.76) for a digital download.[131]

In 2015 the sales of vinyl records went up 32%, to $416 million, their highest level since 1988.[132] There were 31.5 million vinyl records sold in 2015, and the number has increased annually ever since 2006.[133] Vinyl sales continued to grow in 2017, comprising 14% of all physical album sales. The number one vinyl LP sold was the re-release of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.[134]

According to the RIAA's midyear report in 2020, phonograph record revenues surpassed those of CDs for the first time since the 1980s.[135]

Countries 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Global Trade Value US$
(SP & LP)
$55m $66m $73m $89m $116m[136]
Australia
(SP & LP)
10,000 17,996[137] 10,000 19,608[138] 10,000 53,766[139] 13,677 39,644[140] 13,637 44,876[140] 21,623 77,934[141]
Germany
(SP & LP)
400,000[142] 700,000[130] 1,200,000[130] 635,000
(LPs only)
700,000
(LPs only)[143][144]
1,000,000
(LPs only)
Finland
(SP & LP)
10,301[145] 13,688[146] 15,747[147] 27,515[148] 54,970[149] 47,811[150]
Hungary
(LP)
2,974[151] 2,923[152] 3,763[153] 1,879[154] 8,873[155] 9,819[156]
Japan
(SP & LP)
103,000 105,000[157]
Netherlands
(LP)
51,000 60,400 81,000[158]
Spain
(LP)
40,000 106,000[159] 97,000 141,000[160] 135,000[161]
Sweden
(LP)
11,000[162] 22,000[162] 36,000[162] 70,671[162] 108,883[162] 173,124[162]
United Kingdom
(SP & LP)
1,843,000 205,000 740,000 209,000 332,000 219,000 219,000 234,000 186,000 337,000[163] 389,000[164]
United States
(LP)
988,000 1,880,000[165] 2,500,000[166] 2,800,000[167] 3,900,000[168] 4,600,000[169]
 
  • Australian single figures for 2007, 2008 and 2009 are estimated.
  • In reality German figures are considered to be "a lot higher" due to smaller shops and online communities in Germany not using scanner cash registers.[130] One German record pressing company stated that they alone produce 2 million LPs each year.[170]
  • In reality American figures are considered to be much higher, with one record store owner, in a New York Times article, estimating that Nielsen SoundScan only tracks "about 15 percent" of total sales due to bar codes, concluding that sales could now be as high as 20 million.[171][172][173]
  • In Sweden, vinyl sales in 2010 were up 92% from 2009 figures,[174] and in 2011 up a further 52% from 2010 figures.[175] In 2012 vinyl sales increased with 59% from 2011 figures.[176]
  • In New Zealand, independent record stores in Auckland were reporting a five-fold increase in vinyl sales from 2007 to 2011.[177]
  • In France, the SNEP said that LP sales were 200,000 in 2008, however independent record labels said that overall sales were probably 1 million.[178]
  • In United States, 67% of all vinyl album sales in 2012 were sold at independent music stores.[179]
  • Vinyl revenues were at the lowest point in its history in 2006, with a total trade value of $36 million. The 2011 figure of $116 million is higher than the 2000 figure of $109 million, but is still less than the 1997, 1998 and 1999 figures, which were all between $150 and $170 million.[136]

Less common recording formats edit

VinylVideo edit

VinylVideo is a format to store a low resolution black and white video on a vinyl record alongside encoded audio.[180][181][182]

Capacitance Electronic Disc edit

Another example is the Capacitance Electronic Disc, a color video format, slightly better than VHS.[183]

See also edit

References edit

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  6. ^ Bob Evans (1999-11-08). "A Whole New Ball Game". Information Week. p. 176. when broken or scratched ... repeating the same music or words over and over again
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  73. ^ (in English, German, and French). 1980. 0D03897A, O-800820B. Archived from the original on 2017-11-10. Retrieved 2017-11-10. (NB. This compander exists in two identically named but slightly different versions; only one of them has a dedicated "Disk" setting, the other one instead has an additional setting to combine subsonic with MPX filtering. In this model, High-Com II encoded vinyl disks have to be played back through the "Rec" setting of a connected tape deck.)
  74. ^ The Stillness of Dawn - High-Com II Demonstration Record (A limited edition not-for-sale High Com II encoded audiophile vinyl record and corresponding leaflet. This LP contains 400 Hz, 0 dB, 200 nWb/m calibration tones as well.). Nakamichi. 1979. NAK-100. Track list: Side A: Philharmonia Hungarica (Zoltan Rozsnyai): 1. Bizet (Carmen prelude) [2:30] 2. Berlioz (Rákóczi March from Damnation of Faust) [4:40] 3. Rimsky-Korsakov (Procession of the Nobles from Mlada) [4:55] 3. Brahms (Hungarian Dance No. 5) [4:30] 4. 400 Hz calibration tone. [1:00], Side B: S.M.A. Sextet (Sherman Martin Austin): 1. Impressions (John Coltrane) [5:00] 2. Mimosa (Dennis Irwin) [5:52] 3. Little B's Poem (Bobby Hutcherson) [3:12] 4. 400 Hz calibration tone [1:00]. […] Quotes from the sleeve: […] Thousands of man-hours were spent listening, adjusting, optimizing—until harpsichords sound like harpsichords without mutilated transients, until bass viols sound like bass viols without harmonic distortion, until triangles sound lean and crisp without breathiness. The result is High-Com II, the world's finest two-band noise-reduction system. […] High-Com II is the first audiophile noise-reduction system that achieves professional quality. […] Listen especially for the dramatic reduction in surface noise on this High-Com II encoded record. There is no residual hiss; the ticks, pops, and crackles that mar conventional discs are absent. So is turntable rumble. The loud passages emerge with unprecedented clarity since they need not be recorded at so high and distortion-producing a level. […] Between programs, there is utter silence. […] We also suggest you listen closely for sounds of "breathing" and noise pumping. This common fault of noise-reduction systems has been eliminated in High-Com II. Listen also to High-Com II's remarkable ability to accurately preserve musical transients. They are neither muted nor exaggerated nor edgy as with other companders. This accuracy of reproduction—on all types of music, at all frequencies, and at all levels—is what distinguishes High-Com II from other noise-reduction systems. […] Unlike simple companders, High-Com II is optimized differently for signals of different strength and different frequencies. Low-level signals are processed for maximum noise reduction, high-level ones for minimum distortion. This sophisticated technique assumes maximum dynamic range with minimum "breathing" and other audible side effects. […] Sound of extraordinary dynamic range—a background free from surface noise, pops, clicks, rumble, and groove echo—the mightiest crescendo, free from distortion. Sound without breathing, pumping, or other ill side effects.
  75. ^ Taylor, Matthew "Mat" (2017-10-19). "CX Discs: Better, Worse & the Same as a normal record". Techmoan. Archived from the original on 2021-10-29. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
  76. ^ Hohmuth, Gerhard (1987). "Verbesserte Schallplattenwiedergabe durch UC-Kompressor". radio fernsehen elektronik (rfe) (in German). Vol. 36, no. 5. Berlin: VEB Verlag Technik [de]. pp. 311–313. ISSN 0033-7900. (3 pages) (NB. Includes a description of the UC compander system.)
  77. ^ a b Milde, Helmut (1987). Written at Dresden, Germany. "Das UC-Kompandersystem" (PDF). radio fernsehen elektronik (rfe) (in German). Vol. 36, no. 9. Berlin, Germany: VEB Verlag Technik [de]. pp. 592–595. ISSN 0033-7900. (PDF) from the original on 2021-05-05. Retrieved 2021-05-05. (4 pages) (NB. Includes a detailed description of the UC system characteristics and a reference schematic developed by Milde, similar to the circuitry used in the Ziphona HMK-PA2223. According to the author he later also developed an improved version utilizing more modern ICs.)
  78. ^ a b Wonneberg, Frank [in German] (2000). Vinyl Lexikon - Wahrheit und Legende der Schallplatte - Fachbegriffe, Sammlerlatein und Praxistips (in German) (1 ed.). Lexikon Imprint Verlag. ISBN 3-89602226-1. UC […] Vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten und dem ZWT Rundfunk und Fernsehen der DDR entwickelter, breitbandiger Kompander zur Codierung von Schallplatten. Das UC-Kompandersystem (universal compatible) nutzt die Möglichkeit durch den Einsatz sogenannter Logarithmierer, den Verstärkungsvorgang fließend zu gestalten und ein abruptes Umschalten bei niedrigen Signalpegeln zu vermeiden. Durch einen sich kontinuierlich wandelnden Kompressionsgrad von 5:3 (0 dB) bis 1:1 (−20 dB) erzielt man eine effektive Störunterdrückung von 10 dB. Die Expansion erfolgt spiegelverkehrt. Auch ohne den Einsatz eines entsprechenden UC-Expanders bleiben durch das"fließende"Verfahren die Ein- und Ausklingvorgänge in ihrer Homogenität und auch die Raumabbildung der Tonaufzeichnung weitestgehend erhalten. Die gewinnbringende Nutzung des UC-Kompanderverfahrens stellt den Anwender vor ein kaum lösbares Problem, da die ökonomischen Rahmenbedingungen und die zentrale Planung der Geräteentwicklung in der DDR die Herstellung eines Serienproduktes untergruben. Letztlich existieren nur einige Labormuster in den Händen der an dem Verfahren beteiligten Entwickler. Ein Versuch nach 1990, mit dem Verfahren erneut Fuß zu fassen, scheiterte an der international bereits von der Industrie vollzogenen, umfassenden Digitalisierung der Heimwiedergabe. Vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten wurden in den Jahren 1983 bis 1990 weit mehr als 500 verschiedene UC-codierte Schallplatten der Marken Eterna [de] und Amiga veröffentlicht. Alle entsprechend aufgezeichneten Schallplatten tragen im Spiegel der Auslaufrille zusätzlich zur Matrizengravur ein U. Auf eine äußere, gut sichtbare Kennzeichnung wurde, im Sinne der hervorragenden Kompatibilität des Verfahrens bei einer konventionellen Wiedergabe und in Ermangelung verfügbarer UC-Expander für den Heimgebrauch, verzichtet.
  79. ^ a b Müller, Claus (2018). Meinhardt, Käthe (ed.). "UC-Expander" (in German). from the original on 2021-05-05. Retrieved 2021-05-05. p. 4: […] In den 1980er Jahren wurden in der DDR vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten unter dem Label ETERNA [de] viele sehr gute Aufnahmen klassischer Musik veröffentlicht. Diese Platten wurden, nicht wie sonst üblich, in Lackfolie sondern direkt in eine Metallscheibe geschnitten (DMM - Direkt Metal Mastering). Das ersparte zwei Zwischenkopien im Produktionsablauf, was nicht nur schneller ging, sondern auch zu einer erheblich besseren Qualität führte. Zur weiteren Steigerung der Klangqualität wurde das UC-Kompandersystem (UC - Universal Compatible) eingesetzt. Damit wurden beim Schneiden der Platte die leisen Töne etwas lauter und die lauten entsprechend leiser überspielt. Wendet man bei der Wiedergabe das umgekehrte Verfahren an, werden mit den leisen Tönen auch die Störungen abgeschwächt und die lauten Stellen verzerren nicht und nutzen sich weniger ab. All das geschah so vorsichtig, dass man die Platte auch ohne Expander bei der Wiedergabe noch genussvoll anhören konnte. Zum Glück, denn es hätte sowieso nur einen Plattenspieler gegeben, der über eine entsprechende Schaltung verfügte und der war sehr teuer. Vermutlich aus diesem Grund hat man auf eine weithin sichtbare Kennzeichnung der mit diesem Verfahren aufgenommenen Platten verzichtet. Nur in der Gravur zwischen den Auslaufrillen kann man am angehängten U den Einsatz des Kompressors erkennen […] Das vorliegende Programm erfüllt die Aufgabe eines UC-Expanders, mit dem Sie eine im wav-format digitalisierte Schallplattenaufnahme bearbeiten können, um nun endlich den Klang genießen zu können, den Sie damals erworben haben. Bis dahin gibt es aber noch eine Schwierigkeit. Zur richtigen Einstellung des Programmes benötigen Sie eine Schallplatte, auf der ein Bezugspegelton aufgezeichnet ist, wie das bei den, dem Plattenspieler beiliegenen, Testplatten der Fall war. […] (NB. Describes a software implementation of an UC expander as a program "UCExpander.exe" for Microsoft Windows. Also shows a picture of the "U" engraving in the silent inner groove indicating UC encoded vinyl disks.)
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Further reading edit

  • Fadeyev, V.; C. Haber (2003). "Reconstruction of mechanically recorded sound by image processing" (PDF). Audio Engineering Society. 51 (December): 1172.
  • Lawrence, Harold; "Mercury Living Presence". Compact disc liner notes. Bartók, Antal Dorati, Mercury 432 017–2. 1991.
  • International standard IEC 60098: Analogue audio disk records and reproducing equipment. Third edition, International Electrotechnical Commission, 1987.
  • College Physics, Sears, Zemansky, Young, 1974, LOC #73-21135, chapter: "Acoustic Phenomena"
  • Powell, James R., Jr. The Audiophile's Technical Guide to 78 rpm, Transcription, and Microgroove Recordings. 1992; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-2-8
  • Powell, James R., Jr. Broadcast Transcription Discs. 2001; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-4-4
  • Powell, James R., Jr. and Randall G. Stehle. Playback Equalizer Settings for 78 rpm Recordings. Third Edition. 1993, 2001, 2007; Gramophone Adventures, Portage, MI. ISBN 0-9634921-3-6
  • Scholes, Percy A. The Oxford Companion to Music. Ninth edition, Oxford University Press, 1955.
  • From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph by Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch
  • The Fabulous Phonograph by Roland Gelatt, published by Cassell & Company, 1954 rev. 1977 ISBN 0-304-29904-9
  • Where Have All the Good Times Gone?: The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry Louis Barfe.
  • Pressing the LP Record by Ellingham, Niel, published at 1 Bruach Lane, PH16 5DG, Scotland.
  • Sound Recordings by Peter Copeland published 1991 by the British Library ISBN 0-7123-0225-5.
  • Vinyl: A History of the Analogue Record by Richard Osborne. Ashgate, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4094-4027-7.
  • by B. H. Carson, A. D. Burt, and H. I. Reiskind, RCA Review, June 1949
  • , University of San Diego (archived 2010)

External links edit

  • Playback equalization for 78 rpm shellacs and early LPs (EQ curves, index of record labels): Audacity Wiki
  • The manufacturing and production of shellac records. Educational video, 1942.
  • including equalization data for different makes of 78s and LPs.
  • The Secret Society of Lathe Trolls, a site devoted to all aspects of the making of Gramophone records.
  • How to digitize gramophone records: Audacity Tutorial
  • Actual list of vinyl pressing plants: vinyl-pressing-plants.com
  • Dedicated museum for sound history: Musée des ondes Emile Berliner, Montreal, Canada
  • Smart Vinyl: The First Computerized
  • Semi-automatic metadata extraction from shellac and vinyl disc
  • Vinyl Player 2.0

phonograph, record, magazine, phonograph, record, magazine, cylinder, recordings, formerly, commonly, called, phonograph, records, phonograph, cylinder, phonograph, record, also, known, gramophone, record, especially, british, english, vinyl, record, later, va. For the magazine see Phonograph Record magazine For cylinder recordings formerly commonly called phonograph records see Phonograph cylinder A phonograph record also known as a gramophone record especially in British English a vinyl record for later varieties only or simply a record or vinyl is an analog sound storage medium in the form of a flat disc with an inscribed modulated spiral groove The groove usually starts near the outside edge and ends near the center of the disc The stored sound information is made audible by playing the record on a phonograph A typical black 12 inch LP record78 rpm video source source source source source source Video of a 1936 spring motor driven 78 rpm acoustic non electronic gramophone playing a shellac record Problems playing this file See media help Until the 1940s for about half a century the discs were commonly made from shellac with earlier records having a fine abrasive filler mixed in The vinyl records of the late 20th century made from polyvinyl chloride PVC then became commonplace Contents 1 Overview 1 1 Continued production 2 History 2 1 Predecessors 2 2 The first disc records 3 78 rpm disc developments 3 1 Early speeds 3 2 Acoustic recording 3 3 Electrical recording 3 4 78 rpm materials 3 5 78 rpm recording time 3 6 Record albums 3 7 78 rpm releases in the microgroove era 4 New sizes and materials after WWII 45 rpm singles LPs and vinyl records 4 1 Speeds 4 1 1 Shellac era 4 1 2 Microgroove and vinyl era 4 2 High fidelity 4 3 Stereophonic sound 4 4 Noise reduction systems 5 Formats 5 1 Types of records 5 2 Standard formats 5 3 Less common formats 6 Structure 6 1 Vinyl quality 7 Limitations 7 1 Shellac 7 2 Vinyl 7 3 Sound fidelity 7 4 LP versus CD 8 Preservation 9 Current status 10 Less common recording formats 10 1 VinylVideo 10 2 Capacitance Electronic Disc 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External linksOverview edit nbsp Conductor and cast members of the D Oyly Carte Opera Company with acoustic recording horn at HMV c 1924The phonograph record was the primary medium used for music reproduction throughout the 20th century It had co existed with the phonograph cylinder from the late 1880s and had effectively superseded it by around 1912 Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as the compact cassette were mass marketed By the 1980s digital media in the form of the compact disc had gained a larger market share and the record left the mainstream in 1991 1 Since the 1990s records continue to be manufactured and sold on a smaller scale and during the 1990s and early 2000s were commonly used by disc jockeys DJs especially in dance music genres They were also listened to by a growing number of audiophiles The phonograph record has made a niche resurgence as a format for rock music in the early 21st century 9 2 million records were sold in the US in 2014 a 260 increase since 2009 2 Likewise sales in the UK increased five fold from 2009 to 2014 3 Phonograph records are generally described by their diameter in inches 12 inch 10 inch 7 inch although they were designed in millimeters 4 the rotational speed in revolutions per minute rpm at which they are played 8 1 3 16 2 3 33 1 3 45 78 5 and their time capacity determined by their diameter and speed LP long playing 12 inch disc 33 1 3 rpm SP single 10 inch disc 78 rpm or 7 inch disc 45 rpm EP extended play 12 inch disc or 7 inch disc 33 1 3 or 45 rpm their reproductive quality or level of fidelity high fidelity orthophonic full range etc and the number of audio channels mono stereo quad etc The phrase broken record refers to a malfunction 6 when the needle skips jumps back to the previous groove and plays the same section over and over again indefinitely 7 8 9 Continued production edit As of 2017 update 48 record pressing facilities exist worldwide 18 in the US and 30 in other countries The increased popularity of the record has led to the investment in new and modern record pressing machines 10 Only two producers of lacquers acetate discs or master discs remain Apollo Masters in California and MDC in Japan 11 On February 6 2020 a fire destroyed the Apollo Masters plant According to the Apollo Masters website their future is still uncertain 12 History editManufacture of disc records began in the late 19th century at first competing with earlier cylinder records Price ease of use and storage made the disc record dominant by the 1910s The standard format of disc records became known to later generations as 78s after their playback speed in revolutions per minute although that speed only became standardized in the late 1920s In the late 1940s new formats pressed in vinyl the 45 rpm single and 33 rpm long playing LP were introduced gradually overtaking the formerly standard 78s over the next decade The late 1950s saw the introduction of stereophonic sound on commercial discs Predecessors edit Main article History of sound recording The phonautograph was invented by 1857 by Frenchman Edouard Leon Scott de Martinville 13 It could not however play back recorded sound 14 as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings 15 which he called phonautograms 16 Prior to this tuning forks had been used in this way to create direct tracings of the vibrations of sound producing objects as by English physicist Thomas Young in 1807 17 In 1877 Thomas Edison invented the first phonograph 18 which etched sound recordings onto phonograph cylinders Unlike the phonautograph Edison s phonograph could both record and reproduce sound via two separate needles one for each function 19 The first disc records edit nbsp Emile Berliner with disc record gramophoneThe first commercially sold disc records were created by Emile Berliner in the 1880s Emile Berliner improved the quality of recordings while his manufacturing associate Eldridge R Johnson who owned a machine shop in Camden New Jersey eventually improved the mechanism of the gramophone with a spring motor and a speed regulating governor resulting in a sound quality equal to Edison s cylinders Abandoning Berliner s Gramophone trademark for legal reasons in the United States Johnson s and Berliner s separate companies reorganized in 1901 to form the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden New Jersey whose products would come to dominate the market for several decades 20 Berliner s Montreal factory which became the Canadian branch of RCA Victor still exists There is a dedicated museum in Montreal for Berliner Musee des ondes Emile Berliner 21 78 rpm disc developments edit nbsp Hungarian Pathe record 90 to 100 rpmEarly speeds edit Early disc recordings were produced in a variety of speeds ranging from 60 to 130 rpm and a variety of sizes As early as 1894 Emile Berliner s United States Gramophone Company was selling single sided 7 inch discs with an advertised standard speed of about 70 rpm 22 One standard audio recording handbook describes speed regulators or governors as being part of a wave of improvement introduced rapidly after 1897 A picture of a hand cranked 1898 Berliner Gramophone shows a governor and says that spring drives had replaced hand drives It notes that The speed regulator was furnished with an indicator that showed the speed when the machine was running so that the records on reproduction could be revolved at exactly the same speed The literature does not disclose why 78 rpm was chosen for the phonograph industry apparently this just happened to be the speed created by one of the early machines and for no other reason continued to be used 23 nbsp A multinational product an operatic duet sung by Enrico Caruso and Antonio Scotti recorded in the US in 1906 by the Victor Talking Machine Company manufactured c 1908 in Hanover Germany for the Gramophone Company Victor s affiliate in EnglandIn 1912 the Gramophone Company set 78 rpm as their recording standard based on the average of recordings they had been releasing at the time and started selling players whose governors had a nominal speed of 78 rpm 24 By 1925 78 rpm was becoming standardized across the industry However the exact speed differed between places with alternating current electricity supply at 60 hertz cycles per second Hz and those at 50 Hz Where the mains supply was 60 Hz the actual speed was 78 26 rpm that of a 60 Hz stroboscope illuminating 92 bar calibration markings Where it was 50 Hz it was 77 92 rpm that of a 50 Hz stroboscope illuminating 77 bar calibration markings 24 Acoustic recording edit Early recordings were made entirely acoustically the sound was collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm which vibrated the cutting stylus Sensitivity and frequency range were poor and frequency response was very irregular giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality A singer almost had to put their face in the recording horn A way of reducing resonance was to wrap the recording horn with tape 25 Even drums if planned and placed properly could be effectively recorded and heard on even the earliest jazz and military band recordings The loudest instruments such as the drums and trumpets were positioned the farthest away from the collecting horn Lillian Hardin Armstrong a member of King Oliver s Creole Jazz Band which recorded at Gennett Records in 1923 remembered that at first Oliver and his young second trumpet Louis Armstrong stood next to each other and Oliver s horn could not be heard They put Louis about fifteen feet over in the corner looking all sad 26 27 Electrical recording edit nbsp An electronically recorded disc from Carl Lindstrom AG Germany c 1930During the first half of the 1920s engineers at Western Electric as well as independent inventors such as Orlando Marsh developed technology for capturing sound with a microphone amplifying it with vacuum tubes 28 known as valves in the UK 29 and then using the amplified signal to drive an electromechanical recording head Western Electric s innovations resulted in a broader and smoother frequency response which produced a dramatically fuller clearer and more natural sounding recording Soft or distant sounds that were previously impossible to record could now be captured Volume was now limited only by the groove spacing on the record and the amplification of the playback device Victor and Columbia licensed the new electrical system from Western Electric and recorded the first electrical discs during the spring of 1925 The first electrically recorded Victor Red Seal record was Chopin s Impromptus and Schubert s Litanei performed by pianist Alfred Cortot at Victor s studios in Camden New Jersey 28 A 1926 Wanamaker s ad in The New York Times offers records by the latest Victor process of electrical recording 30 It was recognized as a breakthrough in 1930 a Times music critic stated the time has come for serious musical criticism to take account of performances of great music reproduced by means of the records To claim that the records have succeeded in exact and complete reproduction of all details of symphonic or operatic performances would be extravagant but the article of today is so far in advance of the old machines as hardly to admit classification under the same name Electrical recording and reproduction have combined to retain vitality and color in recitals by proxy 31 nbsp Examples of Congolese 78 rpm records nbsp A 10 inch blank for making an individually cut one off recording made from Decelith a proprietary PVC based material produced by a German Company ECW that was used to make commercial flexible blanks prior to World War II 32 The Orthophonic Victrola had an interior folded exponential horn a sophisticated design informed by impedance matching and transmission line theory and designed to provide a relatively flat frequency response Victor s first public demonstration of the Orthophonic Victrola on October 6 1925 at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel was front page news in The New York Times which reported The audience broke into applause John Philip Sousa said Gentlemen that is a band This is the first time I have ever heard music with any soul to it produced by a mechanical talking machine The new instrument is a feat of mathematics and physics It is not the result of innumerable experiments but was worked out on paper in advance of being built in the laboratory The new machine has a range of from 100 to 5 000 cycles per second or five and a half octaves The phonograph tone is eliminated by the new recording and reproducing process 33 Sales of records plummeted precipitously during the early years of the Great Depression of the 1930s and the entire record industry in America nearly foundered In 1932 RCA Victor introduced a basic inexpensive turntable called the Duo Jr which was designed to be connected to their radio receivers According to Edward Wallerstein the general manager of the RCA Victor Division this device was instrumental in revitalizing the industry 34 78 rpm materials edit The production of shellac records continued throughout the 78 rpm era which lasted until 1948 in industrialized nations 35 During the Second World War the United States Armed Forces produced thousands of 12 inch vinyl 78 rpm V Discs for use by the troops overseas 36 After the war the use of vinyl became more practical as new record players with lightweight crystal pickups and precision ground styli made of sapphire or an exotic osmium alloy proliferated In late 1945 RCA Victor began offering De Luxe transparent red vinylite pressings of some Red Seal classical 78s at a de luxe price Later Decca Records introduced vinyl Deccalite 78s while other record companies used various vinyl formulations trademarked as Metrolite Merco Plastic and Sav o flex but these were mainly used to produce unbreakable children s records and special thin vinyl DJ pressings for shipment to radio stations 37 78 rpm recording time edit The playing time of a phonograph record is directly proportional to the available groove length divided by the turntable speed Total groove length in turn depends on how closely the grooves are spaced in addition to the record diameter At the beginning of the 20th century the early discs played for two minutes the same as cylinder records 38 The 12 inch disc introduced by Victor in 1903 increased the playing time to three and a half minutes 39 Because the standard 10 inch 78 rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side most popular recordings were limited to that duration 40 For example when King Oliver s Creole Jazz Band including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond Indiana in 1923 one side was 2 09 and four sides were 2 52 2 59 41 In January 1938 Milt Gabler started recording for Commodore Records and to allow for longer continuous performances he recorded some 12 inch discs Eddie Condon explained Gabler realized that a jam session needs room for development The first two 12 inch recordings did not take advantage of their capability Carnegie Drag was 3m 15s Carnegie Jump 2m 41s But at the second session on April 30 the two 12 inch recordings were longer Embraceable You was 4m 05s Serenade to a Shylock 4m 32s 42 43 Another way to overcome the time limitation was to issue a selection extending to both sides of a single record Vaudeville stars Gallagher and Shean recorded Mr Gallagher and Mr Shean written by themselves or allegedly by Bryan Foy as two sides of a 10 inch 78 in 1922 for Victor 44 Longer musical pieces were released as a set of records In 1903 HMV in England made the first complete recording of an opera Verdi s Ernani on 40 single sided discs 45 In 1940 Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band s recording of A Good Man Is Hard to Find in four parts issued on both sides of two 12 inch 78s The limited duration of recordings persisted from their advent until the introduction of the LP record in 1948 In popular music the time limit of 3 1 2 minutes on a 10 inch 78 rpm record meant that singers seldom recorded long pieces One exception is Frank Sinatra s recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein s Soliloquy from Carousel made on May 28 1946 Because it ran 7m 57s longer than both sides of a standard 78 rpm 10 inch record it was released on Columbia s Masterwork label the classical division as two sides of a 12 inch record 46 In the 78 era classical music and spoken word items generally were released on the longer 12 inch 78s about 4 5 minutes per side For example on June 10 1924 four months after the 12 February premier of Rhapsody in Blue George Gershwin recorded an abridged version of the seventeen minute work with Paul Whiteman and His Orchestra It was released on two sides of Victor 55225 and ran for 8m 59s 47 Record albums edit Record albums were originally booklets containing collections of multiple disc records of related material the name being related to photograph albums or scrap albums 48 German record company Odeon pioneered the album in 1909 when it released the Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky on four double sided discs in a specially designed package 45 It was not until the LP era that an entire album of material could be included on a single record 78 rpm releases in the microgroove era edit In 1968 when the hit movie Thoroughly Modern Millie was inspiring revivals of Jazz Age music Reprise planned to release a series of 78 rpm singles from their artists on their label at the time called the Reprise Speed Series Only one disc actually saw release Randy Newman s I Think It s Going to Rain Today a track from his self titled debut album with The Beehive State on the flipside 49 Reprise did not proceed further with the series due to a lack of sales for the single and a lack of general interest in the concept 50 In 1978 guitarist and vocalist Leon Redbone released a promotional 78 rpm single featuring two songs Alabama Jubilee and Please Don t Talk About Me When I m Gone from his Champagne Charlie album 51 In the same vein of Tin Pan Alley revivals R Crumb amp His Cheap Suit Serenaders issued a number of 78 rpm singles on their Blue Goose record label The most familiar of these releases is probably R Crumb amp His Cheap Suit Serenaders Party Record 1980 issued as a Red Goose record on a 12 inch single with the double entendre My Girl s Pussy on the A side and the X rated Christopher Columbus on the B side In the 1990s Rhino Records issued a series of boxed sets of 78 rpm reissues of early rock and roll hits intended for owners of vintage jukeboxes The records were made of vinyl however and some of the earlier vintage 78 rpm jukeboxes and record players the ones that were pre war were designed with heavy tone arms to play the hard slate impregnated shellac records of their time These vinyl Rhino 78s were softer and would be destroyed by old juke boxes and old record players but play very well on newer 78 capable turntables with modern lightweight tone arms and jewel needles 52 As a special release for Record Store Day 2011 Capitol re released The Beach Boys single Good Vibrations in the form of a 10 inch 78 rpm record b w Heroes and Villains More recently The Reverend Peyton s Big Damn Band has released their tribute to blues guitarist Charley Patton Peyton on Patton on both 12 inch LP and 10 inch 78s 53 New sizes and materials after WWII 45 rpm singles LPs and vinyl records editSee also LP record nbsp A 12 inch LP being played The stylus is in contact with the surface nbsp Grooves on a modern 33 rpm record nbsp Uncommon Columbia 7 inch vinyl 33 1 3 rpm microgroove ZLP from 1948CBS Laboratories had long been at work for Columbia Records to develop a phonograph record that would hold at least 20 minutes per side 54 55 Research began in 1939 was suspended during World War II and then resumed in 1945 56 Columbia Records unveiled the LP at a press conference in the Waldorf Astoria on June 21 1948 in two formats 10 inches 25 centimetres in diameter matching that of 78 rpm singles and 12 inches 30 centimetres in diameter 56 57 58 nbsp Boston Pops conductor Arthur Fiedler demonstrating the new RCA Victor 45 rpm player and record in February 1949Unwilling to accept and license Columbia s system in February 1949 RCA Victor released the first 45 rpm single 7 inches in diameter with a large center hole The 45 rpm player included a changing mechanism that allowed multiple disks to be stacked much as a conventional changer handled 78s Also like 78s the short playing time of a single 45 rpm side meant that long works such as symphonies and operas had to be released on multiple 45s instead of a single LP but RCA Victor claimed that the new high speed changer rendered side breaks so brief as to be inconsequential Early 45 rpm records were made from either vinyl or polystyrene 59 They had a playing time of eight minutes 60 At first the two systems were marketed in competition in what was called The War of the Speeds 61 Speeds edit Shellac era edit nbsp Edison Records Diamond Disc label early 1920s Edison Disc Records always ran at 80 rpm At least one attempt to lengthen playing time was made in the early 1920s World Records produced records that played at a constant linear velocity controlled by Noel Pemberton Billing s patented add on speed governor 62 In the 1920s 78 26 rpm was standardized when stroboscopic discs and turntable edge markings were introduced to standardize the speeds of recording lathes At that speed a strobe disc with 92 lines would stand still in 60 Hz light In regions of the world that use 50 Hz current the standard was 77 92 rpm and a disk with 77 lines 24 nbsp Columbia and RCA Victor s competition extended to equipment Some turntables included spindle size adapters but other turntables required snap in inserts like this one to adapt Victor s larger 45 rpm spindle size to the smaller spindle size available on nearly all turntables 63 Shown is one popular design in use for many years The older 78 rpm format continued to be mass produced alongside the newer formats using new materials in decreasing numbers until the summer of 1958 in the U S and in a few countries such as the Philippines and India both countries issued recordings by the Beatles on 78s into the late 1960s For example Columbia Records last reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 78 rpm records was an album called Young at Heart issued in November 1954 64 Microgroove and vinyl era edit nbsp 1959 Seeburg 16 rpm record label only Columbia and RCA Victor each pursued their R amp D secretly 65 The Seeburg Corporation introduced the Seeburg Background Music System in 1959 using a 16 2 3 rpm 9 inch record with 2 inch center hole Each record held 40 minutes of music per side recorded at 420 grooves per inch 66 The commercial rivalry between RCA Victor and Columbia Records led to RCA Victor s introduction of what it had intended to be a competing vinyl format the 7 inch 175 mm 45 rpm disc with a much larger center hole For a two year period from 1948 to 1950 record companies and consumers faced uncertainty over which of these formats would ultimately prevail in what was known as the War of the Speeds see also Format war In 1949 Capitol and Decca adopted the new LP format and RCA Victor gave in and issued its first LP in January 1950 The 45 rpm size was gaining in popularity too and Columbia issued its first 45s in February 1951 By 1954 200 million 45s had been sold 67 Eventually the 12 inch 300 mm 33 1 3 rpm LP prevailed as the dominant format for musical albums and 10 inch LPs were no longer issued The last Columbia Records reissue of any Frank Sinatra songs on a 10 inch LP record was an album called Hall of Fame CL 2600 issued on October 26 1956 containing six songs one each by Tony Bennett Rosemary Clooney Johnnie Ray Frank Sinatra Doris Day and Frankie Laine 64 nbsp 45 rpm vinyl record from 1965The 45 rpm discs also came in a variety known as extended play EP which achieved up to 10 15 minutes play at the expense of attenuating and possibly compressing the sound to reduce the width required by the groove EP discs were cheaper to produce and were used in cases where unit sales were likely to be more limited or to reissue LP albums on the smaller format for those people who had only 45 rpm players LP albums could be purchased one EP at a time with four items per EP or in a boxed set with three EPs or twelve items The large center hole on 45s allows easier handling by jukebox mechanisms EPs were generally discontinued by the late 1950s in the U S as three and four speed record players replaced the individual 45 players One indication of the decline of the 45 rpm EP is that the last Columbia Records reissue of Frank Sinatra songs on 45 rpm EP records called Frank Sinatra Columbia B 2641 was issued on 7 December 1959 64 From the mid 1950s through the 1960s in the U S the common home record player or stereo after the introduction of stereo recording would typically have had these features a three or four speed player 78 45 33 1 3 and sometimes 16 2 3 rpm with changer a tall spindle that would hold several records and automatically drop a new record on top of the previous one when it had finished playing a combination cartridge with both 78 and microgroove styli and a way to flip between the two and some kind of adapter for playing the 45s with their larger center hole The adapter could be a small solid circle that fit onto the bottom of the spindle meaning only one 45 could be played at a time or a larger adapter that fit over the entire spindle permitting a stack of 45s to be played 63 RCA Victor 45s were also adapted to the smaller spindle of an LP player with a plastic snap in insert known as a spider 63 These inserts commissioned by RCA president David Sarnoff and were invented by Thomas Hutchison 68 Capacitance Electronic Discs were videodiscs invented by RCA based on mechanically tracked ultra microgrooves 9541 grooves inch on a 12 inch conductive vinyl disc 69 High fidelity edit Further information High fidelity The term high fidelity was coined in the 1920s by some manufacturers of radio receivers and phonographs to differentiate their better sounding products claimed as providing perfect sound reproduction 70 The term began to be used by some audio engineers and consumers through the 1930s and 1940s After 1949 a variety of improvements in recording and playback technologies especially stereo recordings which became widely available in 1958 gave a boost to the hi fi classification of products leading to sales of individual components for the home such as amplifiers loudspeakers phonographs and tape players 71 High Fidelity and Audio were two magazines that hi fi consumers and engineers could read for reviews of playback equipment and recordings Stereophonic sound edit nbsp Decoding the left channelA stereophonic phonograph provides two channels of audio one left and one right This is achieved by adding another vertical dimension of movement to the needle in addition to the horizontal one As a result the needle now moves not only left and right but also up and down But since those two dimensions do not have the same sensitivity to vibration the difference needs to be evened out by having each channel take half its information from each direction by turning the channels 45 degrees from horizontal 72 As a result of the 45 degree turn and some vector algebra it can be demonstrated that out of the new horizontal and vertical directions one would represent the sum of the two channels and the other representing the difference Record makers decide to pick the directions such that the traditional horizontal direction codes for the sum As a result an ordinary mono disk will be decoded correctly as no difference between channels and an ordinary mono player would simply play the sum of a stereophonic record without too much loss of information 72 In 1957 the first commercial stereo two channel records were issued first by Audio Fidelity followed by a translucent blue vinyl on Bel Canto Records the first of which was a multi colored vinyl sampler featuring A Stereo Tour of Los Angeles narrated by Jack Wagner on one side and a collection of tracks from various Bel Canto albums on the back 73 Noise reduction systems edit A similar scheme aiming at the high end audiophile market and achieving a noise reduction of about 20 to 25 dB A was the Telefunken Nakamichi High Com II noise reduction system being adapted to vinyl in 1979 A decoder was commercially available 74 but only one demo record 75 is known to have been produced in this format The availability of encoded disks in any of these formats stopped in the mid 1980s 76 Yet another noise reduction system for vinyl records was the UC compander system developed by Zentrum Wissenschaft und Technik ZWT of Kombinat Rundfunk und Fernsehen de RFT 77 The system deliberately reduced disk noise by 10 to 12 dB A only 78 to remain virtually free of recognizable acoustical artifacts even when records were played back without an UC expander In fact the system was undocumentedly introduced into the market by several East German record labels since 1983 79 78 80 Over 500 UC encoded titles were produced 79 without an expander becoming available to the public The only 80 UC expander was built into a turntable manufactured by Phonotechnik Pirna Zittau 81 Formats editTypes of records edit The usual diameters of the holes on an EP record are 0 286 inches 7 26 mm 82 Sizes of records in the United States and the UK are generally measured in inches e g 7 inch records which are generally 45 rpm records LPs were 10 inch records at first but soon the 12 inch size became by far the most common Generally 78s were 10 inch but 12 inch and 7 inch and even smaller were made the so called little wonders 83 Standard formats edit nbsp A standard wide hole 7 inch vinyl record from 1978 on its sleeveDiameter Finished Diameter Name Revolutions per minute Approximate duration16 in 41 cm 15 15 16 3 32 Transcription disc 33 1 3 rpm 15 min side12 in 30 cm 11 7 8 1 32 LP Long Play 33 1 3 rpm 22 min sideMaxi Single 12 inch single 45 rpm 15 min sideSingle 78 rpm 4 5 min side 10 in 25 cm 9 7 8 1 32 LP Long Play 33 1 3 rpm 12 15 min sideEP Extended Play 45 rpm 9 12 min sideSingle 78 rpm 3 min side7 in 18 cm 6 7 8 1 32 EP Extended Play 33 1 3 rpm 7 min sideEP Extended Play 45 rpm 8 min sideSingle 45 rpm 5 1 3 min side nbsp Example of 7 EMI single with notched center holeNotes Columbia pressed many 7 inch 33 1 3 rpm vinyl singles in 1949 but were dropped in early 1950 due to the popularity of the RCA Victor 45 84 full citation needed Original hole diameters were 0 286 0 001 for 33 1 3 and 78 26 rpm records and 1 504 0 002 for 45 rpm records 85 Less common formats edit Main article Unusual types of gramophone records Flexi discs were thin flexible records that were distributed with magazines and as promotional gifts from the 1960s to the 1980s In March 1949 as RCA Victor released the 45 Columbia released several hundred 7 inch 33 1 3 rpm small spindle hole singles This format was soon dropped as it became clear that the RCA Victor 45 was the single of choice and the Columbia 12 inch LP would be the album of choice 86 The first release of the 45 came in seven colors black 47 xxxx popular series yellow 47 xxxx juvenile series green teal 48 xxxx country series deep red 49 xxxx classical series bright red cerise 50 xxxx blues spiritual series light blue 51 xxxx international series dark blue 52 xxxx light classics Most colors were soon dropped in favor of black because of production problems However yellow and deep red were continued until about 1952 87 The first 45 rpm record created for sale was PeeWee the Piccolo RCA Victor 47 0147 pressed in yellow translucent vinyl at the Sherman Avenue plant Indianapolis on December 7 1948 by R O Price plant manager 88 In the 1970s the government of Bhutan produced now collectible postage stamps on playable vinyl mini discs 89 Structure edit nbsp Comparison of several forms of disk storage showing tracks tracks not to scale green denotes start and red denotes end Some CD R W and DVD R W DVD R W recorders operate in ZCLV CAA or CAV modes Increasingly from the early 20th century and almost exclusively since the 1920s both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves Occasional records have been issued since then with a recording on only one side In the 1980s Columbia records briefly issued a series of less expensive one sided 45 rpm singles 90 Since its inception in 1948 vinyl record standards for the United States follow the guidelines of the Recording Industry Association of America RIAA 91 Vinyl quality edit The sound quality and durability of vinyl records is highly dependent on the quality of the vinyl During the early 1970s as a cost cutting move much of the industry began reducing the thickness and quality of vinyl used in mass market manufacturing RCA Records marketed their lightweight LP as Dynaflex which at the time was considered inferior by many record collectors 92 New or virgin heavy heavyweight 180 220 g vinyl is commonly used for modern audiophile vinyl releases in all genres Many collectors prefer to have heavyweight vinyl albums which have been reported to have better sound than normal vinyl because of their higher tolerance against deformation caused by normal play 93 Limitations editThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Phonograph record news newspapers books scholar JSTOR November 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message Shellac edit One problem with shellac was that the size of the disks tended to be larger because it was limited to 80 100 groove walls per inch before the risk of groove collapse became too high whereas vinyl could have up to 260 groove walls per inch 94 95 Vinyl edit Broken record redirects here For other uses see Broken Record disambiguation Although vinyl records are strong and do not break easily they scratch due to its soft material sometimes resulting in ruining the record Vinyl readily acquires a static charge attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops In extreme cases they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves or worse yet cause the needle to skip backwards creating a locked groove that repeats over and over This is the origin of the phrase like a broken record or like a scratched record which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself 96 nbsp A dusty scratched vinyl record being played The dust settles into the grooves A further limitation of the gramophone record is that fidelity steadily declines as playback progresses there is more vinyl per second available for fine reproduction of high frequencies at the large diameter beginning of the groove than exist at the smaller diameters close to the end of the side At the start of a groove on an LP there are 510 mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200 210 mm of vinyl per second less than half the linear resolution 97 There is controversy about the relative quality of CD sound and LP sound when the latter is heard under the very best conditions see Comparison of analog and digital recording One technical advantage with vinyl compared to the optical CD is that if correctly handled and stored the vinyl record will be playable for decades and possibly centuries 98 which is longer than some versions of the optical CD 99 For vinyl records to be playable for years to come they need to be handled with care and stored properly Guidelines for proper vinyl storage include not stacking records on top of each other avoiding heat or direct sunlight and placing them in a temperature controlled area that will help prevent vinyl records from warping and scratching Collectors store their records in a variety of boxes cubes shelves and racks 100 Sound fidelity edit At the time of the introduction of the compact disc CD in 1982 the stereo LP pressed in vinyl continued to suffer from a variety of limitations The stereo image was not made up of fully discrete Left and Right channels each channel s signal coming out of the cartridge contained a small amount of the signal from the other channel with more crosstalk at higher frequencies High quality disc cutting equipment was capable of making a master disc with 30 40 dB of stereo separation at 1 000 Hz but the playback cartridges had lesser performance of about 20 to 30 dB of separation at 1000 Hz with separation decreasing as frequency increased such that at 12 kHz the separation was about 10 15 dB 101 A common modern view is that stereo isolation must be higher than this to achieve a proper stereo soundstage However in the 1950s the BBC determined in a series of tests that only 20 25 dB is required for the impression of full stereo separation 102 Thin closely spaced spiral grooves that allow for increased playing time on a 33 1 3 rpm microgroove LP lead to a tinny pre echo warning of upcoming loud sounds The cutting stylus unavoidably transfers some of the subsequent groove wall s impulse signal into the previous groove wall It is discernible by some listeners throughout certain recordings but a quiet passage followed by a loud sound will allow anyone to hear a faint pre echo of the loud sound occurring 1 8 seconds ahead of time 103 LP versus CD edit Further information Comparison of analog and digital recording Audiophiles have differed over the relative merits of the LP versus the CD since the digital disc was introduced 104 In large part the claim for vinyl superiority is due to the necessity for digital recordings to presume upper and lower bounds sampling the tones and soundwaves within those limits and using the resulting information to store and recall the audio Effectively the digital recording is an idealized representation of a physical soundwave while an analog recording captures the physical vibrations across their full frequency Because most modern vinyl records are made from playbacks of files recorded digitally there is no out of bounds audio to transfer to the disc 105 Vinyl s drawbacks however include surface noise less resolution due to a lower dynamic range and greater sensitivity to handling 106 Modern anti aliasing filters and oversampling systems used in digital recordings have eliminated perceived problems observed with very early CD players 107 There is a theory that vinyl records can audibly represent higher frequencies than compact discs though most of this is noise and not relevant to human hearing According to Red Book specifications the compact disc has a frequency response of 20 Hz up to 22 050 Hz and most CD players measure flat within a fraction of a decibel from at least 0 Hz to 20 kHz at full output Due to the distance required between grooves it is not possible for an LP to reproduce as low frequencies as a CD Additionally turntable rumble and acoustic feedback obscures the low end limit of vinyl but the upper end can be with some cartridges reasonably flat within a few decibels to 30 kHz with gentle roll off Carrier signals of Quad LPs popular in the 1970s were at 30 kHz to be out of the range of human hearing The average human auditory system is sensitive to frequencies from 20 Hz to a maximum of around 20 000 Hz 108 The upper and lower frequency limits of human hearing vary per person High frequency sensitivity decreases as a person ages a process called presbycusis 109 Preservation edit nbsp 45 rpm records like this single from 1956 usually had a chosen A side for radio promotion as a possible hit with a flip side or B side by the same artist though some had two A sides As the playing of gramophone records causes gradual degradation of the recording they are best preserved by transferring them onto other media and playing the records as rarely as possible They need to be stored on edge and do best under environmental conditions that most humans would find comfortable 110 Where old disc recordings are considered to be of artistic or historic interest from before the era of tape or where no tape master exists archivists play back the disc on suitable equipment and record the result typically onto a digital format which can be copied and manipulated to remove analog flaws without any further damage to the source recording For example Nimbus Records uses a specially built horn record player to transfer 78s 111 Anyone can do this using a standard record player with a suitable pickup a phono preamp pre amplifier and a typical personal computer However for accurate transfer professional archivists carefully choose the correct stylus shape and diameter tracking weight equalisation curve and other playback parameters and use high quality analogue to digital converters 112 As an alternative to playback with a stylus a recording can be read optically processed with software that calculates the velocity that the stylus would be moving in the mapped grooves and converted to a digital recording format This does no further damage to the disc and generally produces a better sound than normal playback This technique also has the potential to allow for reconstruction of broken or otherwise damaged discs 113 Current status editSee also Vinyl revival This section needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information April 2018 nbsp A DJ mixing vinyl records with a DJ mixer at the Sundance Film Festival in 2003Groove recordings first designed in the final quarter of the 19th century held a predominant position for nearly a century withstanding competition from reel to reel tape the 8 track cartridge and the compact cassette The widespread popularity of Sony s Walkman was a factor that contributed to the vinyl s lessening usage in the 1980s 114 In 1988 the compact disc surpassed the gramophone record in unit sales Vinyl records experienced a sudden decline in popularity between 1988 and 1991 115 when the major label distributors restricted their return policies which retailers had been relying on to maintain and swap out stocks of relatively unpopular titles First the distributors began charging retailers more for new products if they returned unsold vinyl and then they stopped providing any credit at all for returns Retailers fearing they would be stuck with anything they ordered only ordered proven popular titles that they knew would sell and devoted more shelf space to CDs and cassettes Record companies also removed many vinyl titles from production and distribution further undermining the availability of the format and leading to the closure of pressing plants This rapid decline in the availability of records accelerated the format s decline in popularity and is seen by some as a deliberate ploy to make consumers switch to CDs which unlike today were more profitable for the record companies 116 117 118 119 In spite of their flaws such as the lack of portability records still have enthusiastic supporters Vinyl records continue to be manufactured and sold today 120 In the United Kingdom the popularity of indie rock caused sales of new vinyl records particularly 7 inch singles to increase significantly in 2006 121 122 In the United States annual vinyl sales increased by 85 8 between 2006 and 2007 although starting from a low base 123 and by 89 between 2007 and 2008 124 However sales increases have moderated over recent years falling to less than 10 during 2017 125 Figures released in the United States in early 2009 showed that sales of vinyl albums nearly doubled in 2008 with 1 88 million sold up from just under 1 million in 2007 126 In 2009 3 5 million units sold in the United States including 3 2 million albums the highest number since 1998 127 128 Sales have continued to rise into the 2010s with around 2 8 million sold in 2010 which is the most sales since record keeping began in 1991 when vinyl had been overshadowed by Compact Cassettes and compact discs 129 In 2021 Taylor Swift sold 102 000 copies of her ninth studio album Evermore on vinyl The sales of the record beat the largest sales in one week on vinyl since Nielsen started tracking vinyl sales in 1991 The sales record was previously held by Jack White who sold 40 000 copies of his second solo release Lazaretto on vinyl in 2014 In 2014 the sale of vinyl records was the only physical music medium with increasing sales with relation to the previous year Sales of other mediums including individual digital tracks digital albums and compact discs have fallen the last having the greatest drop in sales rate 130 In 2011 the Entertainment Retailers Association in the United Kingdom found that consumers were willing to pay on average 16 30 19 37 US 25 81 for a single vinyl record as opposed to 7 82 9 30 US 12 38 for a CD and 6 80 8 09 US 10 76 for a digital download 131 In 2015 the sales of vinyl records went up 32 to 416 million their highest level since 1988 132 There were 31 5 million vinyl records sold in 2015 and the number has increased annually ever since 2006 133 Vinyl sales continued to grow in 2017 comprising 14 of all physical album sales The number one vinyl LP sold was the re release of The Beatles Sgt Pepper s Lonely Hearts Club Band 134 According to the RIAA s midyear report in 2020 phonograph record revenues surpassed those of CDs for the first time since the 1980s 135 Countries 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012Global Trade Value US SP amp LP 55m 66m 73m 89m 116m 136 Australia SP amp LP 10 000 17 996 137 10 000 19 608 138 10 000 53 766 139 13 677 39 644 140 13 637 44 876 140 21 623 77 934 141 Germany SP amp LP 400 000 142 700 000 130 1 200 000 130 635 000 LPs only 700 000 LPs only 143 144 1 000 000 LPs only Finland SP amp LP 10 301 145 13 688 146 15 747 147 27 515 148 54 970 149 47 811 150 Hungary LP 2 974 151 2 923 152 3 763 153 1 879 154 8 873 155 9 819 156 Japan SP amp LP 103 000 105 000 157 Netherlands LP 51 000 60 400 81 000 158 Spain LP 40 000 106 000 159 97 000 141 000 160 135 000 161 Sweden LP 11 000 162 22 000 162 36 000 162 70 671 162 108 883 162 173 124 162 United Kingdom SP amp LP 1 843 000 205 000 740 000 209 000 332 000 219 000 219 000 234 000 186 000 337 000 163 389 000 164 United States LP 988 000 1 880 000 165 2 500 000 166 2 800 000 167 3 900 000 168 4 600 000 169 Australian single figures for 2007 2008 and 2009 are estimated In reality German figures are considered to be a lot higher due to smaller shops and online communities in Germany not using scanner cash registers 130 One German record pressing company stated that they alone produce 2 million LPs each year 170 In reality American figures are considered to be much higher with one record store owner in a New York Times article estimating that Nielsen SoundScan only tracks about 15 percent of total sales due to bar codes concluding that sales could now be as high as 20 million 171 172 173 In Sweden vinyl sales in 2010 were up 92 from 2009 figures 174 and in 2011 up a further 52 from 2010 figures 175 In 2012 vinyl sales increased with 59 from 2011 figures 176 In New Zealand independent record stores in Auckland were reporting a five fold increase in vinyl sales from 2007 to 2011 177 In France the SNEP said that LP sales were 200 000 in 2008 however independent record labels said that overall sales were probably 1 million 178 In United States 67 of all vinyl album sales in 2012 were sold at independent music stores 179 Vinyl revenues were at the lowest point in its history in 2006 with a total trade value of 36 million The 2011 figure of 116 million is higher than the 2000 figure of 109 million but is still less than the 1997 1998 and 1999 figures which were all between 150 and 170 million 136 Less common recording formats editVinylVideo edit VinylVideo is a format to store a low resolution black and white video on a vinyl record alongside encoded audio 180 181 182 Capacitance Electronic Disc edit Another example is the Capacitance Electronic Disc a color video format slightly better than VHS 183 See also edit nbsp Record production portalCapacitance Electronic Disc CED Conservation and restoration of vinyl discs LP album The New Face of Vinyl Youth s Digital Devolution photo documentary Phonograph cylinder Record Store Day Sound recording and reproduction Unusual types of gramophone recordsReferences edit It s almost final for vinyl Record manufacturers dwindle in the U S Archived 2013 01 16 at the Wayback Machine Kitchener Waterloo Record Kitchener Ont January 9 1991 Millennials push 2015 record sales to 26 year high in US NME COM Archived from the original on 2015 12 26 Vinyl sales pass 1m for first time this century Wired UK Archived from the original on 2016 04 20 Pat Naughtin Why metrication matters Metrication Matters The 2 slower speeds used by the Library of Congress to supply the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped Bob Evans 1999 11 08 A Whole New Ball Game Information Week p 176 when broken or scratched repeating the same music or words over and over again Deb Amlen 2011 10 07 Saturday Sounds Like a Broken Record The New York Times repetitive sounds this means the record SKIPS its groove Department of Health and Human Services Public Health Service p 1137 we have talked about this before year in and year out Jessica Lyngaas 2016 My Pulse His Will Tragedy to Triumph That Echoed Her Faith Sometimes I must sound like a broken record but repeating and teaching the kids consistency and how to Meet the Record Pressing Robot Fueling Record s Comeback Archived 2017 08 08 at the Wayback Machine Don t Call It Vinyl Cutting DJBROADCAST Archived 2017 02 23 at the Wayback Machine Apollo Masters lacquer record discs Apollomasters com Retrieved 2015 05 07 mar 25 1857 Phonautograph invented Time Archived from the original on 2022 06 29 Retrieved 2022 07 13 Origins of Sound Recording The Inventors Edouard Leon Scott de Martinville The Phonautograph National Park Service 2017 07 17 Archived from the original on 2023 03 06 Retrieved 2023 04 21 Fabry Merrill 2018 05 01 What Was the First Sound Ever Recorded by a Machine Time Archived from the original on 2022 06 07 Retrieved 2022 02 13 Edouard Leon Scott de Martinville First Sounds 2008 Archived from the original on 2022 07 01 Retrieved 2022 07 13 Nineeenth century Scientific Instruments University of California Press 1983 p 137 ISBN 9780520051607 Archived from the original on 2017 02 15 The Life of Thomas A Edison Library of Congress Archived from the original on 2011 01 20 Retrieved 2023 04 21 History of the Cylinder Phonograph Library of Congress Archived from the original on 2023 03 31 Retrieved 2023 04 21 Wallace Robert 1952 11 17 First It Said Mary LIFE pp 87 102 Centennial of Broadcasting in Canada Canadashistory ca Retrieved 2022 07 01 Ober Norman 1973 You Can Thank Emil Berliner for the Shape Your Record Collection Is In Music Educators Journal Vol 60 No 4 December 1973 pp 38 40 Read Oliver 1952 History of Acoustical Recording The Recording and Reproduction of Sound revised and enlarged 2nd ed Indianapolis Howard W Sams pp 12 14 15 a b c Copeland Peter 2008 Manual of Analogue Audio Restoration Techniques PDF London British Library pp 89 90 Archived from the original PDF on 2015 12 22 Retrieved 2015 12 16 Scholes plate 73 Rick Kennedy Jelly Roll Bix and Hoagy Gennett Studios and the Birth of Recorded Jazz Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press 1994 pp 63 64 A photograph of the Gennett Records studio is available nick lucas playing with bailey s lucky seven at gennett studios Nick Lucas Archived from the original on 2008 05 29 Retrieved 2008 04 09 a b Jacques Chailley 40 000 Years of Music Man in Search of Music 1964 p 144 On March 21st 1925 Alfred Cortot made for the Victor Talking Machine Co in Camden New Jersey the first classical recording to employ a new technique thanks to which the gramophone was to play an important part in musical life electric Whelan M Kornrumpf W 2014 Vacuum Tubes Valves Edison Tech Center Archived from the original on 2015 02 02 Retrieved 2023 03 23 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Wanamaker 1926 01 16 Wanamaker s ad in The New York Times January 16 1926 p 16 Pakenham Compton 1930 Recorded Music A Wide Range The New York Times February 23 1930 p 118 Nazi Era Flexi Discs Bone Music 2020 07 19 Archived from the original on 2023 02 06 Retrieved 2023 02 06 The New York Times 1925 10 07 New Music Machine Thrills All Hearers At First Test Here Archived 2013 05 10 at the Wayback Machine Front page LPs historic Musicinthemail com Archived from the original on 2016 04 26 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Read Oliver Welch Walter L From Tin Foil to Stereo U S 1959 V Disc and Armed Forces Radio Catalogue Blue Goose Publishers St Louis The Amazing Phonograph Morgan Wright 2002 Hoy Hoy Publishers Saratoga Springs NY p 65 Millard Andre 1995 America on Record A History of Recorded Sound Cambridge University Press p 353 ISBN 0 521 47556 2 via Internet Archive record playing time Welch Walter L Burt Leah 1994 From Tinfoil to Stereo The Acoustic Years of the Recording Industry 1877 1929 University Press of Florida ISBN 0 8130 1317 8 Allain Rhett 2014 07 11 Why Are Songs on the Radio About the Same Length Wired Archived from the original on 2014 07 11 Retrieved 2014 07 11 Louis Armstrong and King Oliver Heritage Jazz cassette 1993 Eddie Condon We Called It Music Da Capo Press New York 1992 p 263 264 Originally published 1947 Back cover notes Jammin at Commodore with Eddie Condon and His Windy City Seven Commodore Jazz Classics CD CCD 7007 1988 Hits of the 1920s Vol 2 1921 1923 Naxos com Archived from the original on 2016 01 25 Retrieved 2016 04 10 a b Archived copy Archived from the original on 2007 03 29 Retrieved 2012 09 27 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link See date Archived April 3 2005 at the Wayback Machine Paul Whiteman and his Orchestra Redhotjazz com Archived from the original on 2012 01 05 Retrieved 2011 12 19 History of Record Albums Billboard Books google com 1968 05 25 p 3 Archived from the original on 2016 05 09 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Billboard Books google com 1968 11 23 p 10 Archived from the original on 2016 06 04 Retrieved 2016 04 10 The Beatles at 78 RPM Cool78s com Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2016 04 10 The invention of vinyl records where it began Archived from the original on 2017 04 04 Retrieved 2017 04 03 Peyton On Patton Rev Peyton s Big Damn Band Bigdamnband com 2011 05 05 Archived from the original on 2011 05 07 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Goldmark Peter Maverick inventor My Turbulent Years at CBS New York Saturday Review Press 1973 Ben Sisario 2012 10 06 Howard H Scott a Developer of the LP Dies at 92 The New York Times Retrieved 2012 10 08 Howard H Scott who was part of the team at Columbia Records that introduced the long playing vinyl record in 1948 before going on to produce albums with the New York Philharmonic Glenn Gould Isaac Stern and many other giants of classical music died on Sept 22 in Reading Pa He was 92 a b Columbia Diskery CBS Show Microgroove Platters to Press Tell How It Began PDF Billboard 1948 06 26 p 3 Archived PDF from the original on 2021 01 22 Retrieved 2022 06 22 The First Long Playing Disc Library of Congress Congress gov accessdate June 21 2021 Marmorstein Gary The Label The Story of Columbia Records New York Thunder s Mouth Press p 165 Peter A Soderbergh Olde Records Price Guide 1900 1947 Wallace Homestead Book Company Des Moines Iowa 1980 pp 193 194 Williams Trevor I 1982 A Short History of Twentieth Century Technology c 1900 c 1950 Oxford University Press ISBN 0 19 858159 9 The War of the Speeds Frank Andrews Arthur Badrock Edward S Walker 1992 World Records Vocalion W Fetherflex and Penny Phono Recordings A listing Spalding Lincolnshire The Authors a b c The 45 Adaptor ARChive of Contemporary Music or Would You Take My Mind Out for a Walk 2008 03 20 Archived from the original on 2016 03 10 a b c Book Frank Sinatra The Columbia Years 1943 1952 The Complete Recordings unnumbered at back Gorman Robert May 1949 What s what in the platter battle Popular Science Bonnier Corporation 154 5 132 133 ISSN 0161 7370 Biro Nick 1959 07 20 Seeburg Background Music Move Part of Diversification Program Billboard New York p 67 Soderbergh p 194 Hometown Has Been Shutdown Members aol com Archived from the original on 2008 06 30 Retrieved 2012 09 26 RCA SelectaVision VideoDisc FAQ Cedmagic com Retrieved 2015 05 07 Morton David L Jr 2006 Sound recording the life story of a technology Greenwood technographies JHU Press p 94 ISBN 0 8018 8398 9 Archived from the original on 2016 05 10 Spanias Andreas Painter Ted Atti Venkatraman 2007 Audio signal processing and coding Wiley Interscience p xv xvi ISBN 978 0 471 79147 8 Archived from the original on 2016 05 11 a b Stereo disc recording Archived from the original on 2006 09 25 Retrieved 2006 10 04 Reed Peter Hugh 1958 American record guide p 205 Nakamichi High Com II Noise Reduction System Owner s Manual Bedienungsanleitung Mode d Emploi in English German and French 1980 0D03897A O 800820B Archived from the original on 2017 11 10 Retrieved 2017 11 10 1 NB This compander exists in two identically named but slightly different versions only one of them has a dedicated Disk setting the other one instead has an additional setting to combine subsonic with MPX filtering In this model High Com II encoded vinyl disks have to be played back through the Rec setting of a connected tape deck The Stillness of Dawn High Com II Demonstration Record A limited edition not for sale High Com II encoded audiophile vinyl record and corresponding leaflet This LP contains 400 Hz 0 dB 200 nWb m calibration tones as well Nakamichi 1979 NAK 100 Track list Side A Philharmonia Hungarica Zoltan Rozsnyai 1 Bizet Carmen prelude 2 30 2 Berlioz Rakoczi March from Damnation of Faust 4 40 3 Rimsky Korsakov Procession of the Nobles from Mlada 4 55 3 Brahms Hungarian Dance No 5 4 30 4 400 Hz calibration tone 1 00 Side B S M A Sextet Sherman Martin Austin 1 Impressions John Coltrane 5 00 2 Mimosa Dennis Irwin 5 52 3 Little B s Poem Bobby Hutcherson 3 12 4 400 Hz calibration tone 1 00 Quotes from the sleeve Thousands of man hours were spent listening adjusting optimizing until harpsichords sound like harpsichords without mutilated transients until bass viols sound like bass viols without harmonic distortion until triangles sound lean and crisp without breathiness The result is High Com II the world s finest two band noise reduction system High Com II is the first audiophile noise reduction system that achieves professional quality Listen especially for the dramatic reduction in surface noise on this High Com II encoded record There is no residual hiss the ticks pops and crackles that mar conventional discs are absent So is turntable rumble The loud passages emerge with unprecedented clarity since they need not be recorded at so high and distortion producing a level Between programs there is utter silence We also suggest you listen closely for sounds of breathing and noise pumping This common fault of noise reduction systems has been eliminated in High Com II Listen also to High Com II s remarkable ability to accurately preserve musical transients They are neither muted nor exaggerated nor edgy as with other companders This accuracy of reproduction on all types of music at all frequencies and at all levels is what distinguishes High Com II from other noise reduction systems Unlike simple companders High Com II is optimized differently for signals of different strength and different frequencies Low level signals are processed for maximum noise reduction high level ones for minimum distortion This sophisticated technique assumes maximum dynamic range with minimum breathing and other audible side effects Sound of extraordinary dynamic range a background free from surface noise pops clicks rumble and groove echo the mightiest crescendo free from distortion Sound without breathing pumping or other ill side effects Taylor Matthew Mat 2017 10 19 CX Discs Better Worse amp the Same as a normal record Techmoan Archived from the original on 2021 10 29 Retrieved 2021 05 05 Hohmuth Gerhard 1987 Verbesserte Schallplattenwiedergabe durch UC Kompressor radio fernsehen elektronik rfe in German Vol 36 no 5 Berlin VEB Verlag Technik de pp 311 313 ISSN 0033 7900 3 pages NB Includes a description of the UC compander system a b Milde Helmut 1987 Written at Dresden Germany Das UC Kompandersystem PDF radio fernsehen elektronik rfe in German Vol 36 no 9 Berlin Germany VEB Verlag Technik de pp 592 595 ISSN 0033 7900 Archived PDF from the original on 2021 05 05 Retrieved 2021 05 05 4 pages NB Includes a detailed description of the UC system characteristics and a reference schematic developed by Milde similar to the circuitry used in the Ziphona HMK PA2223 According to the author he later also developed an improved version utilizing more modern ICs a b Wonneberg Frank in German 2000 Vinyl Lexikon Wahrheit und Legende der Schallplatte Fachbegriffe Sammlerlatein und Praxistips in German 1 ed Lexikon Imprint Verlag ISBN 3 89602226 1 UC Vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten und dem ZWT Rundfunk und Fernsehen der DDR entwickelter breitbandiger Kompander zur Codierung von Schallplatten Das UC Kompandersystem universal compatible nutzt die Moglichkeit durch den Einsatz sogenannter Logarithmierer den Verstarkungsvorgang fliessend zu gestalten und ein abruptes Umschalten bei niedrigen Signalpegeln zu vermeiden Durch einen sich kontinuierlich wandelnden Kompressionsgrad von 5 3 0 dB bis 1 1 20 dB erzielt man eine effektive Storunterdruckung von 10 dB Die Expansion erfolgt spiegelverkehrt Auch ohne den Einsatz eines entsprechenden UC Expanders bleiben durch das fliessende Verfahren die Ein und Ausklingvorgange in ihrer Homogenitat und auch die Raumabbildung der Tonaufzeichnung weitestgehend erhalten Die gewinnbringende Nutzung des UC Kompanderverfahrens stellt den Anwender vor ein kaum losbares Problem da die okonomischen Rahmenbedingungen und die zentrale Planung der Gerateentwicklung in der DDR die Herstellung eines Serienproduktes untergruben Letztlich existieren nur einige Labormuster in den Handen der an dem Verfahren beteiligten Entwickler Ein Versuch nach 1990 mit dem Verfahren erneut Fuss zu fassen scheiterte an der international bereits von der Industrie vollzogenen umfassenden Digitalisierung der Heimwiedergabe Vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten wurden in den Jahren 1983 bis 1990 weit mehr als 500 verschiedene UC codierte Schallplatten der Marken Eterna de und Amiga veroffentlicht Alle entsprechend aufgezeichneten Schallplatten tragen im Spiegel der Auslaufrille zusatzlich zur Matrizengravur ein U Auf eine aussere gut sichtbare Kennzeichnung wurde im Sinne der hervorragenden Kompatibilitat des Verfahrens bei einer konventionellen Wiedergabe und in Ermangelung verfugbarer UC Expander fur den Heimgebrauch verzichtet a b Muller Claus 2018 Meinhardt Kathe ed UC Expander in German Archived from the original on 2021 05 05 Retrieved 2021 05 05 p 4 In den 1980er Jahren wurden in der DDR vom VEB Deutsche Schallplatten unter dem Label ETERNA de viele sehr gute Aufnahmen klassischer Musik veroffentlicht Diese Platten wurden nicht wie sonst ublich in Lackfolie sondern direkt in eine Metallscheibe geschnitten DMM Direkt Metal Mastering Das ersparte zwei Zwischenkopien im Produktionsablauf was nicht nur schneller ging sondern auch zu einer erheblich besseren Qualitat fuhrte Zur weiteren Steigerung der Klangqualitat wurde das UC Kompandersystem UC Universal Compatible eingesetzt Damit wurden beim Schneiden der Platte die leisen Tone etwas lauter und die lauten entsprechend leiser uberspielt Wendet man bei der Wiedergabe das umgekehrte Verfahren an werden mit den leisen Tonen auch die Storungen abgeschwacht und die lauten Stellen verzerren nicht und nutzen sich weniger ab All das geschah so vorsichtig dass man die Platte auch ohne Expander bei der Wiedergabe noch genussvoll anhoren konnte Zum Gluck denn es hatte sowieso nur einen Plattenspieler gegeben der uber eine entsprechende Schaltung verfugte und der war sehr teuer Vermutlich aus diesem Grund hat man auf eine weithin sichtbare Kennzeichnung der mit diesem Verfahren aufgenommenen Platten verzichtet Nur in der Gravur zwischen den Auslaufrillen kann man am angehangten U den Einsatz des Kompressors erkennen Das vorliegende Programm erfullt die Aufgabe eines UC Expanders mit dem Sie eine im wav format digitalisierte Schallplattenaufnahme bearbeiten konnen um nun endlich den Klang geniessen zu konnen den Sie damals erworben haben Bis dahin gibt es aber noch eine Schwierigkeit Zur richtigen Einstellung des Programmes benotigen Sie eine Schallplatte auf der ein Bezugspegelton aufgezeichnet ist wie das bei den dem Plattenspieler beiliegenen Testplatten der Fall war NB Describes a software implementation of an UC expander as a program UCExpander exe for Microsoft Windows Also shows a picture of the U engraving in the silent inner groove indicating UC encoded vinyl disks Seiffert Michael Renz Martin eds Ziphona HMK PA2223 Hifi Museum Archived from the original on 2021 05 06 Retrieved 2021 05 06 2 3 4 5 6 NB Has pictures of a VEB Phonotechnik Pirna Zittau Ziphona HMK PA2223 a tangential arm direct drive turntable with built in UC expander with the frontpanel showing a UC logo for Universal Compander Bulletin E 3 Standards for Stereophonic Disc Records Aardvark Mastering RIAA 1963 10 16 Archived from the original on 2014 11 15 Retrieved 2014 11 10 Little Wonder Records Bubble Books Emerson Victor Harper Columbia Waterson Berlin and Snyder Littlewonderrecords com Archived from the original on 2016 04 20 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Columbia Record Catalog 1950 Supplement No 2 to NAB NARTB Engineering Handbook NARTB Recording and Reproducing Standards PDF 1953 Columbia record catalog Aug 1949 The Fabulous Victrola 45 Phil Vourtsis Indiana State Museum document no 71 2010 098 0001 The curious tale of Bhutan s playable record postage stamps The Vinyl Factory 2015 12 30 Archived from the original on 2017 02 02 Bayly Ernie February 1976 Double sided records The Talking Machine Review International Ernie Bayly Bournemouth 38 596 597 Standards for Stereophonic Disc Records Record Industry Association of America Inc 1963 10 16 Archived from the original on 2006 10 04 Retrieved 2006 10 04 Record Collectors Guild on Dynaflex The Record Collectors Guild Archived from the original on 2007 09 28 Fritz Jose 180 grams Archived 2011 07 27 at the Wayback Machine Arcane Radio Trivia 23 January 2009 Accessed 26 January 2009 The basic measurement behind those grams is thickness It s been said to be less noisy which really has more to do with the grade of vinyl BBC Music Vinyl Archived from the original on 2008 03 15 Retrieved 2008 06 22 The Official UK Charts Company ALBUM CHART HISTORY An Introduction Archived from the original on 2008 10 17 Retrieved 2008 06 22 Shay Sayre Cynthia King Entertainment and Society Influences Impacts and Innovations 2010 p 558 The phrase sounding like a broken record has been used to describe a person who says the same thing over and over again the reference is to old records that would skip and repeat owing to scratch marks on the vinyl Comparative tables for 30 cm LP Standards A biglobe ne jp Archived from the original on 2012 08 05 Retrieved 2012 09 26 Guttenberg Steve Do vinyl LPs wear out The Audiophiliac takes on that myth CNET Retrieved 2020 05 01 4 How Long Can You Store CDs and DVDs and Use Them Again Clir org Retrieved 2019 06 29 How To Organize Vinyl Records Tips Tricks amp Suggestions premier recordsinc com Retrieved 2020 05 01 Alexandrovich George 1987 Disc Recording and Playback In Glen Ballou ed Handbook for Sound Engineers The New Audio Cyclopedia Howard W Sams amp Company pp 873 882 897 ISBN 0 672 21983 2 Self Douglas 2002 Small Signal Audio Design Taylor amp Francis p 254 ISBN 0240521773 Archived from the original on 2016 06 24 Audacity Team Forum Pre echo when recording vinyl record Audacityteam org Archived from the original on 2009 06 09 Retrieved 2012 09 26 Dunning Brian 2015 12 19 inFact Vinyl vs Digital YouTube Archived from the original on 2021 10 29 Retrieved 2019 06 29 Morgan Katrina 2017 10 11 Which Sounds Better Analog or Digital Music Scientific American Retrieved 2022 09 14 Feldman Len December 1979 DBX encoded discs records without noise Popular Science Vol 215 no 6 p 93 via Google Books Howard Keith 2006 02 05 Ringing False Digital Audio s Ubiquitous Filter Stereophile Retrieved 2022 09 14 Cutnell John D Johnson Kenneth W 1997 Physics 4th ed Wiley p 466 ISBN 0 471 19112 4 Sonic Science The High Frequency Hearing Test Scientific American Archived from the original on 2017 10 24 Retrieved 2017 10 20 Disc Recording and Playback In Glen Ballou editor Handbook for Sound Engineers The New Audio Cyclopedia Howard W Sams amp Company p 1037 27 9 4 ISBN 0 672 21983 2 The Transfer Session Archived from the original on 2005 11 20 Retrieved 2005 09 18 Guidelines on the Production and Preservation of Digital Audio Objects IASA TC04 Iasa web org 2012 09 21 Archived from the original on 2015 05 08 Retrieved 2012 09 26 Fadeyev V C Haber 2003 Reconstruction of mechanically recorded sound by image processing PDF Audio Engineering Society 51 December 1172 Archived PDF from the original on 2005 05 25 FEATURE Forty Years of the Sony Walkman 1st July 1979 An Historic and Iconic Day for Music Music Musings amp Such Retrieved 2015 05 07 Sources vary on the actual dates Browne David 1991 10 04 A Vinyl Farewell Entertainment Weekly No 86 Souvignier Todd 2004 The World of DJs and the Turntable Culture Hal Leonard Corporation pp 41 42 ISBN 978 0 634 05833 2 Negativland Shiny Aluminum Plastic and Digital via urbigenous net Plasketes George 1992 Romancing the Record The Vinyl De Evolution and Subcultural Evolution Journal of Popular Culture 26 1 110 112 doi 10 1111 j 0022 3840 1992 00109 x Record Store Day This is what happens inside a vinyl factory BBC Newsbeat BBC News 2016 04 15 Archived from the original on 2016 04 18 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Tony Glover 2006 05 14 Back in the groove The Business Online com Archived from the original on 2006 12 31 Retrieved 2007 01 14 Chris Hastings 2006 09 17 Why singles are top of the pops again London Telegraph co uk Archived from the original on 2007 03 14 Retrieved 2006 10 04 Browne David 2009 01 08 Vinyl Returns in the Age of MP3 Rolling Stone Archived from the original on 2008 06 04 Retrieved 2008 06 12 Kreps Daniel 2009 01 08 Radiohead Neutral Milk Hotel Help Vinyl Sales Almost Double In 2008 Rolling Stone Archived from the original on 2009 03 19 Retrieved 2009 03 05 RIAA Mid Year 2017 Music Industry Revenue Report RIAA 2017 09 20 Zuel Bernard 2009 01 24 Just for the record The Sydney Morning Herald Archived from the original on 2009 01 27 Retrieved 2009 02 07 2009 R I A A 2009 Year End Shipment Statistics PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2010 06 02 Retrieved 2012 09 26 Kornelis Chris 2015 01 27 Do CDs Sound Better Than Vinyl L A Weekly Archived from the original on 2016 04 09 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Perpetua Matthew 2011 01 06 Vinyl Sales Increase Despite Industry Slump Rolling Stone Archived from the original on 2011 01 09 Retrieved 2011 01 07 a b c d German Biz Eyes Growth In 2011 Hopes To Top U K Billboard 2010 03 24 Archived from the original on 2013 01 15 Retrieved 2012 11 21 Vinyl sales up 55 Thecmuwebsite com Archived from the original on 2016 03 22 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Vinyl Record Sales At A 28 Year High Fortune com Archived from the original on 2016 12 20 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Swedish public service television teletext 12 December 2016 page 150 SVT Text Sida 150 Archived from the original on 2016 12 20 Retrieved 2016 12 12 in Swedish original text Allt fler koper vinylskivor Trenden med att kopa vinylskivor fortsatter Sedan 2006 har forsaljningen globalt okat fran drygt 3 1 miljoner salda exemplar jamfort med 31 5 miljoner salda exemplar 2015 Trots att allt fler vinylskivor saljs ar det dock bara en valdigt liten del av skivforsaljningen I Sverige saldes det forra aret 384 000 vinylskivor jamfort med 3 342 000 cd skivor De artister som saljer mest ar oftast aldre artister och skivor Mest sald i ar ar David Bowies sista skiva Black star Andra populara artister ar Beatles Led Zeppelin och Adele or in English More and more buy vinyl records The trend to buy vinyl records continues Since 2006 has the global sales increased from approximately 3 1 million sold records to 31 5 million in 2015 Despite this is it still a small part of the total record sale In Sweden was 384 000 vinyl records sold last year 2015 compared to 3 342 000 CD records The artists who sell most ar usually older artists and records comment bad Swedish in original text is reflected and translated Most sold in this year 2016 was David Bowie s last record Black star Other popular artists are Beatles Led Zeppelin and Adele a screenshot of the teletext page exist and can be uploaded if allowed at Commons and if requested 2017 U S Music Year End Report Nielsen Retrieved 2019 06 29 Vinyl Outsells CDs For the First Time in Decades 10 September 2020 Archived from the original on 22 September 2020 Retrieved 22 September 2020 a b CD The indestructible music format that REFUSES TO DIE Theregister co uk Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2016 04 10 ARIA releases 2007 wholesale music sales figures Aria com au 2008 03 19 Archived from the original on 2017 01 04 Retrieved 2017 01 08 ARIA Release 2009 wholesale sales figures FINAL DRAFT PDF Aria com au Archived PDF from the original on 2017 03 09 Retrieved 2017 01 08 ARIA releases 2010 wholesale sales figures PDF Aria com au Archived PDF from the original on 2017 02 22 Retrieved 2017 01 08 a b ARIA releases wholesale figures for 2011 PDF Aria com au Archived PDF from the original on 2017 02 15 Retrieved 2017 01 08 2012 ARIA Yearly Statistics PDF Aria com au Archived PDF from the original on 2017 02 17 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Musikindustrie in Zahlen 2010 PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2015 02 11 Musikindustrie Online Dienste wachsen CD Verkauf schrumpft massig heise online 2012 04 19 Archived from the original on 2013 06 03 Lothar Scholz Phonomarkt PDF Miz org Archived PDF from the original on 2016 06 11 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Cumulative Sales January December 2007 PDF Ifpi fi Archived PDF from the original on 2017 05 16 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Cumulative Sales January December 2008 PDF Ifpi fi Archived PDF from the original on 2016 06 14 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Cumulative Sales January December 2009 PDF Ifpi fi Archived PDF from the original on 2016 06 23 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Cumulative Sales January December 2012 PDF Ifpi fi Archived PDF from the original on 2016 06 23 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Physical Sales January December 2012 PDF Ifpi fi Archived PDF from the original on 2016 06 17 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Cumulative Sales January December 2011 PDF Ifpi fi Archived PDF from the original on 2016 06 17 Retrieved 2017 01 08 Archived copy Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2014 12 20 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2014 12 20 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2014 12 20 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2014 12 20 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy Archived from the original on 2016 03 04 Retrieved 2014 12 20 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy Archived from the original on 2014 12 20 Retrieved 2014 12 20 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link 一般社団法人 日本レコード協会 PDF Riaj or jp Archived PDF from the original on 2012 09 04 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Marktinformatie audio 2014 en voorgaande jaren Nvpi nl Archived from the original on 2014 07 17 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2013 06 08 Retrieved 2013 04 13 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2013 05 09 Retrieved 2013 04 13 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link 7 dead link a b c d e f Vinylforsaljningen fortsatter att oka Svt se November 2012 Archived from the original on 2012 12 23 Vinyl Sales 2000 2009 PDF Bpi co uk Archived PDF from the original on 2017 03 12 Retrieved 2017 01 08 2012 Top 10 Selling Vinyl Albums Vinyl Sales Rise In The U S And UK hypebot Hypebot com 2013 01 07 Archived from the original on 2016 04 12 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Radiohead Neutral Milk Hotel Help Vinyl Sales Almost Double In 2008 Rolling Stone 2009 01 08 Archived from the original on 2011 07 31 Vinyl LP Sales Up 33 In 2009 Sonicstate Archived from the original on 2013 01 28 Vinyl Sales in 2010 Increase Despite Music Industry Slump Rolling Stone Rolling Stone 2011 01 06 Archived from the original on 2011 01 09 Digital Music News It s Official Vinyl Sales up 39 Percent in 2011 Archived from the original on 2013 05 18 Retrieved 2013 04 13 Digital Music News It s Official Vinyl Sets Another Sales Record in 2012 Archived from the original on 2013 04 20 Retrieved 2013 04 13 Revival on the Black Market Editorial Kunstsoffe international com Archived from the original on 2013 05 10 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Building a House of Wax in Cleveland The New York Times 2011 10 23 Archived from the original on 2017 06 22 U S Vinyl Record Sales May Be 6X Higher Than Soundscan Reports Hypebot com 2011 10 25 Archived from the original on 2016 03 25 Retrieved 2016 04 10 SoundScan may be under reporting US vinyl sales Thecmuwebsite com Archived from the original on 2016 03 23 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Ar 2010 ifpi Archived from the original on 2012 06 10 Retrieved 2013 04 13 Ar 2011 ifpi Archived from the original on 2012 06 10 Retrieved 2013 04 13 Musikforsaljningsstatistik Ifpi se Archived from the original on 2016 04 08 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Increase in vinyl sales helps independent music stores Newswire co nz Archived from the original on 2016 03 29 Retrieved 2016 04 10 Guillaume Champeau 2009 01 09 Face au CD en declin le disque vinyle fait un retour en force Numerama Archived from the original on 2013 06 07 Despite Pandora amp Spotify total U S music sales grew in 2012 VentureBeat Media by Tom Cheredar VentureBeat 2013 01 04 Archived from the original on 2017 09 19 Czukay Holger 2018 03 23 2017 Cinema Limited ed Gronland Records LPGRON180 Archived from the original on 2021 05 07 Retrieved 2021 05 07 8 NB Retrospective box set containing 5 LPs compilation 1 DVD V 1 VinylVideo 7 single Fragrance Holger on his first video recording Holger and Jaki a digital audio download code and a booklet The CD version of the set CDGRON180 does not contain the VinylVideo record Riddle Randy A 2018 07 29 Vinyl Video Randy Collects Archived from the original on 2021 10 29 Retrieved 2021 05 07 Taylor Matthew Mat 2018 09 17 VinylVideo Playing video from a 45rpm record Techmoan Archived from the original on 2021 10 29 Retrieved 2021 05 07 9 10 RCA SelectaVision VideoDisc FAQ What are the technical specifications of the RCA VideoDisc system CEDMagic com Retrieved 2007 03 07 Further reading editFadeyev V C Haber 2003 Reconstruction of mechanically recorded sound by image processing PDF Audio Engineering Society 51 December 1172 Lawrence Harold Mercury Living Presence Compact disc liner notes Bartok Antal Dorati Mercury 432 017 2 1991 International standard IEC 60098 Analogue audio disk records and reproducing equipment Third edition International Electrotechnical Commission 1987 College Physics Sears Zemansky Young 1974 LOC 73 21135 chapter Acoustic Phenomena Powell James R Jr The Audiophile s Technical Guide to 78 rpm Transcription and Microgroove Recordings 1992 Gramophone Adventures Portage MI ISBN 0 9634921 2 8 Powell James R Jr Broadcast Transcription Discs 2001 Gramophone Adventures Portage MI ISBN 0 9634921 4 4 Powell James R Jr and Randall G Stehle Playback Equalizer Settings for 78 rpm Recordings Third Edition 1993 2001 2007 Gramophone Adventures Portage MI ISBN 0 9634921 3 6 Scholes Percy A The Oxford Companion to Music Ninth edition Oxford University Press 1955 From Tin Foil to Stereo Evolution of the Phonograph by Oliver Read and Walter L Welch The Fabulous Phonograph by Roland Gelatt published by Cassell amp Company 1954 rev 1977 ISBN 0 304 29904 9 Where Have All the Good Times Gone The Rise and Fall of the Record Industry Louis Barfe Pressing the LP Record by Ellingham Niel published at 1 Bruach Lane PH16 5DG Scotland Sound Recordings by Peter Copeland published 1991 by the British Library ISBN 0 7123 0225 5 Vinyl A History of the Analogue Record by Richard Osborne Ashgate 2012 ISBN 978 1 4094 4027 7 A Record Changer and Record of Complementary Design by B H Carson A D Burt and H I Reiskind RCA Review June 1949 Recording Technology History notes revised July 6 2005 by Steven Schoenherr University of San Diego archived 2010 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gramophone records Playback equalization for 78 rpm shellacs and early LPs EQ curves index of record labels Audacity Wiki The manufacturing and production of shellac records Educational video 1942 Reproduction of 78 rpm records including equalization data for different makes of 78s and LPs The Secret Society of Lathe Trolls a site devoted to all aspects of the making of Gramophone records How to digitize gramophone records Audacity Tutorial Actual list of vinyl pressing plants vinyl pressing plants com Dedicated museum for sound history Musee des ondes Emile Berliner Montreal Canada Smart Vinyl The First Computerized Semi automatic metadata extraction from shellac and vinyl disc Vinyl Player 2 0 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Phonograph record amp oldid 1205208929, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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